CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Related Scientific Concepts

Herbalism is a study with regards to botany. It deals with the study of plants that are

used for medicinal purposes, often times plants that have a specific purpose in medicine.

Herbalism can range from plants to fruits and even specifically to this study, weeds.

Herbalism is not a newly developed concept as it has been around for many centuries

originating in more archaic forms of medicine. Although modern doctors and professionals

consider herbalism to be an alternative form of medicine, it is still widely practice today by

many individuals.

Phytochemistry is the study of phytochemicals, the constituents or chemicals

derived from plants. It is considered a sub-field of botany and chemistry and this discipline

is most often applied in pharmacognosy, the discipline concerning herbal drugs and

medicines originating from plants as well as other diverse sources. It has contributed to the

overall research on the production of new drugs as well [15]. The presence of

phytochemicals in food plants are significant, as plants synthesize these phytochemicals as

a defense mechanism.

Phytochemical screening is a process that is often referred to as a collection of steps.

Most common is the extraction, screening and identification of phytochemical constituents

in plants. These constituents are known to be the substances in plants that are medicinally

active [16]. A few of the constituents that determined from plants using phytochemical

screenings are flavonoids, tannins, and glycosides, and anthraquinones. Although the
knowledge of the manner in which these substances provide medicinal value to humans in

general reflects a relatively new development in scientific understanding, albeit an

emerging one, the use of plants and plant extracts to relieve pain and promote the overall

wellness of the body dates back to even before the beginnings of Western medical science,

as evidenced in Ayuverdan medicine.

These scientific concepts are highly important in this study as they provide the

backbone or foundation in the understanding of how individuals can best utilize plants to

their full potential. These scientific concepts help explain why herbalism is important, why

phytochemistry is important and why it is relevant to explore the different unexplored

plant species that is still out there. The research also utilizes these concepts to provide

more understanding with regards to how the results of the study can be used in the

modern world.

Related Literature

S. spontaneum (talahib) is a rough, erect species of grass, in most cases clustered,

with short rootstocks, generally maturing from one to three-and-a-half meters in height.

The leaves of the plant exhibit linearity and may be rigid and hard. They range from half a

meter to one meter in length and six to 15 millimeters in width. Its panicles are

characterized as being white and erect, measuring 15 to 30 centimeters in length. They are

slim and have spiraled branches. In addition to that, the joints are covered with soft white

hairs. The plant is also surrounded by spikelets that are about 3.5 millimeters in length

[17].
 Fig. 2. Locations in the world where talahib is found [1]

Talahib is a diverse and variegated species that is widely regarded to have emerged

in India [18]. It is an incredibly flexible organism that contains more than two sets of

chromosomes and it also is seen to grow in a wide array of locations all over the world. It

can be found growing predominantly in areas such as southern Asia and east Africa, as well

as in places in the Mediterranean region, ranging from the tropical areas even to temperate

regions where the climate is significantly different [19]. Talahib reproduces vegetatively as

its seeds are usually wind-pollinated. Due to talahib’s potential to propagate through seed

dispersion and its great susceptibility for an aggressive seed spread, it is known to be an

invasive weed, even in nations, continents and areas where the plant is considered to be

native, such as India [20] and Thailand [21]. In order to maximize its use and deviate from

only being considered a weed, it has also been popularized into other areas for its use in

the industry as a source to be used for building materials and faux wood, and even

developing and innovating systems for the breeding of wild sugarcane [22]. Talahib has

gained recognition for this; however, it is still considered to be a noxious weed and a

harmful organism to other plants in many countries including the USA [23] and therefore is
usually physically removed from vast areas of land where it is present through methods

like deep plowing and forced removal. Through some studies conducted in India, people

have now discovered that the production of flowers in talahib is regulated by photoperiod,

which is accompanied by extreme vegetative cultivation that arises during the stormy and

wet season, where water is most abundant and is in supply. This is usually succeeded by a

passive phase during dry seasons where water is not abundant.

Aside from agricultural land where it is usually found, talahib is also found to

commonly cultivate along rivers and roadsides as well as near bays and ponds, proving

itself to be invasive. This can probably be attributed to the presence of water in these areas

which makes it easier for the plant to cultivate. Its growth is not immensely affected by the

quality of soil in which it is planted, as it is able to grow on both fertile and soils that are of

poor quality. Although its presence is usually most intrusive on hefty and substantial soil

wherein moisture is kept well, it also flourishes on sandy soils [23].

The process of extraction is defined in which the constituents of a plant that the

researchers want to study are identified and derived using a solvent. Different methods are

employed in the extraction process, as it varies on the kind and quality of tissue that is

being investigated in the series of steps. In order for the extraction to be executed, cell

rupturing needs to materialize. When this has been accomplished, the researchers can

perform the extraction provided that the appropriate techniques that are determined by

the researchers beforehand are to be conducted. When dealing with compounds that are

water soluble (i.e. compounds containing bromine and chlorine) and proteins, these can

only be exacted or distilled in water or other types of buffers. However, when dealing with

organically soluble compounds, these can only be exacted or derived with organic solvents.
The most common way of performing and extraction is through boiling ethanol, as it is a

multi-purpose solvent that is utilized in numerous preliminary extractions [24]. Some

other common methods include Soxhlet extractions and steam distillation.

The extraction process is an important step in the phytochemical screening of

various plants, as this precedes the actual screening. Through the actual phytochemical

screening, however, important plant secondary metabolites have already been previously

segregated from plants, including: glycosides, flavonoids, and alkaloids.

Related Studies

A 2012 unpublished study by Tolentino, Mamaclay, Villaflor and Bulanadi entitled

Phytochemical Screening of Talahib details a phytochemical screening of talahib. The

researchers acknowledge the existence of this study, however; it differs significantly from

the study currently being conducted as the methods used in the aforementioned study are

different from the methods currently being used. Only four phytochemical constituents

were tested and there was no physicochemical screening being done. The study was

concluded by saying that the presence of alkaloids and flavonoids give it a potential to be

used in medicine. However, the current study aims to improve on this by specifying which

areas the plant could potentially counteract [25].

A 2011 study was conducted by Brazilian researchers entitled Phytochemical

screening, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities of the crude leaves’ extract from

Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. According to the researchers, batatas, more commonly known

as sweet potato, has served a significant role as a source of energy as well as a

phytochemical source for both humans and animals. Pharmacological data shows that

sweet potato leaves have been productively utilized in numerous vegetative medicinal
techniques to medicate and assuage or alleviate diseases that are inflammatory in

inflammatory in nature as well as serious oral diseases in third world countries. The goal of

the study was to determine the antimicrobial, antioxidant and the phytochemical activities

of the extract of the leaves. The results were determined through a set of phytochemical

tests and analytical responses to the colors of precipitates. The phytochemical screening

showed that the following constituents were present: alkaloids, anthraquinones,

flavonoids, saponins, phenolic acids, and tannins. It was also found out that no

antimicrobial activity was observed [26].

In a study by King Saud University published in 2015 entitled Phytochemical

screening, total phenolics and antioxidant activities of bark and leaf extracts of

Goniothalamus velutinus (Airy Shaw) from Brunei Darussalam, the bark and leaf

extracts of the plant, which were collected and obtained from areas in Brunei Darussalam,

were tested for phytochemical and antioxidant activities. The phytochemical screening

determined that there is existence of steroids, alkaloids, and cardiac glycosides in the plant

in the bark and leaf methanolic extracts of G. velutinus [27].

A 2008 research conducted by G.A. Ayoola, published in the Tropical Journal of

Pharmaceutical Research, entitled Phytochemical Screening and Antioxidant Activities of

Some Selected Medicinal Plants Used for Malaria Therapy in Southwestern Nigeria. The

study insinuated that oxidative stress has contributed in playing an important purpose in

the evolution of anemia in malaria. The growth of a total antioxidant status in the body of

human individuals is regarded to be necessary in the rehabilitation process and overall

wellness of the individual. Researchers discovered the activities of four herbal plants that

are commonly utilized in the remedy of malaria in areas in Nigeria. The study was
materialized through a a series of tests known collectively as the phytochemical screening

method using extracts of the leaves of papaya., stem bark of mango, leaves of guava and the

leaves of onugbo. The results of the screening showed that the plants exhibited the

existence of flavonoids, saponins, and tannins, among others. It was identified by the

researchers that guava was the specific plant that exhibited the most inhibition. The study

concluded by saying that the antioxidant activities advance and strengthen the capability of

the aforementioned plants in the therapy and treatment of malaria [28].

In a 2014 study conducted in India entitled Phytochemical Screening,

Physicochemical Properties, Acute Toxicity Testing and Screening of Hypoglycaemic

Activity of Extracts of Eremurus himalaicus Baker in Normoglycaemic Wistar Strain

Albino Rats, three types of extracts of E. himalaicus were evaluated on whether or not it

exhibits hypoglycaemic effects on normal rats. The tests revealed the presence of the

following: alkaloids, phenolics, tannins, and flavonoids, among others. The data that was

gathered from the series of steps and methods determined that the aqueous extract retains

a high concentration of hypoglycaemic activity in normal rats [29].

With all the presented related concepts, literature, and studies, the researchers have

not encountered an in-depth study on the phytochemical constituents and physicochemical

parameters of talahib, an invasive species. Thus, the conduct of the study.