Foundations

FOUNDATIONS
Component of a Building
Generally, there are two major components of a building project which are substructure and
superstructure. The substructure is the part of the building that is built below the ground level whereas
superstructure is the part of the structure that is constructed above the ground level.
Superstructure and Substructure in a Building
Superstructure
The superstructure is the portion of a building which is constructed above the ground level and it serves
the purpose of structure’s intended use. It includes columns, beams, slab upwards including all finishes,
door and window schedules, flooring, roofing, lintels, and parapets.
Substructure
The substructure is the lower part of a building which is constructed below the ground level. The
function of substructure is the transfer of loads from the superstructure to the underlying soil. So, the
substructure is in direct contact with supporting soil. Substructure involves footing and plinth of a
building.
An experienced structural engineer should generate plans and works for the substructure of a building
project. Added to that, structural engineers are responsible for computing stresses and loads which are
required to be supported by the building under consideration. Lastly, structural engineers need to
comprehend how to incorporate support beams, columns and foundations into the substructure plans.
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION
[Date] 1
BY: Eng. A. Samarapala C. De Silva – Lecturer in Civil Engineering - BCAS
Foundation
Foundation is the base on which a building rests.
In its widest sense the term foundation may be
defined as the expanded base of a wall or pier in
addition to the ground which support the
building. Any foundation consists of two
components. i.e.
1. Artificial foundation
2. Natural foundation
The expanded base of a wall or a pier is termed
as Artificial foundation and it consists of base and
plinth.
The ground which carries the building is termed
as Natural foundation
Purpose of Foundation
All engineering structures are provided with foundations at the base to full fill the following objectives
and purposes;
1. To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring intensity of
loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying underneath.
2. To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal settlement.
3. To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material.
4. To secure a level and firm bed for building operations.
5. To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.
The Building Regulations require all foundations of buildings to:
 Safely sustain and transmit to the ground the combined dead and imposed loads so as not to
cause any settlement or other movement in any part of the building or of any adjoining building
or works;
 Be of such a depth, or be so constructed, as to avoid damage by swelling, shrinkage or freezing
of the subsoil;
 Be capable of resisting attack by deleterious materials, such as sulphates, in the subsoil.
Subsoils are the soils below the topsoil, the topsoil, the topsoil being about 300 mm deep.
Typical bearing capacities of subsoils are given in following Table.
[Date] 2
Typical subsoil bearing capacities.
Type Bearing capacity (kN/m2)
Rocks, Granites and Chalks 600 – 10000
Non – cohesive soils, compact sands; loose 100 – 600
uniform sands
Cohesive soils; hard clays; soft clays and silts < 600
Peats and made ground To be determine by
investigation
Terminology
 Backfill: Materials excavated from site and if suitable used to fill in around the walls and
foundations.
 Bearing capacity: Safe load per unit area that the ground can carry.
 Bearing pressure: The pressure produced on the ground by the loads.
 Made ground: Refuse, excavated rock or soil deposited for the purpose of filling in a depression
or for raising the site above its natural level.
 Settlement: Ground movement, which may be caused by:
 Deformation of the soil due to imposed loads;
 Volume changes of the soil as a result of seasonal conditions;
 Mass movement of the ground in unstable areas.
CHOICE OF FOUNDATION TYPE
The choice and design of foundations for domestic and small types of buildings depends mainly on two
factors:
 The total loads of the building

 The nature and bearing capacity of the subsoil.
The total loads of a building are taken per meter run and calculated for the worst case. The data
required is:
1. Roof material dead load on the wall plus imposed load from snow, i.e. 1.5kK/m2 < 300
2 0
pitch or 0.75 kN/m > 30 pitch (1 m wide strip from ridge to eave)
2. Floor material dead load on the wall, plus an imposed loading allowance of < 1.5 kN/m2 for
people and furniture (1 m wide strip from centre of the floor to the wall)
3. Wall load on the foundations (1 m wide strip of wall from top to foundation)
4. Total load on the foundations (summation of 1, 2, and 3, plus any additional allowances for
wind loading that may necessary in exposed situations).
[Date] 3
[Note: Material loading due to materials can be found in BS 648: Schedule of weights of building
materials]
The average total loading for a two - storey domestic dwelling of traditional construction is 30 – 50
kN/m.
The nature and bearing capacity of the subsoil can be determined by:
 Trial holes and subsequent investigation;

 Boreholes and core analysis;
 Local knowledge.
Clay is the most difficult of all subsoils with which to deal. Down to a depth of about 1 m clays are
subject to seasonal movement, which occurs when the clay dries and shrinks in the summer and
conversely swells in the winter with heavier rainfall.
This movement occurs whenever a clay soil is exposed to the atmosphere, and special foundations may
be necessary.
TYPES OF FOUNDATION
Having ascertained the nature and bearing capacity of the subsoil, the width of the foundation can be
determined by one of the following methods:
1. Calculating the total (dead + imposed) load per meter run of foundation and relating this to the
analyzed safe bearing capacity of the subsoil, i.e.
(Total load of building per / (Safe bearing capacity of subsoil) = minimum foundation width
For example, if the total load is 40 kN/m and the subsoil safe bearing capacity is 80 kN/ m2, then
the foundation width is:
40 / 80 = 0.5 m or 500 mm
[Note: Safe bearing capacity is determined by obtaining the actual bearing capacity by
laboratory analysis and applying a factor of safety.]
2. The minimum guidance as given in design tables, such as Table 2.2.2, where size of foundations
are related to subsoil type, wall loading and field tests on the soil.
[Date] 4
[Date] 5
Foundations are broadly classified into two categories:
Shallow foundations Deep foundations
Those that transfer the loads to subsoil at a point near Those that transfer the loads to the hard
to the ground floor of the building such as strips and stratum or hard bed rock some distance
rafts. below the ground floor of the building such
1. Spread footing or open trench foundations as pile.
2. Grillage foundations 1. Pile foundations
3. Raft foundations 2. Well foundations
4. Stepped foundations 3. Caisson foundations
5. Inverted arch foundations
Spread Footing Foundations

Foundations constructed by increasing the area at the base of the structure by means of offsets, are
called spread footing foundations. In such foundations, spread is given under the base of a wall or a
column by providing offsets. This spread is known as footing and the foundation itself is called spread
footing. Broadly speaking, all types of shallow foundations can be referred to as spread footing
foundations. However, from design and construction point of view, they have been designated
separately. The various types of spread footing foundations are;
Wall footings
This is a common and the simplest type of spread footing
foundation; It consists of a number of courses of bricks,
the lowest being usually twice the thickness of wall
above. In this type of foundation, the base width of the
wall is increased by providing 5cm (one-fourth of brick
length) offsets on either side of the wall. The depth of
each course is usually 7.5 cm
Concrete Column Footing
These are either stepped type, slate type or slope type, having projections in the base concrete. To
support heavy loads, reinforcement is also provided at the base. The reinforcement provided is in the
form of steel bars and is placed in both directions. Concrete column footings may be either isolated
footings or combined footings. Isolated footings are used to support the individual columns, whereas
combined footings are used where projections of different columns are not possible on all the sides, due
to limited space.
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Combined Footings
Combined footings are generally
rectangular in shape when both
columns are of same sections and
trapezoidal in shape when the
columns are of different sections.
Grillage Foundation
The foundation which consists of one or two tiers of wooden or rolled steel section with space filled up
with concrete is known as Grillage foundation. This is so called because the bed constructed in this type
of foundation is called grillage. This type of construction avoids deep excavation and provides the
necessary area at the base of the structure to reduce the intensity of pressure within the safe bearing
capacity of the soil.
[Date] 13
Types of Grillage Foundation
Depending upon the material used in construction, grillage foundations are further classified into two
types.
1. Steel Grillage Foundation

2. Timber Grillage Foundation
Steel Grillage Foundation Timber Grillage Foundation
[Date] 14
RAFT FOUNDATION
Raft foundation is actually a thick concrete slab resting on a large area of soil reinforced with steel,
supporting columns or walls and transfer loads from the structure to the soil. Usually, mat foundation is
spread over the entire area of the structure it is supporting...
Raft foundations are often used on poor soils for lightly loaded buildings, and are considered capable of
accommodating small settlements of the soil. In poor soils the upper crust of soil (450 – 600 mm) is
often stiffer than the lower subsoil, and to build a light raft on this crust is usually better than
penetrating it with a strip foundation.
Types of Raft Foundation

There are three main types of raft foundation:
1. Solid slab rafts,

2. Slab beam rafts,
3. Cellular rafts
Solid slab rafts
[Date] 15
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Slab beam rafts,
Cellular rafts
[Date] 17
PILE FOUNDATION
PILE
Pile is an element of construction used as foundation driven into the soil vertically or with little
inclination to vertical to transmit the load to the hard stratum or hard bed rock at great depth.
Pile foundation, a kind of deep foundation, is actually a slender column or long cylinder made of
materials such as concrete or steel which are used to support the structure and transfer the load at
desired depth either by end bearing or skin friction.
Pile foundations are usually used for large structures and in situations where the soil at shallow depth is
not suitable to resist excessive settlement, resist uplift, etc.
When to Use Pile Foundation

1. Following are the situations when using a pile foundation system can be
2. When the groundwater table is high.
3. Heavy and un-uniform loads from superstructure are imposed.
4. Other types of foundations are costlier or not feasible.
5. When the soil at shallow depth is compressible.
6. When there is the possibility of scouring, due to its location near the river bed or seashore, etc.
7. When there is a canal or deep drainage systems near the structure.
8. When soil excavation is not possible up to the desired depth due to poor soil condition.
[Date] 18
9. When it becomes impossible to keep the foundation trenches dry by pumping or by any other
measure due to heavy inflow of seepage.
Types of Pile Foundation

Pile foundations can be classified based on function, materials and installation process, etc. Followings
are the types of pile foundation used in construction:
(a) Based on Function or Use

1. Sheet Piles
2. Load Bearing Piles
End bearing Piles
Friction Piles
3 Soil compactor piles
(b) Based on Materials and Construction Method
1. Timber Piles
2. Concrete Piles
3. Steel Piles
4. Composite Piles
The following diagram is representing pile foundation types discussed above.
[Date] 19
These piles are briefly discussed below
Classification of Pile Foundation Based on Function or Use
Sheet Piles
This type of pile is mostly used to provide lateral support. Usually, they resist lateral pressure from loose
soil, the flow of water, etc. They are usually used for cofferdams, trench sheeting, shore protection, etc.
They are not used for providing vertical support to the structure. They are usually used to serve the
following purpose-
1. Construction of retaining walls.

2. Protection from river bank erosion.
3. Retain the loose soil around foundation trenches.
4. For isolation of foundation from adjacent soils.
5. For confinement of soil and thus increase the bearing capacity of the soil.
Load Bearing Piles

This type of pile foundation is mainly used to transfer the vertical loads from the structure to the soil.
These foundations transmit loads through the soil with poor supporting property onto a layer which is
capable of bearing the load. Depending on the mechanism of load transfer from pile to the soil, load-
bearing piles can be further classified as flowed.
End Bearing Piles

In this type of pile, the loads pass through the lower tip of the pile. The bottom end of the pile rests on a
strong layer of soil or rock. Usually, the pile rests at a transition layer of a weak and strong slayer. As a
result, the pile acts as a column and safely transfers the load to the strong layer.
[Date] 20
The total capacity of end bearing pile can be calculated by multiplying the area of the tip of the pile and
the bearing capacity of at that particular depth of soil at which the pile rests. Considering a reasonable
factor of safety, the diameter of the pile is calculated.
Friction Pile
Friction pile transfers the load from the structure to the soil by the frictional force between the surface
of the pile and the soil surrounding the pile such as stiff clay, sandy soil, etc. Friction can be developed
for the entire length of the pile or a definite length of the pile, depending on the strata of the soil. In
friction pile, generally, the entire surface of the pile works to transfer the loads from the structure to the
soil.
The surface area of the pile multiplied by the safe friction force developed per unit area determines the
capacity of the pile.
While designing skin friction pile, the skin friction to be developed at a pile surface should be sincerely
evaluated and a reasonable factor of safety should be considered. Besides this one can increase the pile
diameter, depth, number of piles and make pile surface rough to increase the capacity of friction pile.
Soil Compactor Piles

Sometimes piles are driven at placed closed intervals to increase the bearing capacity of soil by
compacting.
Classification of Piles Based on Materials and Construction Method

Primarily piles can be classified into two parts. Displacement piles and Non-displacement or
Replacement piles. Piles which causes the soil to be displaced vertically and radially as they are driven to
the ground is known as Displacement piles. In case of Replacement piles, the ground is bored and the
soil is removed and then the resulting hole is either filled with concrete or a pre-cast concrete pile is
inserted. On the basis of materials of pile construction and their installation process load-bearing piles
can be classified as follows:
1. Timber Piles
Untreated
Treated with Preservative
2. Concrete Piles
Pre-cast Piles
Cast-in-place Piles
3. Steel Piles
I-Section Piles
Hollow Piles
[Date] 21
4. Composite Piles
Timber Piles
Timber piles are placed under the water level. They last for approximately about 30 years. They can be
rectangular or circular in shape. Their diameter or size can vary from 12 to 16 inches. The length of the
pile is usually 20 times of the top width.
They are usually designed for 15 to 20 tons. Additional strength can be obtained by bolting fish plates to
the side of the piles.
Advantages of Timber Piles-

Timber piles of regular size are available.
Economical.
Easy to install.
Low possibility of damage.
Timber piles can be cut off at any desired length after they are installed.
If necessary, timber piles can be easily pulled out.
Disadvantages of Timber Piles-

Piles of longer lengths are not always available.
It is difficult to obtain straight piles if the length is short.
It is difficult to drive the pile if the soil strata are very hard.
Splicing of timber pile is difficult.
Timber or wooden piles are not suitable to be used as end-bearing piles.
For durability of timber piles, special measures have to be taken. For example- wooden piles are
often treated with preservative.
[Date] 22
Concrete Piles
Pre-cast Concrete Pile
The precast concrete pile is cast in pile bed in the horizontal form if they are rectangular in shape.
Usually, circular piles are cast in vertical forms. Precast piles are usually reinforced with steel to prevent
breakage during its mobilization from casting bed to the location of the foundation. After the piles are
cast, curing has to be performed as per specification. Generally curing period for pre-cast piles is 21 to
28 days.
Advantages of Pre-cast Piles

Provides high resistance to chemical and biological cracks.
They are usually of high strength.
To facilitate driving, a pipe may be installed along the center of the pile.
If the piles are cast and ready to be driven before the installation phase is due, it can increase
the pace of work.
The confinement of the reinforcement can be ensured.
Quality of the pile can be controlled.
If any fault is identified, it can be replaced before driving.
Pre-cast piles can be driven under the water.
The piles can be loaded immediately after it is driven up to the required length.
Disadvantages of Pre-cast Piles

Once the length of the pile is decided, it is difficult to increase or decrease the length of the pile
afterward.
They are difficult to mobilize.
Needs heavy and expensive equipment to drive.
As they are not available for readymade purchase, it can cause a delay in the project.
There is a possibility of breakage or damage during handling and driving of piles.
Cast-in-situ Concrete Piles

This type of pile is constructed by boring of soil up to the desired depth and then, depositing freshly
mixed concrete in that place and letting it cure there. This type of pile is constructed either by driving a
metallic shell to the ground and filling it with concrete and leave the shell with the concrete or the shell
is pulled out while concrete is poured.
Advantages of Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles

The shells are light weighted, so they are easy to handle.
Length of piles can be varied easily.
The shells may be assembled at sight.
No excess enforcement is required only to prevent damage from handling.
No possibility of breaking during installation.
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Additional piles can be provided easily if required.
Disadvantages of Cast-in-situ Concrete Piles

Installation requires careful supervision and quality control.
Needs sufficient place on site for storage of the materials used for construction.
It is difficult to construct cast in situ piles where the underground water flow is heavy.
Bottom of the pile may not be symmetrical.
If the pile is un-reinforced and uncased, the pile can fail in tension if there acts and uplifting
force.
Steel Piles
Steel piles may be of I-section or hollow pipe. They are filled with concrete. The size may vary from 10
inches to 24 inches in diameter and thickness is usually ¾ inches. Because of the small sectional area,
the piles are easy to drive. They are mostly used as end-bearing piles.
Advantages of Steel Piles

They are easy to install.
They can reach a greater depth comparing to any other type of pile.
Can penetrate through the hard layer of soil due to the less cross-sectional area.
It is easy to splice steel piles
Can carry heavy loads.
Disadvantage of Steel Piles

Prone to corrosion.
Has a possibility of deviating while driving.
Comparatively expensive.
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FOUNDATIONS

Superstructure and Substructure in a Building

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION

The Building Regulations require all foundations of buildings to:

Typical bearing capacities of subsoils are given in following Table.

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION

CHOICE OF FOUNDATION TYPE

 The total loads of the building

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION

 Trial holes and subsequent investigation;

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION

Spread Footing Foundations

Concrete Column Footing

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION

1. Steel Grillage Foundation

Steel Grillage Foundation Timber Grillage Foundation

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION

Types of Raft Foundation

1. Solid slab rafts,

Solid slab rafts

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION

When to Use Pile Foundation

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION

Types of Pile Foundation

(a) Based on Function or Use

The following diagram is representing pile foundation types discussed above.

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION

Classification of Pile Foundation Based on Function or Use

1. Construction of retaining walls.

Load Bearing Piles

End Bearing Piles

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION

Soil Compactor Piles

Classification of Piles Based on Materials and Construction Method

Advantages of Timber Piles-

Disadvantages of Timber Piles-

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION

Advantages of Pre-cast Piles

Disadvantages of Pre-cast Piles

Cast-in-situ Concrete Piles

Advantages of Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles

Disadvantages of Cast-in-situ Concrete Piles

Advantages of Steel Piles

Disadvantage of Steel Piles

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY – FOUNDATION

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