Anglo-Chinese School (Independent) The Physical Setting Structure of Matter: What Lies Beneath

Objectives: Section A: Review of Metallic Bonding Section B: Physical Properties of Metals Section C: Overall Review of Chemical Bonding

Section A Review of Metallic Bonding

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Figure 1: Diagram of a metallic lattice. Atoms in metals are packed very closely in an orderly arrangement. Each atom loses its valence electrons to become a positive ion. Metals are described as having a regular arrangement of positive ions in a sea of delocalized electrons. The electrons are free to move about within the structure and are said to form a sea of electrons around the metal ions. There are strong forces between the positive ions and electrons metallic bonding

Section B: Physical Properties of Metals

Property 1: High Melting Point and Boiling Point What do you understand by the term melting point? Melting Process: When a pure solid is heated, the particles in it gain energy and the vibration of the particles increases until eventually the particles are able to overcome the forces that hold them in their fixed positions. Hence, the melting point is the fixed temperature at which a pure solid turns into a liquid at atmospheric pressure. What do you understand by the term boiling point? Boiling process: When a pure liquid is heated, the particles in it gains energy and move more quickly. Eventually, the particles have enough energy to completely break the forces holding them together. The particles are now able to move freely and far apart. Hence, the boiling point is the temperature at which a pure liquid turns into a gas at atmospheric pressure.

Why do metals generally have a high melting point and high boiling point? Reason: As the forces of attraction between the sea of delocalized electrons and positive ions (cations) is very strong, a large amount of heat is required to break up the giant lattice. Hence, metals have a high melting point and boiling point. List some metals that have a high melting and boiling point.

Magnesium, Iron, Copper and Tungsten List some metals that have a low melting and boiling point.

Mercury and the Group I elements Application/Uses: Tungsten is used to make the filaments of light bulbs due to its high melting point. It does not melt even when glowing white-hot inside a bulb.

Welding is the most economical and efficient way to join metals permanently. It is the only way of joining two or more pieces of metals to make them act as a single piece.

Property 2: High Density Why do metals generally have a high density? Reason: As the ions in metals are closely packed in the lattice, they generally have high densities.

Property 3: Malleable and Ductile What do you understand by the term malleable? A substance is said to be malleable when it can be beaten into sheets. What do you understand by the term ductile? A substance is said to be ductile when it can be pulled out into wires.

metal ion
+ +

free electron
+ + +

applied force
+ + +

(a) Before a force is applied, the metal atoms form an orderly and rigid arrangement.

(b) When a force is applied, one layer of metal ions slides over the other.

Figure 2: Sliding of one layer of metal ions over others when a force is applied. If a small stress is put onto the metal, the layers of atoms will start to roll

over each other. If the stress is released again, they will fall back to their original positions. Under these circumstances, the metal is said to be elastic.

slip plane

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

Figure 3: Sliding of one layer of metal ions over others when a small stress is applied.

Figure 4: Sliding of one layer of metal ions over others when a large stress is applied. Why are pure metals generally malleable and ductile? Reason: Though the attraction between the sea of electrons and the metal ions is strong, it is not rigid. Combined with the regular arrangement of the ions in layers, the layers of ions can slip over each other into new positions when a force is applied to the metal, without breaking the metallic bond. Hence, metals are malleable and ductile. List some examples of metals that are malleable and ductile.

Aluminum Application/Uses: Aluminum is used to make foil for wrapping purposes due to its high malleability. Property 4: Thermal Conductivity

Why are metals usually good conductors of heat? When one end of a piece of metal is heated, the positive ions vibrate more vigorously. The vibrating ions transfer energy to the mobile electrons. These mobile electrons move to other parts of the metal and transmit this energy to other positive ions. In this way, heat is transferred quickly throughout the metal. List some examples of metals that are good conductors of heat.

Copper and aluminum Application/Uses: Copper is used to make kitchen utensils such as kettles, steam pipes, boilers, etc., due to its heat conductivity.

Aluminum is used to make kitchen utensils such as kettles, pots and pans due to its heat conductivity.

Property 5: Electrical Conductivity Why are metals good conductors of electricity?

e+ -

e-

Ammeter
e
-

e e
-

Free electrons leave the metal and moves towards the positive terminal

e e
-

e
-

e-

Metal

More electrons enter the metal from the negative terminal

The positive ions remain in position while the transfer of electrons takes place.

Figure 5: Mobile electrons in a metal connected to an electrical circuit. List some examples of metals that are good conductors of electricity.

Copper and aluminum Application/Uses: Large amounts of copper are used to make electrical wires and cables due to its good electrical conductivity.

Aluminum or its alloys are widely used in making overhead lines and energy cables due to its good electrical conductivity.

Characteristic

Ionic Compound

Covalent Compounds Simple Molecule Macromolecule Non-metals only Atoms

Metal

Bonding between: Particles present: State at r.t.p: Melting point & Boiling point:

Metal and non-metal Ions (Cations & Anions) Solid High Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions. A lot of energy is required to break them. Conducts electricity only in molten and aqueous state but not in solid state. In molten and aqueous state, ions are mobile and able to conduct electrical

Non metals only Molecules

Metals only Fixed positive ions in a sea of delocalized electrons Solid High *Exception: Hg Strong metallic bond between ions and delocalized electrons.

Gas or volatile liquid Low Weak Van der Waals forces between molecules. Little energy is required to break them. Does not conduct electricity in any state.

Solid High Exist as macromolecule with strong covalent bonds between atoms. A lot of energy is required to break them. Does not conduct electricity in any state. *Exception: Graphite is a

Electrical Conductivity:

Conducts electricity in solid and molten state.

Exist as molecules. particles.

conductor in solid state. Absence of mobile charged Presence of mobile electron cloud which are able to carry electrical silicon and silica.

Absence of mobile charged particles in diamond,

charges. In solid state, ions are held rigidly in fixed positions and are unable to move thus unable to conduct Solubility: electricity. Soluble in polar solvents like water. Soluble in non-polar / organic solvents like chloroform and benzene. Examples: Diagram: Sodium Chloride Insoluble in water. Iodine

Graphite can conduct electricity due to the presence of mobile electrons which can carry electrical charges. Insoluble in water and almost all solvents.

charges.

Insoluble in water.

Diamond

Graphite

Magnesium

BONDING

Ionic (Electrovalent) define as Transfer of electron (s) from metals to non-metals forms ions 1e2e3emacromolecules diamond, graphite, silicon and silicon dioxide Properties (1) High m.p. and b.p. (2) Non-conductors of electricity *exception: graphite (3) Insoluble in all solvents (4) Exist as a solid at r.t.p.

Covalent define as Sharing of electron (s) from non-metals and non-metals forms simple molecules

Metallic define as Lattice of positive fixed ions in a sea of electrons from metals only forms Properties (1) High m.p. and b.p. (2) High density (3) Malleable and ductile (4) Conductors of heat (5) Conductors of electricity (6) Solids at r.t.p.

elements H2, O2, N2, Cl2

compounds HCl, H2O, NH3 can have

NaCl

NaCl 2 MgCl

AlCl3 AlCl3

lattice structure Properties (1) High m.p. and b.p. (2) Conducts electricity in molten or aqueous state (3) Dissolves in polar solvents (4) Usu. solid at r.t.p.

single bonds H-H

double bonds O=O

triple bonds NN

Properties (1) Low m.p. and b.p. (2) Non-conductors of electricity (3) Dissolves in non-polar solvents (4) Usu. exists as liquids and gases at r.t.p.

Section C Overall Review of Chemical Bonding

Substance Formula sodium chloride NaCl Bonding diagram Structure type ionic

methane

CH4

simple molecular

carbon dioxide diamond

CO2

simple molecular

giant molecular

copper

Cu

metallic