Lecture 1 [DR.

MUHAMMAD NAEEM ARBAB]

Lecture # 1
Introduction
In different sectors of engineering we talk about precision and control. Every aspect of
our activities is affected by some type of control system. Control systems forms an integral part
of sectors such as; industry, space technology, weapon systems, transportation systems, power
systems, robotics etc,

Control System
In general, a system is an organized set of components, coordinated to accomplish a
certain task. A control system specifically is characterized by an input that has some relationship
with correcting the output when commanded in order to maintain certain precision with regard to
the desired output despite any disturbance. A control system constitute of subsystems, each
defining a process for attaining the required objective. Any control system must be characterized
by input (desired response), output (actual response) and plant (describing a control process).
The input is generally called the reference input, while the output can be called the controlled
variable and the system is characterized by a process modelled by mathematical function called a
transfer function. Transfer function is the backbone for control system analysis and design.
Figure (1) shows a simplest possible diagram of a control system.

Figure 1: A Simple Control System

In general, the objective of the control system is to control the outputs in some prescribed
manner by the inputs through the elements of the control system. Two important entities of
control system performance are its speed (fast acting) and accuracy (precision), evaluated as
transient and the steady-state response respectively. Control systems are classified as open-loop
and closed-loop with respect to dependency of input on output.

Open-Loop System
In an open-loop system the input is independent of output. That means the input does not
know about the changes undergoing in the output at a particular instant is. This type of system
can go out of bounds in the event of disturbance. For example, the plant can be a crude type of
air conditioning system, where the output variable is temperature and input variable is the supply
voltage. In the case it is open-loop then the temperature will keep on dropping so long the supply
voltage is applied and so has no limits. The simple schematic is same as shown in Figure (1).

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The main disadvantage of open-loop systems is the inability to correct for desired
temperature due to lack of communication between the output and input. The changes in the
output from the desired value is therefore not corrected and so the input cannot adjust itself to the
changes in output and the output is thus not brought to the desired value.

Closed-Loop Systems
A closed-loop system is the one in which the input depends on the output. Thus whatever
is desired by the output variable, the input has to correct itself to follow the output. The general
schematic diagram of a closed-loop system is shown in Figure (2).

Figure 2: A Simple Closed-Loop System

A more understandable and appropriate schematic of a closed-loop control system is shown in
Figure (3) in the controller and the plant are separated. Controller is usually incorporated in the
forward path before the plant. The function of controller is to regulate the signal for the plant so
that the plant processing is controlled.

Figure 3: Closed-Loop System

A sensor, measures the output response and any undesirable deviation is reported back as a
suitable signal through a feedback element to the summing junction or comparator where it is
compared with the reference input. Any resulting error acts as an actuating signal (driving signal)
to set the process in the plant in order to make sure that the output is maintained within the
required bounds (stability margins). Let us consider the same crude type of air conditioning
system, a special sensing element called thermostat (temperature measuring, typically a device
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whose electrical resistance changes with temperature) is incorporated with a feedback system
that include a potentiometer to adjust or cut-off the input voltage
The closed-loop systems differ from open-loop system that the former incorporates a feedback
mechanism. Open-loop system can be converted to closed-loop systems by incorporating
feedback. Feedback is either positive or negative. The motivation for using feedback is to reduce
the error between the reference input and the system output. A closed-loop system is therefore
also called a feedback control system. In general, we can state that whenever a closed sequence
of cause-and-effect relationships exists among the variables of a system, feedback is said to exist.

Terminologies used in Control Systems

Control Variable: Control variable refers to the output of control system and is usually denoted
by c.
Reference Input: It is the input to a control system derived directly from the source or through a
transducer. It is generally denote by r. Reference input is also referred to as set-point (desired
value).
Actuating Signal: Actuating signal is denoted by e and is obtained from a comparison
measuring device and is equal to the reference input minus the primary feedback.
Disturbance: Disturbance is denoted by d and is the unwanted signal that tends to affect the
controlled variable. The disturbance may be introduced into the system at many places.
Disturbances may be internal to the system or may be from an external source.
Feedback Element: Feedback element H produces the primary feedback b from the controlled
variable. This is generally a proportionality device but may also modify the characteristics of the
controlled variable.
Process: Also referred to as plant; the process refers to a system that has the controlled variable
as its property and has some means to influence the controlled variable.
Sensor: The sensor is an apparatus to measure the controlled variable and make the
measurement result available to the controller. Most sensors are some form of transducers (that
convert one form of energy to other).
Controller: The controller is a device that evaluates the control deviation and computes an
appropriate control action. The controller measures the deviation of the controlled variable from
the desired value and produces a corrective action, which is coupled to the input of the process
and is used to drive the output variable toward the desired value.

The Transfer Function

The mathematical model in s-domain (Laplace transformed) representing a system or a
plant is called the transfer function. A differential equation describing the relationship between
the input and output of a system is developed (just like we did in circuit analysis) which can also
be then called governing equation. Applying Laplace transform concepts to the differential
equation, the transfer function (cause and effect relationship between input and output), can be

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devised. Unlike the differential equations, the transfer function will allow separation of the input,
system, and output into three separate and distinct parts. Consider a general nth-order, linear
differential equation as:

d n c(t ) d n1c(t ) dc(t ) d m r (t )

An  An1  ...  A  A0 c(t )  Bm
dt n dt n1 dt dt m
1
d m1r (t ) dr (t )
 Bm1 m 1
 ...  B  B0 r (t )
dt dt
Taking the Laplace transform of both sides of the above differential equation and
simplifying, we have:

( An s n  An1 s n1  ...  As  A0 )C(s)  (Bm s m  Bm1 s m1  ...  Bs  B0 )R(s)

Expressing the above expression as the ratio C(s) to R(s), gives the required transfer function:

C (s) ( Bm s m  Bm1 s m1  ...  Bs  B0 )

 2
R(s) ( An s n  An1 s s 1  ...  As  A0 )

A system with a transfer function can be represented as a block diagram, as shown in

Figure (4), with the input on the left indicated by a terminating arrow, the output on the right as
an originating arrow, and the system transfer function inside the block.

Figure 4: A System Representation with Transfer Function

This ratio is C(s)/R(s) is the closed-loop transfer function and is evaluated with zero initial
conditions. The ratio of the feedback signal, H(s)C(s) to the actuating error signal [R(s)–B(s)] is
called the open-loop transfer function. Here, H(s) is the transfer function of the feedback
element, C(s) is the output signal and R(s) is the reference signal. In general the transfer function
of a system is thus defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output function (response
function) to the Laplace transform of the input function (driving or forcing function) under the
assumption of all initial conditions set to zero. A more concise general form of transfer function
is expressed as:

C (s) Bm [s m  ( Bm1 / Bm )s m1  ...  ( B / Bm )s  ( B0 / Bm )] P( s )

 s 1
K 3
R( s ) An [s  ( An1 / An )s  ...  ( A / An )s  ( A0 / An )]
n
Q( s )

Bm
In Eq (3), K  , P(s) is the polynomial expression of the numerator and Q(s) is the
An
polynomial expression of the denominator of the transfer function. Q(s) is also called
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characteristic polynomial, since the degree of Q(s) defines the order of the system. The constant
multiple K with the transfer function will be the gain of the system. K is non-zero and can
characterize the system as follows:
Attenuator: 0<K<1
Amplifier: K>1
Buffer: K=1
Inverter: K<0
Transfer function finds wide applications in control system studies and is a basic tool for the
analysis and design of control systems. Once the transfer function of a system is known it can
provide valuable description of the dynamic characteristics of the system, which helps towards
understanding the nature of the system.
In Eq (3) we have mth degree polynomial expression in the numerator P(s), which when equated
to zero will give us the mth degree polynomial equation. The roots of this equation are called
zeros of the system. That is when any P(s) root (zero) is substituted for s in the transfer function
it will make the entire transfer function equal to zero. On the other hand we have nth degree
polynomial expression in the denominator Q(s), which when equated to zero will give us the nth
degree polynomial equation. The roots of this equation are called poles of the system. When any
root (pole) of Q(s) is substituted for s in the transfer function, it will make the entire transfer
function equal to infinity. Poles and zeros are supposed to be balanced. In case of any difference
between physically present poles and zeros, then those entities are supposed to be lying at
infinity. Poles and zeros may be real, imaginary or complex and therefore can be plotted on
complex s-plane (real axis σ and imaginary axis jω), using an ‘x’ for the pole and a ‘o’ for the
zero. The concept of poles and zeros forms the basis for the analysis and design of control
systems. When all the closed-loop poles of the system lie in the left-half of s-plane the system is
stable and if all the poles and zeros lie in the left-half of s-plane then the system is referred to as
a minimum phase system.
Consider a general arrangement of a feedback control system as shown in Figure (5)
having a forward block G(s) representing a plant or a process, a feedback block H(s) and a
summing junction.

Figure 5: Feedback Control System

From Figure (5), the equation at the summing junction is:

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E(s)  R(s)  B(s) 4

Using the definition of transfer function:

C ( s)
 KG( s) (Forward transfer function) 5
E ( s)

B( s )
And  H ( s) (Feedback transfer function) 6
C ( s)

Using Eq (5) and Eq (6), the quantities E(s) and B(s) in Eq (4) can be expressed in terms of C(s)
as:

C ( s)
 R( s )  C ( s ) H ( s )
KG( s)

Simplifying and expressing the above expression as a ratio C(s)/R(s) that is:

C ( s) KG(s)
 7
R(s) 1  KG(s) H (s)

The expression on the RH-side of Eq (7) is the closed-loop transfer function and is denoted by
KG(s)
T(s). Thus: T (s)  . The term KG(s)H(s) in Eq (7), which is the ratio of feedback
1  KG(s) H (s)
signal B(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) and is known as the open-loop transfer function.
Where the expression; 1  G(s)H (s) in the denominator of Eq (7) is termed as the characteristic
polynomial, which when equated to zero will give us the characteristic equation. The roots of
characteristic equation are referred to as poles.
In Eq (7), a positive sign in the denominator is used for a negative feedback system and negative
sign for a positive feedback system. It must be remembered that the quantities C(s) and R(s) may
be like or different; for example, in electrical system R(s) may be a source voltage, whereas C(s)
may be current or a voltage drop across a particular element. Similarly in mechanical systems,
R(s) may be a force or torque applied to a system, whereas C(s) may be force developed, velocity
or displacement caused as a result of applied force or torque. Transfer function must not be
confused with gain, which also the ratio of output to input, but in this case it is the ratio between
similar quantities. System gain is usually included in the overall transfer function.

4s 2  12s  8
Example 1: Given a closed-loop transfer function: T ( s)  . Find the order of
2s 3  10s 2  18s  6
the system, poles, zeros and gain, and characterize the system. Comment on the stability of the
system.
Solution: First of all we express the given transfer function in standard form by taking out any
constant multiple with the highest power of s in both the numerator and denominator.

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4(s 2  3s  2) (s 2  3s  2)
T ( s)   2
2(s 3  5s 2  9s  3) ( s 3  5s 2  9s  3)

Factorizing the numerator and denominator or directly solving for roots when both are equated to
zero. Thus:

(s  1)( s  2)
T ( s)  2
(s  0.4)( s  2.3  j1.35)( s  2.3  j1.35)

The system is 3rd order, since the degree of Q(s) is 3. The system poles are: –0.4, –2.3 + j1.35
and –2.3 – j1.35. The system physical zeros are –1 and –2 and one zero is lying at infinity (since
there are three physical poles but two physical zeros, for balance, one zero is missing and that is
lying somewhere at infinity). The system gain K = 2 and is greater than 1, it is therefore an
amplifier. The poles and zeros are plotted in s-plane below:

Figure 7: Pole-zero plot

Since all the poles of the system transfer function are placed in the left-half of s-plane, the
system is stable. Also since all the poles and zeros are lying in the left-half of s-plane, the system
is thus a minimum phase system.

Transfer Function of Electrical Systems

Majority of control systems incorporates electrical subsystems comprising of active and
passive elements. Combination of electrical components in different configurations and mode of
connection will form electric circuits and networks. The concept of transfer function can be
applied for the mathematical modeling of electrical systems comprises of three passive linear
elements; resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Resistor is energy-dissipating device whereas;
capacitor and inductor are the energy-storage devices. Table (1) summarizes the components and
the relationships between voltage and current and between voltage and charge under zero initial
conditions.

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Table 1

Once the input and output is decided, the transfer function can be obtained. The basic
principles are the use and application of Kirchhoff’s laws, in which voltages are summed around
loops (KVL) and currents are summed at nodes (KCL), depending on which technique involves
the least effort in mathematical manipulation. From these relationships we can write the
differential equations for the system. By taking the Laplace transforms of the differential
equations and finally arriving at a transfer function is illustrated in the following examples.
Example 2: Obtain the transfer function of the electrical system shown in Figure (7) below:

(a) (b)

Figure 7: Electrical System of Example (2)

Solution: The electrical system shown in Figure (7a) is first transformed into equivalent s-
domain system as shown in Figure (7b). The system can be further simplified by considering the
1 s
parallel arrangement of s and as: 2 shown in Figure (8). Referring to Figure (8), the loop
s s 1
equations are:

 s   s 
V ( s)   s  2  I 1 ( s)   2 I 2 (s)  sI 3 (s)
 s  1  s  1

 s   1 s 
0   2 I1 (s)  1   2  I 2 ( s)  I 3 ( s)
 s  1  s s  1

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0  sI1 (s)  I 2 (s)  (2s  1) I 3 (s)

Figure 8: Simplified in s-Domain

 s(s 2  2) 
 I1 (s)   2  I 2 (s)  sI 3 (s)
s
Simplifying further: V (s)   2
 s 1   s  1

 s   s 3  3s 2  1 
0   2  I1 (s)    I 2 (s)  I 3 (s)
 s  1 
2
 s ( s 1) 

0  sI1 (s)  I 2 (s)  (2s  1) I 3 (s)

Expressing the above equations in matrix form:

 s(s 2  2) s 
 2  s 
V (s)  s  1 s 1
2
  I 1 ( s) 
 0  s s 3  3s 2  1
   s2 1  1   I 2 (s)
s(s  1)
2

 0    s 1 2s  1  I 3 (s)
 
 

From Figure (8), the input voltage is V(s) and the output voltage V0(s) is: V0 (s)  I 2 (s) / s .Thus
using Cramer’s rule, I2(s) is:

s(s 2  1)( s 2  2s  2)
I 2 ( s)  V ( s)
5s 6  3s 5  4s 4  7s 3  4s 2  s  2
Substituting I2(s) in the expression for V0(s), simplifying and rearranging, we have the required
transfer function as:

V0 (s) s 4  2s 3  3s 2  2s  2
 6
V (s) 5s  3s 5  4s 4  7s 3  4s 2  s  2

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Operational Amplifiers
Operational amplifiers are widely used in control system design of electrical systems,
since they can perform some important mathematical operations; inversion, summation,
integration and differentiation. An operational amplifier, commonly referred to as op-amp (“nick
name”) is shown in Figure (9) is extensively used in controllers, compensators, sensors and
comparators in combination with other active and passive elements. Op-amp have two input
terminals; an inverting and non-inverting.

Figure 9: Basic Operational Amplifier

by virtue it can be used as inverting and non-inverting amplifiers respectively as shown in Figure
(10a) and Figure (10b) respectively.

(a) (b)
Figure 10: (a) Inverting mode (b) Non-inverting mode
The transfer function of op-amp when used in inverting mode is:

V0 (s) Z ( s)
 2 8
Vi (s) Z1 ( s )

The negative sign should be dropped when finding the transfer function. The negative sign only
refers to the mode. The transfer function of non-inverting op-amp circuit in s-domain is:

V0 (s) Z1 (s)  Z 2 (s)

 9
Vi (s) Z1 ( s )

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Example 3: Obtain the transfer function of the op-amp circuits shown in Figure (11a) and Figure
(11b).

(a) (b)

Figure 11: Operational Amplifier Circuit for Example (3)

Solution: Figure (11a) is inverting op-amp circuit, converting to s-domain, we have:

106
Z1 (s)  5  105 
2s

10 6
Z 2 ( s)  105 
2s

V0 (s) Z 2 (s) 105  106 / 2s 105 [1  10 / 2s]

  
Vi (s) Z1 (s) 5  105  106 / 2s 105 [5  10 / 2s]

V0 (s) (2s  10) 0.2(s  5)

 
Vi (s) (10s  10) s 1

Figure (11b) is inverting op-amp circuit, converting to s-domain:

10 6
Z1 ( s)  105 
2s

106
Z 2 (s)  105 
(2s  10)

V0 (s) Z 2 (s) 105  106 /( 2s  10) 105 [1  10 /( 2s  10)]

  
Vi (s) Z1 (s) 105  106 / 2s 105 [1  10 / 2s]

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V0 (s) s(s  10) s(s  10)

  2
Vi (s) (s  5) 2
s  10s  25

Example 4: Obtain the transfer function of op-amp shown in Figure (12a) and Figure (12b).

(a) (b)

Figure 12: Operational Amplifier Circuit for Example (4)

Solution: Figure (12a) is a non-inverting op-amp circuit, converting to s-domain and finding the
required impedance, so that:

10 6
Z1 ( s)  4  10 5 
4s

106
Z 2 ( s)  11 10 
4

4s

V0 (s) Z1 (s)  Z 2 (s) [4  105  106 / 4s]  [11 10 4  106 / 4s]

 
Vi (s) Z1 ( s) 4  105  10 6 / 4s

V0 (s) 1.275(s  0.98)


Vi (s) s  0.625

Likewise in Figure (12b) we have:

60  105
Z1 (s)  4  105 
24s  10

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110  105
Z 2 (s)  6  105 
(44s  100)

V0 (s) Z1 (s)  Z 2 (s) [4  105  60  105 /( 24s  10)]  [6  105  110  105 /( 44s  100)]
 
Vi (s) Z1 ( s) 4  105  60  105 /( 24s  10)

V0 ( s) 2.5( s 2  3.18s  1.62)


Vi ( s) s 2  3.31s  2.36

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