Hull Structure Course - DNV

Hull Structure
Course
DNV
Slide 1
Introduction
• Quality is the main priority for
DNV
• Knowledge is a prerequisite for

Quality
• SiO surveyor scope of work;

– IOPP, CEC, CCC, CRC, ILO,
ISM, ISPS …..
– Machinery, systems, safety
issues, load-line, stability,
navigation, …..
And
– Hull Structure !
Slide 2
Introduction
• SiO surveyor – an easy job?
– Quick decisions - limited
information
• Severe consequences to life,
property, environment
– Heavy responsibility
– Under pressure (owner, port
state, oil major’s …)
– All by yourself ?
• Who is the typical DNV
Surveyor?
– Captain / Chief officer /
Chief mate / Marine
Engineers / Naval Architects
– Different experience
Slide 3
Introduction
• Attitude
• Knowledge
• Skills
Slide 4
How are the
loads taken
up by the
structure? Where is it likely
to find cracks?
Consequence
of a crack in
this detail?
Slide 5
Hull Structure Course
Overall Objective:
After completion of the course, the participants

should have gained knowledge of basic hull
strength and an understanding of how to perform a
better hull survey.
Slide 6
Purpose:
To train SiO surveyors about the basics of hull structures.
Target group is surveyors who are in need of improved

competence in structural matters on ships generally, with
focus on Oil Tankers, Bulk Carriers and Container ships.
Slide 7
Ship main Functions
Propulsion
Steering
Power supply
Cargo handling
Bilging
Navigation
Communication
Fire fighting
Life saving
Hull functions
Slide 8
Ship hull Functions
The ship hull functions are:
* Structural Integrity
- Local
- Global
* Watertight Integrity:
- External
- Internal
* Fit for Purpose, operationally
Slide 9
Bulk Carriers, single hull
Brainstorming!
What are the main

failures types for this
ship type, and what
may be the conse-
quences?
Slide 10
Oil Tankers, Single hull
Brainstorming!
What are the main

failure types for this
ship type, and what
may be the conse-
quences?
DNV Class if ication Process es (2100) #20 © 2000 Det Norske Veritas
O\10 serv ice s\c ourses\ inte rn al \2 100\ Train erM at eria ls\ OH\ D.1 UiOIn tro Revi sion 00.9 2000- 02-13
Slide 11
Container Ship
Brainstorming!
What are the main

failure types for this
ship type, and what
may be the conse-
quences?
Slide 12
Serious deficiencies - consideration
In case of serious deficiencies, the following
should be taken into consideration:
9 Retention of Ship main functions
9 Retention of Ship hull functions
9 Survival capability
9 Effect of flooding
9 Type of cargo
9 Pollution hazard
Slide 13
Course breakdown:
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Beams
Chapter 3: Loads
Chapter 4: Structural Connections
Chapter 5: Fatigue
Chapter 6: Buckling and Indents
Chapter 7: Corrosion
Chapters 8-11: Application to Ship Structures
Slide 14
Module 2: Basic Hull Strength Basic Hull Strength
Slide 1
Objectives Basic Hull Strength
After completion of this chapter you should have gained:
Understanding of:
The behaviour of simple beams with loads and

corresponding shear forces and moments.
The applicable local and global loads on the hull girder and
the corresponding shear forces and bending moments.
Slide 2
Contents Basic Hull Strength
1. Simple beam theory

2. Typical hull girder stresses
3. Local and global loads, static and dynamic
4. Commonly used steels
Slide 3
Simple beam properties Basic Hull Strength
Bending
moment
Load
A Compression
Section A-A
Tension
A Shear
force
Bending When a beam is loaded it will bend dependent on its stiffness

and its end connections. A single load from above causes compression
stress on the upper side and tension stress on the lower side of the beam
Shear area: The beam has to have a sufficient cross sectional area to
take up the external load and transfer this towards the end supports
Slide 4
Simply supported beam
Basic Hull Strength
- concentrated load
ℓL/2 F
Single beam with
concentrated load,
simply supported ends
F/2 F/2
F
Shear
Q=F/2
Force
Q=F/2
Bending
Moment
M=Q x ℓL/2
Slide 5
Simply supported beam
Basic Hull Strength
– distributed load
p
Single beam with
distributed load,
simply supported ends
pL/2 L pL/2
Shear
Q=pL/2
Force
Q=pL/2
Bending
Moment
M=pL2 /8
Slide 6
Beam with fixed ends - distributed load Basic Hull Strength
No rotation!
p
Single beam
with distributed
load, fixed ends
pL/2 L pL/2
Shear
Force Q=pL/2
Q=pL/2
Bending
Moment M=pL2 /12
M=pL2 /24
Slide 7
Beam with spring supported ends Basic Hull Strength
Spring Spring
k k
Shear force and bending moment distribution varies with degree of

end fixation (spring stiffness)
Degree of end fixation = 0 Simply supported

Degree of end fixation = 1 Fixed ends
Slide 8
End fixation Basic Hull Strength
Structural clamping – spring support
Symmetrical load – full fixation
Slide 9
Beam – fixation at ends Basic Hull Strength
• Load on structure is important with regard to

fixation bottom longs connection to transverse
bulkhead
Empty Empty
Loaded
Symmetric load gives full
fixation
Non symmetry in loads

gives less fixation or
even forced rotation
Slide 10
Axial stress Basic Hull Strength
Force
Force
Stress =
Area
Area
ε= σ / E (Hook’s Law)
ε: Relative elongation
E: Youngs modulus
(2,06E5 N/mm² - steel)
Slide 11
Bending stress - Simple beam with load Basic Hull Strength
F
A A
R1 A A R2
Area effective in
transferring the bending
of the beam
n.a
Section A-A Distribution of stress

caused by bending
Slide 12 Max stress at flanges.

Zero stress at neutral axis:
Shear stress - Simple beam with load Basic Hull Strength
F
A A
R1 A A R2
Area effective in Distribution of the

transferring load stress
to the supports
Max shear stress at
neutral axisis of profile:
Section A-A
Slide 13
Bending and shear stress Basic Hull Strength
A F A
R1 A
R2
A
Compression
Bending stress is
Tension
transferred in the
flanges, σ Shear stress is
transferred in the web, τ
Section A-A
Slide 14
Beam stiffness and section modulus Basic Hull Strength
As the axial stresses are transferred in the flange of a beam, it is the

flange area that is governing a beam’s ‘bending stiffness’
Aflange
y 1 3 2
Moment of Inertia: I x = bl + 2 A flange y1
12
b
l y1
Ix
n.a x
Section modulus: Zx =
y1
M
Stress: σ=
zX
The ‘Section Modulus’ is expressing the beam’s ability to
withstand bending
Slide 15
Shear stress & shear area Basic Hull Strength
The load is carried in shear towards the supports by the web
y
Shear force : Q
t
h Shear area : As = h ⋅ t
n.a x
Q
Shear stress: τ=
As
Slide 16
Conventional profiles in ship structures Basic Hull Strength
Flatbar (slabs)
Easy with regard to production, flatbar stiffeners have poor
buckling strength properties, low section modulus mostly
applied in deck and upper part of side - long. bhd.
Angle bar (rolled and welded)

Angle bar will twist when exposed to lateral load due to non-
symmetric profile. This effect gives additional stress at
supports due to skew bending. Angle bars are more prone to
fatigue cracking than symmetrical profiles (Ref. sketch next
page)
Due to the skew bending, which gives a moment in the web-

plate at welded connection to the plate, angle bars are also
more critical with regard to grooving (necking) corrosion.
Slide 17
Angle bar (rolled / built up) Basic Hull Strength
An angle bar profile will twist when exposed to lateral loads

due to asymmetric profile which gives additional stress at
supports due to skew bending
POSTFEM 5.6-02 SESAM 5 SEP 2
MODEL: T1-1 DEF = 203
4: LINEAR ANALYSIS
NODAL DISPLACE ALL
MAX = 1.46 MIN = 0
Side longs
internal pressure
1.39
1.32
1.25
1.18
1.11
1.04
Additional bending .974

.905
.835
.766
.696
stress in web Z
.626
.557
.487
.418
.348
Y .278
X .209
.139
.696E-1
Slide 18
Conventional ship structure profiles Basic Hull Strength
Bulb profile (single / double bulb)

Bulb profiles are favourable with regard to coating application.
Single bulb which is most common will (as for the L-profile)
have some skew bending when exposed to lateral load.
T- Profile
The T-profile is symmetrical and will not be prone to skew
bending. Favourable with regard to fatigue strength. The
profile may have large section modulus. Some T-profiles
on single skin VLCC’s have been found critical with regard
to buckling due to a high and thin web-plate with a small
flange on top.
Slide 19
Terminology stress levels Basic Hull Strength
Local stress : Plate / stiffener

Girder stresses: Webframes / Girders /Floors
Hull girder stresses: Deck & bottom / Side /
long. Bhd.
Slide 20
Level 1: Plating - simple beam Basic Hull Strength
Plating
Stiffener
Water pressure
NO
ROTATION A strip of plating
considered as a beam
with fixed ends and
evenly distributed load
Slide 21
PLATE AS A BEAM
Level 2 Longitudinal - simple beam Basic Hull Strength
Longitudinal between two

web frames
Max shear and bending

moment at supports (web
frames)
Symmetric load fwd and aft of

web frames gives no rotation -
fixed ends
Slide 22
Level 3 : Transverse web - simple beam Basic Hull Strength
Beam with fixed ends and

concentrated loads from
the bottom longitudinals

moment towards ends
(side & long bhd.)
SF
Slide 23
BM
Beams, load transfer Basic Hull Strength
Double bottom structure
Loads taken up by the bottom plating

are transferred through the hierarchy
of structures into the hull
Floor /
Side girder transverse
bottom girder
Centre
girder
Stiffeners
supported
Slide 24 by floors
Damage experience Basic Hull Strength
• Level 1 Plate supported at stiffeners
• Level 2 Stiffener supported at webframe
• Level 3 Webframe supported at panel
• Level 4 Panel – hull girder
Consequences of damages level 1-4 above!
Slide 25
Single beam VS Hull girder Basic Hull Strength
A vessel’s hull has many of the same properties as a single beam.

Hence simple beam theory may be applied when describing the nature of
a vessels hull
The term ‘Hull girder’ is used when thinking of the hull as a single beam
Single
beam
Hull
Slide 26
Hull girder bending Basic Hull Strength
When a vessel’s hull is exposed to loading, it will bend similarly

as a single beam
Deck and bottom acts as flanges in the ‘hull girder’, while ship
sides and longitudinal bulkheads, act as the web
Slide 27
Single beam VS Hull girder Basic Hull Strength
A A
F
A A
Bending stress, σ
Compression
Tension
Hull Girder
Section A-A Shear stress, τ
Deck and bottom acts as flanges in the ‘hull girder’, while ship
Slide 28
sides and longitudinal bulkheads, act as the web
Beams: Buzz Groups Basic Hull Strength
• For a beam with fixed ends and an evenly

distributed load, i.e. from sea pressure, is it true
that:
– Bending moment is zero at one location along the
length.
– Reaction forces are equal at both ends.
– There is no rotation at the ends.
– Bending stresses in the middle of the span are positive
(tension) in one flange and negative (compression) in
the other.
– Shear force is highest in the middle of the span.
– Shear forces are carried by the web.
Slide 29
Beams: Buzz Groups Basic Hull Strength
• Is it correct that the transverse girders are

supported by the longitudinal stiffeners?
• Are the ends of longitudinal stiffeners inside a tank,

for example bottom longitudinals between
webframes, normally fixed or simply supported?
• What is the main disadvantage of an angle profile

compared to a “T” profile with the same
dimensions?
Slide 30
Summary Beams: Basic Hull Strength
• Bending moment and shear force

• Stresses: axial/bending/shear
• Section modulus / moment of inertia / shear area
• Stress distribution: bending and shear
• BM and SF distribution depending on load and end
fixation
• Profile types and properties
• Structural hierarchy: plates-stiffeners-girder-panel
Slide 31
Loads acting on a ship structure Basic Hull Strength
Slide 1
Loads acting on a ship structure Basic Hull Strength
1. Internal loads: - Cargo

- Ballast
- Fuel
- Flooding
- Loading/unloading
2. External loads: - Sea

- Ice
- Wind
Slide 2
Static and Dynamic loads Basic Hull Strength
Static local load: The local load, internal and external

due to cargo/ballast/sea pressure
Dynamic local load: External - dynamic wave loads

Internal - due to acceleration/motion
Static global load: Global bending moment and shear

force due to weight/buoyancy
Dynamic global load: Dynamic bending moment and

shear force due to waves
Slide 3
Static and Dynamic loads Basic Hull Strength
Total external local load acting on a vessel:
Static Dynamic
Max at the bottom Max at the waterline
Note that the relative size of static/dynamic pressure is not to scale!

Slide 4
Sea Pressure – static and dynamic contribution Basic Hull Strength
z Plotted sea pressure curve

p (kN/m2) is a sum of the static and
dynamic contribution
z Constant in the midship

area, increasing towards
ends
aft fwd
Local sea pressure

(example for a bottom longitudinal)
Slide 5
Loads on foreship Basic Hull Strength
Bow Impact Pressure

• Induced by waves, vessel speed,
flare and waterline angle
important factors
• Dominant for ship sides in the
bow at full draught
Bottom Slamming Pressure

• Induced by waves in shallow draft
condition (ballast condition)
• Dominant for flat bottom structure
forward
Slide 6
Loads on deck Basic Hull Strength
Green Seas Loading:

• Dominant for hatch covers and fwd deck structure
Slide 7 (incl. deck equipment, doors, openings etc)
Fatigue loads - local Basic Hull Strength
• Local wave loads give dynamic stress amplitudes in side and

bottom. Local dynamic loads are highest in the waterline area
•Accelerations due to
ship motions gives
internal dynamic loads
Slide 8
Highest local dynamic loads in the waterline area
“Net Loads”: Alternate loading condition Basic Hull Strength
Slide 9
Bulk Carrier typical load Basic Hull Strength
Static external sea

Static internal
pressure
load from cargo
Dynamic external Dynamic internal
sea pressure load from cargo
Slide 10
Net load on structure – ‘Ore hold’ Basic Hull Strength
Internal load
- External load
= Net load on double bottom
Static and dynamic

internal load from cargo
Slide 11 Static and dynamic

sea pressure
Net load on structure - empty hold Basic Hull Strength
Net load from sea pressure
Slide 12 Static and dynamic

sea pressure
Static Global Loads:
Basic Hull Strength
Weights and Buoyancy
Weight distribution
of cargo and fuel
Steel weight,
equipment and
machinery
Buoyancy
Slide 13
Dynamic Global Loads: Waves Basic Hull Strength
• Global dynamic vertical and horizontal wave bending

moments give longitudinal dynamic stresses in deck,
bottom and side. Contribute to fatigue damage.
Highest global dynamic loads for all longitudinal

Slide 14
members are in the midships area
Total BM acting on a vessel Basic Hull Strength
Total hull girder bending moment MTotal = Mstill water + M wave
Mtotal
Mwave
BM limits
Hogging
Mstill water
Sagging
Slide 15
Weights and buoyancy Basic Hull Strength
Buoyancy and weights are not evenly distributed

along a ships length…
…hence, a global shear force and bending moment

distribution is set up on the hull girder
Slide 16
Hull girder still water bending Basic Hull Strength
moment and shear force
Slide 17
Example: SF and BM distribution for a tanker in a fully loaded condition

Ship hull materials Basic Hull Strength
Slide 18
High Tensile Steel (HTS) Basic Hull Strength
Material grades NVA - NVE

• Measure for ductility of material (prevent brittle fracture)
• Material grade dependent on location of structure and
thickness of plate.
MS
NVA
HT28
NVB
HT32
NVD
HT36
NVE
HT40
Slide 19 Low temp. steel
Ship hull materials Basic Hull Strength
Steel grade VS plate thickness

• Requirement to steel grade is a function of plate thickness and
location in the ship
Slide 20
Stress levels – elastic & inelastic region Basic Hull Strength
Elastic region: σ < σyield

σ
- A beam exposed to a stress level
below the yield stress, will return to
its original shape after the load is fracture
removed, Simple beam theory valid
Yield
In-elastic region: σ = > σyield Inelastic region

- A beam exposed to stresses above
the yield stress will have a
permanent deformation after
removing the load (yielding, ε (elongation)
buckling, fractures)
Elastic region
Slide 21
σ=ε*E
Effect of high tensile steel Basic Hull Strength
• Reduced scantlings compared with normal steel
• Smaller corrosion margins
• Fatigue more critical due to higher stress level
• Detail design more critical for high tensile steels
• Reduced thickness - more critical w.r.t. buckling
• Impact on coating - deflections

Slide 22
Loads and Materials: Buzz Groups Basic Hull Strength
• Where in the cross section of a hull girder are the local

dynamic loads due to sea pressure highest?
• Where along the length of the hull girder are the dynamic sea
pressure loads highest?
• Where along the length of the hull girder is the global

dynamic bending moment highest?
• Does a vessel in a sagging condition experience

compression or tension in the deck?
• A vessel in sagging condition experiences flooding of an

empty tank in amidships. Will the hull girder bending moment
increase or decrease?
Slide 23
Loads and Materials: Buzz Groups Basic Hull Strength
• Will the bottom plate in the middle of an empty hold

in a bulk carrier in alternate loading condition
experience compression or tension?
• Will a vessel in a fully loaded condition experience

surplus weight or buoyancy at the fwd. side of the
collision bhd. What is the effect of this with regard
to shear and bending moment?
• Is it acceptable to replace HTS plate with mild steel

plate of increased thickness?
Slide 24
Summary Loads: Basic Hull Strength
• Static & dynamic loads

• Internal & external loads
• Load distribution
• Net load
• Longitudinal strength SF & BM
• Materials – strength and ductility
Slide 25
Basic Hull Strength
Slide 26
Structural Connections Structural Connections
Slide 1
Structural Connections Structural Connections
• Objectives of this Chapter:

After completion of this chapter the participants should have gained:
• Knowledge about connections between structural elements

• Understanding of the transfer of forces between structural elements
and the relevant stress distributions
• Knowledge about how to improve the design of structural
connections
Slide 2
Contents Structural Connections
• Types of welds
• Connections of stiffeners
• Connections of girders/web frames
• Connections between panels
• Design details
Slide 3
Weld Types Structural Connections
We will briefly touch upon the following types:
• Fillet welds
• Full penetration welds (Full pen)
(Ref. Rules Pt.3 Ch.1 Sec.11)
Slide 4
Weld Types – Fillet welds Structural Connections
Throat thickness
Fillet welds:
• The most common type
Leg length
Transferring shear forces (between profile and plate)

Throat thickness-
• Building welded sections
• Connections to other members measure 3.5 mm
• NDT by magnetic particle or = leg length 5.0 mm
dye penetrant
Slide 5
Weld Types – Full penetration Structural Connections
Full penetration welds:
• To be used where stress level normal

to the weld is high
t
Max gap <3 mm
Throat thickness
Root Face max 2-4 mm for full penetration welds
Transferring shear forces and forces normal to the weld

• Connections to other members in highly stressed
σ locations
• NDT by ultrasonic, dye penetrant or magnetic particle
Slide 6
Connections of stiffeners Structural Connections
• What forces are to be transferred?
Shear
Force
Bending
Moment
Slide 7
Load from stiffener to webframe Structural Connections
Load from
bottom
longitudinal
to floor
Slide 8
Connection of stiffeners Structural Connections
+ + + +
b) c) d)
a)
Web fr.
Web fr.
Web fr.
Stiffener
Slide 9
Effect of brackets on the max bending stress
No or negative
effect
= =
Slide 10
Web-plating Common crack locations in longitudinal

Stiffener
Longitudinal
= =
Slide 11
Static stress in stiffener on top Structural Connections
Stress distribution for different details
ballast loaded
σx σx
Slide 12
Cracks in stiffener on top Structural Connections
Common crack locations

Web-plating
Stiffener
Longitudinal
= =
Design improvement
Slide 13
End-brackets on girders - forces Structural Connections
Empty Full
Tank Net load
Tank
Net load
Slide 14
Stringer connection to inner side Structural Connections
Original Design Repair

Inner side
Original thickness 16mm

Ship side Stringer Insert 20 to 25 mm
Trv. Bhd.
Bracket with thickness
Crack 20 to 25 mm
Slide 15
End-brackets on girders Structural Connections
Girder bracket
Typical crack location

Slide 16
Cross-Ties Structural Connections
FullEmpty
Centre
Centre
TankTank
Full
Empty Full
Empty
Wing
Wing Wing
Wing
Tank
Tank Tank
Tank
Slide 17
Knuckles Structural Connections
Rescue
Chopper
Out of plane forces
Deformation/low stiffness
Slide 18
Support as close to the knuckle as possible
Slide 19
Vertical Brackets
Slide 20
Crack in shell plate at

knuckle:
New Brackets
Slide 21
Crack Locations
Stress Concentrations
In way of Webs
Slide 22
Preferred design:
• No misalignment in the connection.
• No lugs or scallops
Slide 23
Intersecting Hull Elements Structural Connections
Crossing Panel - No bracket Crossing Panel - With bracket
Panel 2
Panel 1
Connecting area ~ a · t
Connecting area ~ t · t
t
t
a
Slide 24
Intersecting Hull Elements Structural Connections
iv
iii
WING TOP SIDE
LONGITUDINAL
CRACKS TANK TANK NO. 7
BULKHEAD
CRACKS
STR
ENGINE ROOM BULKHEAD DIESEL

SUPPLY
TANK
ENGINE ROOM
BULKHEAD
BK
TANK TOP T.
Cracks
ENGINE ROOM BULKHEAD
A EXISTING BRACKET
TO BE REMOVED
ADDITIONAL
BRACKET LONGITUDINAL BULKHEAD
NEW BRACKETS IN
LINE WITH BOTTOM
A PLATE IN TOP SIDE
TANK
SLANTING TANK TOP
PLATING

Section A-A
A-A TO BE IN LINE
Reinforcements
Slide 25
Example container top coaming Structural Connections
Longitudinal
bulkhead in
accomondation
Top of end
coaming fwd of
accomondation
Slide 26
Notches, Drain/Lightening Holes Structural Connections
Crack ii)
i) Reduced risk of cracking
Common notch
Notch away from weld
in way of weld
iii)
Slide 27
Repair: close with lug

Summary – Stuctural Connections Structural Connections
• Welding
• Connection stiffener – girder
• Girder – panel
• Cross tie
• Knuckles
• Intersection of plates / panels
• Cut-outs and notches
Slide 28
Chapters 5-7: Hull Structure Failure Types
Objectives of Chapters 5-7:
After completion of this module the participants should

have gained:
1. Knowledge about different structural failure types and

corresponding acceptance criteria
2. Understanding of the consequences for a ship structure
when exposed to failures
Contents of Chapters 5-7:
1. Cracks
2. Buckles
3. Indents
4. Corrosion
Cracks
Buckling
Cracks Indent
Corrosion
• Fatigue cracks
– Normal high cycle fatigue
– Low cycle fatigue
– Vibrations
• Ruptures
– Overloading
• Brittle fracture
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Basic fatigue theory Corrosion
Dynamic
stress
amplitude
Time
Fatigue life 3
times higher
than for
1. Zero static stress tension
2. Static stress compression
3. Static stress tension
Cracks
Buckling
Fatigue Life Indent

Corrosion
3
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
N ≈ C⎜ ⎟
⎜ σK ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Where:
N = Fatigue life (normally 20 years)
σ = Nominal Stress (dynamic stress amplitude)
K = Stress Concentration Factor
C = Constant (including the environment and mean
stress level i.e. compression / tension)
Basic fatigue theory
I. Low cycle fatigue (less than 10 000)
II. High cycle fatigue (more than 10 000)
III. No fatigue damage
Cracks
Fatigue theory Buckling

Indent
Stress Concentration factor ( SCF ) Corrosion
Nominal SCF due SCF due SCF due

stress to weld to cut-out to cut-out
level
Kw
σ σ σ σ
Kg.Kw. σ Kg.Kw. σ
σ Kw σ
σ σ σ σ
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Stress concentration due to cut-outs Corrosion
3.00
2.80
2.60
2.40 r Stress direction

r Line for calculation
2.20
Line of
forstress
calculation of stress
2.00 x
1.80
Relative stress
x/r
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
Scupper shuttle tanker 5 years
0.00
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00
Relative distance from centre of hole x/r
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Unfavorable combination of cut-outs Corrosion
Access opening in deck
Longitudinal Stress
deck plate
Ventilation
scallop
deck longitudinal no
24/25
Cracks
Buckling
Notches, Drain/Lightening Holes Indent

Corrosion
Crack iii)
i) Reduced risk of cracking
Common notch
Notch away from weld
in way of weld
Cracks
Buckling
Notches, Drain/Lightening Holes Indent

Corrosion
Cracks
Buckling
Fatigue theory SCF. Indent

Corrosion
More Stress concentration factors ;
• Kg : Gross Geometry (from FEM analysis)
• Kw : Weld Geometry (typical 1,5)
• Kte : Eccentricity tolerance (production tolerances)
• Ktα : Αngular mismatch (production tolerances)
• Kn : Unsymmetrical Stiffeners (L& bulb-profiles)

Angle bar (rolled / built up)
An angle bar profile will twist when exposed to

lateral loads due to asymmetric profile which gives
additional stress at supports due to skew bending
POSTFEM 5.6-02
4: LINEAR ANALYSIS
NODAL DISPLACE ALL
SESAM 5 SEP 2
MAX = 1.46 MIN = 0
Side longs
internal pressure
1.39
1.32
1.25
1.18
1.11
1.04
Additional bending .974

.905
.835
.766
.696
stress in web Z
.626
.557
.487
.418
.348
Y .278
X .209
.139
.696E-1
Bending distribution T-L profile
Additional bending stress in flange of

unsymmetrical profiles
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Relative deflection Corrosion
Dynamic sea pressure
Additional stress in
side long. At
transverse bulkhead
due to relative
deflection.
⎛δ ⎞
σ = f⎜ 2 ⎟
cont
⎝l ⎠
Cracks
Buckling
Stress due to relative deflection Indent

Corrosion
⎛δ ⎞
σ = f⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝l ⎠
Stress is proportional to the relative
deflection, δ
Stress is inversely proportional to the Looking down

square of the stiffener length, l on stringer
=> Decreased stiffener length will BHD

increase the stress due to
relative deflection.
Cracks
Buckling
Fatigue Life Depends on Sailing Route Indent

Corrosion
• Rule standard is based on 20 years of World-Wide Trading

• Fatigue load from 20 years world wide corresponds to 10 years North
Atlantic trade
Cracks
Buckling
World wide trading Indent
Corrosion
2.
1.
3
.
3
.
4.
5.
1. North Sea – 2%
2. North Atlantic – 15%
Nauticus
3. USA West Coast – Japan – 18%
Newbuilding 20
4. Japan – Persian Gulf – 23%
5. Persian Gulf – Europe (around Africa) – 42%
years
Cracks
Fatigue Strength Versus Tensile Buckling

Indent
Strength Corrosion
Note for welded structure, the fatigue strength is independent of yield

strength!
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Crack growth rate Corrosion
• Major part of fatigue life is in the crack initiation

phase
• The time until crack is found may indicate the
crack propagation rate (Crack discovered after 5 years / 20 years)
• Crack growth rate depending on the dynamic
stress level
• The crack growth rate will normally accelerate with
increasing crack length
• A fatigue crack may result in an unstable fracture of
the structure if a certain length is reached.
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Crack growth in side long Corrosion
Crack growth prediction
500
90% of fatigue
400 life first 100mm
Considered crack 300 Glob
Loca
Labo
200
Side shell
100
Web; 550/12 flange; 150/21 (mm)
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Relative time
The crack top of Japanese angle

The crack grows along web/flange simultaneously
Crack growth in web when it has grown through the flange
Failure when the crack through web
Cracks
Buckling
Crack Propagation Comparison MS - HTS Indent

Corrosion
Cracks
Buckling
Examples fatigue cracks Indent

Corrosion
Types of cracks:
longitudinal/webframe Stringer
connection
Double Skin L/Bhd
• Crack lug connection

• Crack in stiffener on top
• Crack in longitudinal
Cracks
Buckling
Cause for cracking in side longitudinals Indent

Corrosion
Fatigue Damages are caused by

Dynamic Loading
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Low Cycle fatigue Corrosion
Characteristics of Low cycle fatigue:

• Crack develops by repeated loading - unloading causing yielding at
hot-spot. Normally from loading / unloading cycles.
• Low cycle fatigue might occur if total stress range (von Mises) at
hot spot from loading/unloading sequence exceeds yield stress by
more than 3 - 3,5 times. ( Kw factor of 1,5 included)
• Often discovered after few years in service.
Typical locations:
• Vertical stiffener between bottom - inner bottom on double hull
tankers and bulk carriers.
Cracks
Buckling
Low Cycle fatigue Example Indent

Corrosion
loaded ballast
σx σx
Cracks
Buckling
Low Cycle fatigue Example Indent

Corrosion
Horizontal crack in flatbar

stiffener on top both at
bottom and inner bottom,
bulk carriers and double
hull tankers
Resonance a familiar phenomena
An unfortunate combination
TW
=1 Resonance:
TS
z Excitation period is
equal to natural period
z Excessive stress
amplitudes
Stress
Amplitude
Natural period of structure Tw /

Excitation period from engine or propeller Ts
Cracks
Buckling
Cracks due to vibrations Indent

Corrosion
• Theory same as normal high cycle fatigue

• Loads excited from rotating machinery and or propeller which
gives a high number of load cycles
• If the excitation frequency meets the natural frequency of the
panels this will give high local stress concentrations at panel
nodes
• Normally worst for structure submerged in water
• Normally discovered early in service life (within first 2-3 years)
Repair may include installation of vibration dampers on the

rotating machinery and / or structural modifications in order to
change the natural frequency of the structure.
Cracks
Buckling
Cracks due to vibrations Example Indent

Corrosion
160 000 DWT Suezmax tanker, less than 5 years old
Centre line swash bhd.

Tank no 1
found on tanktop
Cracks
Buckling
Consequence of fatigue cracks Indent

Corrosion
• Fatigue cracks normally affect

local strength of
structure
• Fatigue cracks may cause
leakage, oil pollution,
water ingress, contamination of
cargo
• Fatigue cracks may affect the global stresses (main deck cracks,
deck girders, ship side cracks)
• Fatigue cracks are often costly to repair due to number of details
• Fatigue crack may lead to ruptures unstable fractures if not dealt

with/repaired in time.
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Criteria for fatigue cracks Corrosion
Points to be considered:
• Structure criticality and crack propagation rate to be
considered when issuing CC for repairs.
• Time until crack observed impact on criticality / repair
method.
• Repair by re-welding (gouge out and re-weld).
• Repair to original standard (Repair by insert).
• Design improvement recommended.
• Always consider other similar details.
• Oil major’s expect pro-active approach.

• Impact on owners inspection intervals.
• Reoccurring cracks – design improvement recommended.
Cracks
Buckling
Rule of thumb regarding fatigue crack repairs Indent

Corrosion
• Workmanship has a significant impact on fatigue life

• Repair as function of time for crack to develop:
Years
0-5 Design improvement recommended, check
misalignment, possible vibration related
5-10 Design improvement recommended
10-15 Repair to original standard normally acceptable, grinding out

and re-welding may also be considered towards 15 years *
> 15 Repair by re-welding normally acceptable *
* Note! cracks in main deck / hatch opening

corners to be specially considered
Points to be considered
• Pollution hazard by re-cracking, external

boundaries / ballast or cargo contamination
• For reoccurring cracks, design improvements
must be evaluated
Ref. guidance from new IS below

For oil tankers, tankers for oil products and tankers for chemicals with hazardous cargo,
on boundaries where pollution or contamination of ballast water can be the result of a
crack propagating through the boundary, the repair requirements are stricter than for
other ships. Gouging/grinding out the crack followed by re-welding, or cutting out and
renewing the cracked steel, may only be accepted first time a crack occurs in a detail. If
a crack reoccurs or if it is obvious that it is caused by a design weakness, the repair
shall always be supplemented by a modification of the cracked detail and similar details.
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Standard repair proposal longs / webframes Corrosion

Cracks
Buckling
“Rules of Thumb” Regarding Fatigue Indent

Corrosion
• 10 % uncertainty in stresses gives 30 % uncertainty in fatigue life

• Fatigue life of high tensile steel is the same as for mild steel in way
of welds
• The fatigue life for a fully coated detail is 2-3 times higher than for a
similar detail in corrosive environment
• A symmetrical construction/design will have an increased fatigue
life compared with asymmetrical
• World-wide trade of 20 years’ fatigue life
North Atlantic/North Sea trade of 10 years’ fatigue life
North Atlantic/North Sea of 3-5 years’ fatigue life in corrosive

environment
Reporting of cracks
• What should be included in the survey report

describing a crack ?
– Exact location including hold / tank no

• Which structural element (plate,stiffener,webframe…)
• Longitudinal direction frame no ….
• Transverse direction between long. no .. Ref. drawing
• Vertical direction bottom / deck / side long. no.. Ref. drawing
– Length (mm) / direction and starting point (if possible)
– Sketch / picture (close up & some distance)
Cracks
Buckling
Fracture / Collapse of structure Indent

Corrosion
Caused by:
• Excessive loads -
overpressure, flooding
• Excessive corrosion
• Fatigue crack reached a
critical length
• Severe impact on function,
i.e loss of strength / flooding
• Repair before departure
When good steel goes bad
Ductile Brittle
material response
Cracks
Buckling
BRITTLE FRACTURE Indent

Corrosion
Upper shelf
Brittle
300 and 200 – 400 J
Ductile
fract.
Impact energy, J
Brittle fracture Ductile fracture
Lower shelf Transition region
10
-80 -40 0 40 Test temperature, °C
Cracks
Buckling

Corrosion
• DNV Rules to material

grade based on location
Impact energy (joule)
and thickness
• Side plate
27J (20)
Pt.3 Ch.1 Sec.2B
Table B1 Material classes
Thickness Class
NVA +20°C
NVD -20°C
NVE -40°C
Temp in mm
NVB 0°C
I II III IV V
t ≤ 15 A/AH A/AH A/AH A/AH D/DH
15 < t ≤ 20 A/AH A/AH A/AH B/AH E/DH
20 < t ≤ 25 A/AH A/AH B/AH D/DH E/EH
Impact test temperatures 25 < t ≤ 30 A/AH A/AH D/DH E/DH E/EH

30 < t ≤ 35 A/AH B/AH D/DH E/EH E/EH
35 < t ≤ 40 A/AH B/AH D/DH E/EH E/EH
40 < t ≤ 50 B/AH D/DH E/EH E/EH E/EH

Cracks
Buckling

Corrosion
• Examples of brittle fractures

• Bulk Carrier HC/E 2002
• Oil industry growing in
the North Atlantic /
Barents-sea – possible
increased problems
Cracks: Buzz Groups
Fatigue cracks Yes No
Are brittle cracks the most common crack type in ship hulls?
Is the requirement regarding grade of steel (i.e. “A”, “B”, etc.) in the ships’
hull dependent on the plate thickness?
Are fatigue cracks in the ship side mainly due to global stress variations?
Does high tensile steel have better fatigue properties than mild steel in
welded joints?
Do bulbs have better fatigue properties than flat bars?
Are vessels trading in the North Sea more exposed to fatigue damages than
vessels trading from the Persian Gulf to Singapore?
Cracks: Buzz Groups
Fatigue cracks Yes No
A structure is more likely to experience fatigue damage if it is in a corrosive
environment.
Repair by re-welding is never acceptable for fatigue cracks.
Side longitudinals at a web-frame are more prone to fatigue cracks than side
longitudinals at a swash bulkhead.
Cracks caused by excessive vibrations are usually solved by improved

detail design (e.g. soft nose, soft bracket, grinding etc.).
Shuttle tankers are more likely to experience low cycle fatigue than a vessel
on world wide trade.
A detail which is in compression will not experience fatigue cracks.

Cracks
Buckling
Buckling Indent
Corrosion
How do we make sure this does not

happen to a DNV ship?
Cracks
Buckling
Buckling Indent
Corrosion
Buckling is caused by in plane stresses

exceeding the buckling stability of the
structure causing local yield and permanent
deformation of the structure
B B A A
Section B-B Section A-A

Buckling Indents
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Buckling modes ( DNV Rules) Corrosion
Buckling modes depend on geometrical proportions and loading:
Different buckling modes:
• Shear buckling
• Plate buckling – uni-axial
• Bi-axial plate buckling
• Buckling of stiffener
Cracks
Buckling
Shear buckling Indent

Corrosion
Shear buckling
- Weak/thin plate - strong stiffeners:
Sh
ea
r
for
ce
s
Cracks
Buckling
Buckling due to excessive shear stress: Indent

Corrosion
Shear forces due to sea

pressure empty hold
Double bottom
floor Bulk
Carrier
on
mati
efor
ard
e
Sh
Cracks
Buckling

Corrosion
Floor in the aft ship of a car carrier

subjected to slamming pressure:
High shear stress:

Cracks
Buckling

Corrosion
Cracks
Buckling
Shear buckling due to overpressure Indent

Corrosion
Horizontal corrugated
bulkhead shear buckling
in way of end support
Cracks
Buckling
Buckling of webframe on deck Indent

Corrosion
Deck
store
Overpressure tank
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Buckling due to excessive shear stress Corrosion
Transverse corrugated bulkhead
Sh
ea
r
de
fo
mr
at
io
n
Cracks
Buckling
Uniaxial plate buckling Indent

Corrosion
In plane stresses in stiffener

direction
• Important factors: plate thickness & stiffener spacing

• Buckling strength highest in stiffener direction
Uniaxial Plate Buckling – Wave Breaker
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Bi-axial plate buckling Corrosion

Cracks
Buckling
Buckling modes in stiffened panels Indent

Corrosion
Plate buckling between stiffeners -

Weak/thin plate - strong stiffener
PULS buckling code

Cracks
Buckling
Buckling modes in stiffened panels Indent

Corrosion
Cracks
Buckling
Torsion buckling mode Indent

Corrosion
Torsion buckling mode

- Weak stiffener sideways with high stiffener with small flange
Cracks
Buckling
Torsion buckling mode Indent

Corrosion
• The stiffener does not have sufficient

stability in transverse direction and will
twist out
• The following dimensions affect the

torsion buckling strength;
– The dimension of the flange
– Height/thickness of web plate
– Thickness and width of the supporting plate
• For bottom longs with high webs and

relatively small flanges, torsion buckling
mode may be critical.
Cracks
Buckling
Web-buckling Indent
Corrosion
Web buckling mode due to in plane stresses in

the stiffener direction
• The web-plate buckles out
• Could be critical with high thin web-plate
Typically bottom
longs with high T-
profiles with small
flanges
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Lateral buckling stiffeners & pillars Corrosion
The profile buckles out

between the webframes
• Capacity proportional
with (1/L)2
L
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Buckling criteria Corrosion
• Buckling is not
acceptable
• Buckling of longitudinal
strength elements is
particularly critical
• Reinforcement by
buckling stiffeners has
been accepted as an
option to increase the
buckling strength
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Reporting of Buckles Corrosion
• What should be included in the survey

report describing a buckle ?
– Exact location including hold / tank no

• Which structural element
(plate,stiffener,webframe…)
• Longitudinal direction frame no ….
• Transverse direction between long. no .. Ref.
drawing
• Vertical direction bottom / deck / side long. no.. Ref.
drawing
– Extent in plane & out of plate (mm) , depth
and direction
– Sketch / picture (some distance)
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Buckling Summary Corrosion
• Buckling occurs when the compressive stresses exceed the

structural buckling stability.
• When structure buckles, the load carrying capacity is reduced
• Buckling may be elastic which means that there is no yielding
of the structure. After unloading the structure will be without
deformation. (Paint cracks may indicate this)
• Buckling with plastic deformation means that the buckle is
visible after unloading.
• Buckling capacity sensitive to corrosion.
• Buckling criteria is important for the T-min list.

Cracks
Buckling
Indents Indent
Corrosion
Cracks
Buckling
Indents Indent
Corrosion
Indents are caused by lateral forces on the structure.

Yield strength of the material exceeded resulting in
permanent deformation of the structure.
A A
Section A-A
Cracks
Buckling
Indents Indent
Corrosion
Contact damages (accident, cargo handling):

• Grounding, tug-boat, quay contact…
• cargo handling grabs, trucks …
Excessive sea loads:
• Bow impact
• Bottom slamming
Cracks
Buckling
Consequence of indents Indent

Corrosion
Consequences of indents is dependent of extent and location:

• Local smooth indentation of plate. The plate is still able to carry
lateral loads but the indent will reduce the compressive buckling
stability of the plate.
•Sharp indents result in cracks
• Local indent of internal stiffeners and girders. Deformation
will reduce the in plane compressive buckling stability of the
structure.
• Indents may cause additional stresses in stiffeners which may
reduce the fatigue strength.
• Indents may cause local coating breakdown and corrosion
damages at a later stage.
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Consequence of indents Corrosion
• Difference between angle bar and T-bar –

flatbar stiffener, due to rotation of angle bar
• Indents will have a significant impact on
buckling strength
• Smooth indent of girder web, will have
moderate effect on the shear load carrying
capacity of the girder
• Coating breakdown – corrosion
• Dependent on location
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
New IS 5.1 Technical survey Guide Corrosion

Cracks
Buckling
Acceptance Criteria - Indents Indent

Corrosion
Local Plate Indents (contact / slamming deformations):

Maximum Depth S/12 provided:
¾ smooth indent
¾ no cracks
Less than
¾ Small deformation (less than 15
15 deg.
deg) out of plane for stiffeners
and girders
New IS 5.1 Technical survey Guide

Buckling and Indents: Buzz Groups
Yes No
It is likely to find buckling of bottom plates forward
of the collision bulkhead.
The double bottom longitudinal girders in the
middle of a bulk carrier hold are critical with
regard to shear buckling.
It is possible to determine if a structure has
buckled due to shear based on the buckling
pattern.
Buckling capacity is sensitive to corrosion
(thickness reduction).
Buckling capacity is sensitive to indents /
deformation of the structure.
Indents in the bottom plate amidships is more
critical than forward of the collision bulkhead.
Indents with deformation of internal structure is

not acceptable and must be repaired
Cracks
Corrosion
Buckling
Indent
Corrosion
The biggest threat to the shipping industry?

Prestige
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Example 1 - Bulk Carrier Corrosion
• February 2002
• Capesize Bulk Carrier
• The bulk carrier was detained in Rotterdam by the Port state control
authorities after being summoned by the stevedores who were
anxiously protecting themselves against a claim from the owner for
having damaged the side frames.
• In cargo hold 3, starboard, all frames were found either cracked,
loose and/or buckled. Some side shell frames in cargo hold 1, port
side were found fractured and buckled.
• The annual inspection found place only 6 months prior to the
damage.
• The Renewal survey was carried out 1,5 years prior to the damage.
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Example 1 - Bulk Carrier Corrosion

Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Example 2 - Tanker Corrosion
Result of thickness measurements
Taverage = 15.6 Taverage = 13.7 Plate renewed by Taverage = 15.3

minimum = 9.6 minimum = 6.6 owner due to minimum = 7.2
crack in deck
The minimum thickness of the plate is 18.5 mm

Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Example 2 - Tanker Corrosion
Consequences of corrosion in main deck;

• What impact will the corrosion have on the
global stress level in deck?
• What impact will the corrosion have on the

buckling capacity of the plate / stiffener?
• Why is the vessel still floating?

Cracks
Buckling
Corrosion types Indent

Corrosion
• Uniform general corrosion

• Local corrosion
• Pitting
• Grooving corrosion
• Edge corrosion
• Erosion corrosion
• Bacterial
• Galvanic
Cracks
Buckling
General corrosion Indent

Corrosion
• The most common form of corrosion in tanks and holds.

• Takes place in all unprotected tanks in marine environments.
• Relatively even distribution of corrosion.
• Unprotected segregated ballast tanks are particularly likely to
show this form of corrosion, especially deckhead area.
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Pitting corrosion Corrosion
• Local corrosion in which limited areas are attacked.

• Pitting is particularly likely to occur in the bottom of cargo-
and ballast tanks, or other horizontal surfaces, along welds
and on passive metals such as stainless steel or aluminum.
• Pits may be very deep, and the corrosion rate is often high.
Cracks
Buckling
Bacterial corrosion Indent

Corrosion
• Occurs in oil tanks, ballast tanks, etc.

• Often appears as cluster of pits.
• Conditions that encourage bacterial corrosion are:
– stagnant water
– adequate nutrition for bacteria
– sulphate
– suitable temperature (20 - 40ºC).
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Galvanic corrosion Corrosion
• When two materials are electrically coupled in seawater, the more

negative (active) material in the couple will act as the anode, and
will have an increased corrosion rate, the more positive component,
the cathode, will have a reduced corrosion rate.
Reference Electrode Ag/AgCl
Graphite + 0.25
Titanium 0
St. S (316) - 0.05
Monel (400) - 0.08
Copper-Nickel (90:10) - 0.23
St. S (416) - 0.28
Copper - 0.33
Naval Brass - 0.34
Low Alloy Steel - 0.61
Mild Steel - 0.66
Aluminium - 0.80
Zinc - 1.03
Magnesium - 1.60
Cracks
Buckling
Corrosion rates Indent

Corrosion
Average corrosion rate in unprotected areas in ballast tanks

is estimated to:
z 0,2 - 0,4 mm / year (corrosion from one side)
z > 0,5 mm / year in upper parts of tanks (high temperature)
z > 10 mm / year, local rates of pitting (acid or rotten water)
Pitting corrosion with build up of scale

rust in the bottom plate of a ballast tank
Cracks
Buckling
Corrosion Rates Indent

Corrosion
Corrosion rate may be

constant, increase or decrease
over time depending on several
factors:
z type of corrosion
z environmental and
operating conditions
z change in conditions
over time
Cracks
Buckling
Corrosion Rates Indent

Corrosion
Corrosion rate in sea water

increases with increasing:
z salinity
z temperature
z oxygen content
z water velocity
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Corrosion Consequence Corrosion
• General corrosion:
– Uniform general corrosion gives reduced
thickness of plates and stiffeners. Impact
on global stress level as well as local
stress level. This may cause local
overload with buckling or cracking and in
severe cases global buckling collapse of
girders and the hull girder.
Upper deck uncoated cargo tank
Force = F t σ
Force = F 0,5 t 2xσ
Reduced thickness gives increased stresses, increased deformation and
reduced buckling capacity
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
1983 built RoRo.

Extensive general corrosion in
ballast wing tanks.
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
In ballast condition struts (“cross-ties”)

between side and inner-side stiffeners
are in tension.
Due to excessive general corrosion the
load exceeded the capacity and the
struts failed.
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
• Local corrosion
– Typical in coated structure with
local breakdown of coating.
May have minor impact on the
global stress level, but have
severe impact on local strength.
• May cause local cracks / buckling.
Cracks
Buckling
Corrosion Consequence Indent

Corrosion
• Pitting:
• Local wastage normally a
possible leakage problem, if
pitting intensity above 20%
consider effect on strength
• Grooving corrosion:
• Local corrosion along weld
seam, normally a local
strength effect. Grooving of L-
profiles more critical due to
skew bending
Cracks
Buckling
Pitting intensity – acceptance criteria Indent

Corrosion
Cracks
Buckling
Grooving technical guide 5.1 Indent

Corrosion
Grooving corrosion of internal structures:

The maximum extent of grooving and the
acceptable minimum thickness of stiffeners
and plates may be taken as follows:
Where the groove breadth is a maximum of

15% of the web height, but not more than 100
mm, the remaining allowable thickness in the
grooved area may be taken as;
tmin = 0.7 · torig but not less than 6.0 mm.

Cracks
Buckling
Corrosion Consequence Indent

Corrosion
• Grooving corrosion cont.:

• Local corrosion in HAZ of fillet
weld of side/deck plate / longs. This
will reduce the shear capacity for the
profile.
•L-profiles are more critical due to
skew bending effect
• Edge corrosion:
• Local corrosion at edges of
internal structure, normally an
effect on local strength only
• In areas with high shear stress
level, this corrosion might give
too high shear stress level –
shear buckling
Cracks
Buckling
Corrosion protection of steel structures Indent

Corrosion
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Acceptance criteria - corrosion Corrosion
• Vessels above 100m
• Vessels less than 100m

•Ref. IS. IC5.1 Ch. 1,5 and 2.2.1
Cracks
Buckling
Acceptance criteria - corrosion Indent

Corrosion
Hull girder strength and buckling

• A buckling check is carried out for longitudinal members in
deck and bottom.
• Allowable wastage of individual plates and stiffeners is
based on a % value providing buckling strength is sufficient.
Local wastage of plates and stiffeners

• Allowable wastage of individual plates and stiffeners is
based on a % value.
Cracks
Buckling

Corrosion
Global longitudinal stress level:

•A 10% reduction of hull girder strength is normally assumed,
i.e. the overall area reduction in deck and bottom is not to
exceed 10%.
• The hull girder section modulus is not to be less than 90% of
the minimum hull girder section modulus requirement in
IACS unified requirement S11.
Cracks
Buckling

Corrosion
Buckling check:
A buckling check is carried out for longitudinal plates and
stiffeners within 0.15D from deck and bottom
Deck
0.15D
D
0.15D
Bottom
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Buckling Control for T-min list Corrosion
Bending moment Bending moment

Stress (allowable BM limit) wave loads
level =
0,9 Section Modulus
In some cases 5%
reduction is assumed
Assume 10 %
due to small
reduction of
corrosion margins
longitudinal strength
material in deck and
bottom
• Calculation of global stress level in deck and bottom

• Plate & stiffener buckling strength checked against this
stress level
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Individual plates and stiffeners, deck & bottom: Corrosion
Providing the buckling criteria and the hull girder strength criteria is
satisfied the following % values can be applied:
Corrosion allowance for plates and longitudinals within

0.15D from deck and bottom:
Structural element Allowance
Deck and sheer strake plating 20%
Side plating 20%
Bilge and bottom plating 20%
Keel plating 20%
Longitudinal bulkhead plating 20%
Inner skin and hopper plating 20%
Inner bottom plating 20%
Longitudinal girders 20%
Longitudinal stringers 20%
Deck, bottom, side, inner bottom, 25%
inner skin, hopper and longitudinal
bulkhead longitudinals
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Individual plates and stiffeners Corrosion
Corrosion allowance for transverse local elements and

longitudinal elements between 0.15 D from deck and bottom:
Structural element Allowance

Side plating 20%
Longitudinal bulkhead plating 20%
Inner skin plating 20%
Stringer plating 20%
Side, inner bottom, inner skin and 25%
longitudinal bulkhead longitudinals
Web plating of transverse web 20%
frames
Web plating of cross tie 20%
Face plate of cross tie 20%
Face plate of transverse web frame 25%
Transverse bulkhead plating 25%
Transverse bulkhead stiffeners 25%
Transverse bulkhead stringer web 20%
plating
Transverse bulkhead stringer flange 25%
(face plate)
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Definition of substantial corrosion Corrosion
t : as built thickness
tmin : minimum thickness (from tmin – list)
tr : class allowable corrosion margin
tsubst : substantial corrosion thickness (from tmin – list)
sarea : substantial corrosion area = 0.25tr
Oil majors
“minimum
tr thickness”
sarea
t
tmin tsubst
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Minimum Thickness List Corrosion
The allowable thickness diminution is stated in a minimum thickness

list which is attached to the ESP planning document:
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Please Note ! Corrosion
Check loading
instrument limits
Needs to be
verified by the
surveyor
Not always 20%
The UTM firm needs to know the minimum thickness list

Cracks
Buckling
Indent
T-min outside midship area Corrosion
Ap Fp
0,3 L from ap 0,4 L amidships 0,3 L from Fp
0,1 L from Fp
0,1 L from Ap Linear interpolation
Max percentage Max percentage
reduction 20% reduction 20%
Allowable percentage reduction
given in min. thk. List (ex 12%)
Similar approach for plate and stiffener

interpolation of the percentage value
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Strength of side shell web frames Corrosion
New URS 31
A new unified requirement UR S31 for the
strength of side shell web frames of existing
vessels has been adopted. The requirements
are generally equivalent to the application
of IACS UR S12 for side shell web frames
on a new vessels.
The objective of URS 31 is to establish steel
renewal criteria for the side frames of pre-
S12 Bulk carriers
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Strength of side shell web frames Corrosion
Cracks
Buckling
Additional margin if coated and sandblasted

Indent
Corrosion
A two level approach is defined in IACS UR S31 as follows:

Level 1 Level 2
- Sandblasting and coating - Renewal
- Fitting of tripping brackets
- Maintaining the coating in “as
new condition” at special and
intermediate survey
Acceptable
tcoat
Renewal or level 1
t min tc
Renewal
tas built
Cracks
Buckling
Indent
Case: Corrosion / Materials Corrosion
20 20 20
17,2 T-org
18,0 16,8
20 T-
measured
Not OK 19
If average reduction for a transverse section exceeds Average thickness

10% further evaluation of long. strength is required.
17,7 i.e. 12% red. Area
Location torg tsubst tmin

OK ?
Deck plate 20,0 17,4 16,5
Chapters 8-11
Hull Structural Breakdown
Oil Tanker
Bulk Carrier
Container Ship
Slide 1
Hull Structural Breakdown
Oil Tanker – Bulk Carrier – Container Ship
Objective of Chapters 8-11:
After completion of this module the participants should have

gained:
• Understanding of hull structural design for Oil Tankers, Bulk
Carriers and Container Ships through application of basic hull
strength theory
• Knowledge of typical structural damages and their
consequences
Slide 2
Contents of Chapters 8-11:
Chapter 8: Forward and aft structural parts

Chapter 9: Oil Tankers – structures in cargo area
Chapter 10: Bulk Carriers – structures in cargo area
Chapter 11: Container Ship – structures in cargo area
Slide 3
Fore
ship Contents – Forward and aft structural parts
1. Hull structure breakdown – forward part of ship

2. Hull structure breakdown – aft part of ship
Slide 4
Fore
ship Structural functions of fore ship
1. Watertight integrity (local strength)

- Resist external sea pressure / Bow impact / bottom
slamming
- Resist internal pressure from ballast
2. Web in hull girder (global strength)
- Side plating act as the web in the hull girder beam
Slide 5
Fore
ship Structural build up fore ship
Collision bhd. Chain locker
Stringer decks
Breast hook
Side webframes
Bulbous bow
Slide 6
Fore
ship Structural build up fore ship
Vertical side frames Horizontal side longs
Slide 7
Fore
ship Structural functions of fore ship
The fore structure is exposed to the following loads:
• Dynamic loads from external sea pressure.
• Bow impact and bottom slamming.
• Internal pressure from ballast.
Slide 8
Fore Structural build up fore peak
ship
Horizontal stiffening
Plate supported by side longs

Side longs supported at webframes
Webframes supported at stringer flats
BM and SF distribution for a single beam

with distributed load and fixed ends
Slide 9
ship
Horizontal stiffening
Reduced
efficiency
due to flare
angle
Slide 10
ship
Vertical stiffening
Plate supported by side

frames
Side frames supported by
stringer flats
SF Bm
Slide 11
Fore
ship Functions of fore peak global strength
Web in hull girder (global strength):

• Ship side / longitudinal swash bulkhead
carry global shear forces from net load
in fore peak to the collision bulkhead.
Full draught
Side plating is acting as with empty
web in the hull girder beam fore peak
most critical
Slide 12
Fore
ship Functions of fore peak Global strength
Deck and Bottom in hull girder (global strength):

- The global bending moments are always zero at fwd / aft end.
- The longitudinal stresses in deck and bottom are moderate in foreship
structure.
- If large flare – wave induced compression stresses in deck may be
critical.
Slide 13
Fore
ship Hull damages in fore ship
Characteristic damages fore ship Fore ship specially

1. Corrosion – lost ship side fore peak prone to hull
damages.
2. Buckling of stringers
Of top 10 damages
3. Bow impact on tankers, 6 of
them in the fore
4. Bottom slamming ship!
Slide 14
Oil Tanker 357 000
Fore DWT built 1973
ship
Lost shipside 20 years
Heavy
local
corrosion
• Local heavy corrosion – increase stress level

- reduced buckling strength
• Local buckling stiffener collapse – web
frame buckling/collapse
• Side longs double span – overload and
collapse
Slide 15
Oil Tanker 357 000
Fore DWT built 1973
ship
Lost shipside - Impact of function 20 years
• Shell side lost its watertight integrity
• Lost buoyancy – increased forward draught –

impact on longitudinal strength
• Reduced shear carrying capacity for hull girder
• Collision bulkhead exposed to dynamic sea

loads
Slide 16
Oil Tanker
Fore Buckling of stringer in fore 302,419 DWT built 1992
Buckling of stringers in fore peak tank
ship (after 1 year)
peak tank
Buckling in stringer no 1, 2 & 3 in fore

peak tank. Stringer no 1 shown, other
Slide 17
stringers similar buckling pattern
Oil Tanker
Fore Buckling of stringer in fore peak 302,419 DWT built 1992
ship
tank (after 1 year)
Stringer as beam
Local web buckling due to lateral load axial stress in web
Buckling of stringer due to high shear / compression stresses
Slide 18
Oil Tanker
Fore 302,419 DWT built 1992
ship A recent buckling damage same ship Buckling of stringers in fore peak tank
(after 1 year)
Slide 19
Oil Tanker
Fore Buckling of stringer 302,419 DWT built 1992
ship Impact of function (after 1 year)
• Buckled / deformed stringers may develop

cracks penetrating the shell – cause leak –
impact on trim – draught
• If stringers are significantly reduced in
strength the webframes lose their support.
• Side longitudinals lose their support at
webframes.
• Side longitudinals with excessive loads
may collapse and ship side collapse –
flooding of fore structure.
Slide 20
Container ship
Fore 1 year
ship Bow Impact Damage
A recent damage…..
Occurred during the first year of operation
Slide 21
Container ship
Fore 1 year
Slide 22
Container ship
Fore 1 year
Bow impact: Peak pressure
Important factors:
z Flare angle, α
z Waterline angle, β
z Height above waterline
z Vessel speed
z Roll and pitch
α
Sea Pressure: ”Evenly” distributed
β h0
Slide 23
Container ship
Fore Bow Impact Damage 1 year
ship Impact of function
• Buckled plating may lead to leakage.

• Damages to longitudinals may reduce their load
carrying capacity.
• Damages to stringers and webs could lead to
reduced support of longitudinals which again
may lead to ship side collapse and flooding.
Slide 24
Bulk Carrier
Fore 220 000Dwt
ship Bottom slamming fore ship Built 1997
• Bottom plate set in

• Bottom longs tripped ( L-profiles)
• Webframes buckled between longs and access holes
Slide 25
Fore Feeder
ship Bottom slamming fore ship L = 100 m
z Plates set in and punctured

z Floors twisted and damaged
z Mostly for small ships in
ballast condition
Slide 26
Fore Bottom slamming
ship
Impact of Function
• Bottom longs tripped will not efficiently support

plate
– Bottom plate + longs will be set in
– In plane buckling capacity significantly reduced
• not critical in this area due to low vertical bending moment
• Bottom floors buckled, webframes reduced their
load carrying capacity
• Loss of watertight integrity – flooding possible
scenario – impact on trim - draught
Slide 27
Aft ship
Contents – Fwd and aft structural parts
1. Hull structure breakdown – fwd part of ship

2. Hull structure breakdown – aft part of ship
3. Case
Slide 28
Aft ship
Structural build up aft ship
Transom stern plate
Engine room bulkhead
Webframes
Floors
Slide 29
Aft ship
Structural build up aft ship
Engine room platform
Side plate &

longitudinals
Webframe side
Webframe deck
Slide 30
Aft ship
Structural build up aft peak tank
Horizontal side longs Vertical side frames
Slide 31
Aft ship
Structural functions of aft ship
• Shell must withstand static and dynamic sea pressure, bottom

slamming may introduce additional loads
• Internal pressure from ballast
• Dynamic impulses from the propeller
Slide 32
Loads are taken up by the hull plating, stresses are transferred from plate to stiffener
Aft ship
Functions of aft ship
Ship Side - web in hull girder (global strength)

Ship side together with the
Global loads are
longitudinal bulkheads are acting on the hull
taking up global shear girder beam
forces from net load on the
hull girder in the aft end
Side plating is acting

High shear as web in the hull
forces forward girder beam
of engine room
in full load
conditions
Slide 33
Aft ship
Functions of Aft ship
Deck and Bottom – flange in hull girder (global strength)

- The global bending moments are always zero at fwd / aft end
- The longitudinal stresses in deck and bottom are moderate in aft peak
Slide 34
Aft ship
Functions of Aft ship
• Ensure adequate stiffness for:

– Main engine support (double bottom engineroom)
– Steering gear support ( steering gear flat / aft peak)
– Rudder horn (aft peak structure)
Slide 35
Aft ship
Hull damages in aft ship
Characteristic damages for the aft ship:

1. Buckling of engine room stringers
2. Stern Slamming
3. Cracks due to vibration
4. Cavitation damages to the rudder
Slide 36
Oil Tanker
Built 1992
Aft ship
Buckling Buckling of stringers in engine room
(after 1 year)
Buckling of stringers aft in

engine room 7100 / 11150
mm above baseline
Buckling of side stringer

7700 mm above baseline
in engine room (P/S)
Slide 37
Aft ship
Buckling
External sea pressure
Bending
moment
Bending + shear
exceed the
buckling capacity
of the plate
Slide 38
Aft ship Buckling
Impact on function
• Stiffeners may loose their support and areas

may be overloaded
• Collapse of panels and leakage may be a
possible scenario
Slide 39
Aft ship Container Ship
Stern Slamming
• Flat stern structure is prone to high stern slamming impact load -

the wider the beam, the higher the impact pressure and total load
on the stern
Slide 40
Aft ship Stern Slamming Container Ship
Impact on function
• Longitudinals may loose their support at web

frames
• Crack may penetrate the shell plating - loss of
watertight integrity - flooding possible scenario
Slide 41
Aft ship
Cracks in aft peak tank due to vibrations
Cracks in trans. at steering gear flat
Supporting structure below

oscillating machinery
c ks
al c ra
on
i br ati
Slide 42
V
Passage doors in engine room area
Aft ship
Cracks in aft peak tank due to vibrations
Crack in weld between

web frame and shell side
Crack
Repair:
Crack caused by vibration of
the web frame due to Additional intercostals to
impulses from the propeller change natural frequency
for side webs
Crack start in scallop
Slide 43
Aft ship Vibration damages
Impact on function
• The supporting structure may be less effective.

• If the cracks are in the side shell frames or
webs, this may lead to crack in the shell plate
and thereby leakage.
Slide 44
Aft ship Typical on Container Ships
Rudder Cavitation
Typical repair:
• Grind the affected area
• Pre-heat
Slide 45
• Re-weld
Aft ship
Rudder Cavitation
• Stainless steel shielding

– Preferred solution welded
with continuous weld in
small pieces – not slot
welds
Slide 46
Aft ship
Rudder Cavitation
This is how it may end if

the shielding is not
welded properly
Slide 47
End of Chapter 8 Fore & aft ship
Slide 48
Oil
Tankers
Oil Tankers - Hull Structure
Slide 1 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Contents – Oil tankers
1. Introduction
2. Hull structural breakdown – function of hull elements:
• Side, bottom, deck, transverse bulkhead, longitudinal bulkhead,
web frames including relevant hull damages for all structural
elements
3. Case
Slide 2 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Characteristics for Oil tankers
Any
proposals?
- High number of tanks – good capability of survival

- Low freeboard, green seas on deck
- Pollution / public attention / fire explosion hazards
- Fatigue
- Liquid cargo – sloshing in wide tanks and stability aspect
-Hull inspection environment
- Fully utilizes BM limits hogging/sagging (double hull tankers)
Slide 3 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Size categories of tankers
Oil Tankers
Type DWT
ULCC 320,000+
VLCC 200 - 320,000
Suezmax 120 - 200,000
Aframax 75 - 120,000
Panamax 55 - 70,000
Products 10 - 50,000
Source: INTERTANKO
Slide 4 2008-01-28
Oil
Panamax (55 - 75,000 dwt):

• Max size tanker able to transit the Panama Canal
• L(max): 274.3 m
• B(max): 32.3 m
• Typical vessel: 60,000 dwt, L=228,6m, B=32,2m, T=12,6m
• New locks: L=366m, B=49m, T= 15m
Aframax (75 – 120,000 dwt):

• AFRA= Average Freight Rate Assessment
• Traditionally employed on a wide variety of short and
medium-haul crude oil trades
• Biggest tanker in US ports is 100,000 dwt
Slide 5 2008-01-28
Oil
Suezmax (120 – 200,000 dwt):

• Notation is soon to become redundant as the project of
deepening the Suez Canal to 18,9m is completed
VLCC (200 – 320,000 dwt):

• Were prompted by the rapid growth in global oil consumption
during the 60’s and the 1967 closing of the Suez canal
• Today the most effective way of transporting large volumes
of oil over relatively long distances
Slide 6 2008-01-28
Oil
ULCC (320,000+ dwt):

• Most ships of this type built in the mid to late 70’s
• Ordered to take advantage of the economies of scale in a
buoyant market
• Less than 40 of these ships remaining
• Rather inflexible, may enter very few ports
Source: INTERTANKO
Slide 7 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Worlds Smallest Tanker?
Slide 8 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Single Skin Oil Tanker
Ship data:
L = 310m
B = 56m
D = 31,4m - Old design, build up to 1993
284,497 DWT
Slide 9 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Single bottom with side ballast tanks
Ship data:
L = 236m
B = 42m
D = 19,2m
88,950 DWT
- Built in the 80’s,
considered as ‘single skin’
Slide 10 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Double Hull – Two Longitudinal Bulkheads
Ship data:
L = 320m
B = 58m
D = 26,8m
298,731 DWT - Common VLCC design
of today
Slide 11 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Double Hull – CL Longitudinal Bulkhead
Ship data:
L = 264m
B = 48m
D = 23,2m
- Common Aframax and
159,681 DWT
Suezmax design of today
Slide 12 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Double Hull – no CL bulkhead
Ship data:
L = 218m
B = 32,2m
D = 19,7m - Older design
63,765 DWT
Slide 13 2008-01-28
Oil Nomenclature for a typical double hull oil
Tankers
tanker
Slide 14 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Damages and repairs
WWW.witherbys.com
Slide 15 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Structural breakdown of hull
-A vessel’s hull can be divided into different hull structural

elements
- Each element has its own function contributing to the integrity

of the hull
- In order to assess the structure of an oil tanker, one needs to
understand the function of each structural element
Slide 16 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Function of hull elements
Deck:
Transverse bulkhead:
Ship side:
Longitudinal bulkhead:
Webframes:
Slide 17 2008-01-28
Bottom:
Oil
Tankers Hull Structural Breakdown
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
4. Transverse bulkhead
5.
Longitudinal bulkhead
6. Web frames
Slide 18 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers
Slide 19 2008-01-28
Oil Hull Structural Breakdown -
Tankers 9.2 Side
Ship side
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
5. Longitudinal bulkhead
6. Web frames
Slide 1 2008-01-28
Oil Structural build-up of a double
Tankers 9.2 Side
hull ship side
Side plating with

longitudinals Inner side plating
with longitudinals
Stringers
Web frame
Slide 2 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Structural functions of ship side 9.2 Side
Watertight integrity
• Take up external sea loads and transfer these into the
hull girder
• Resist internal pressure from cargo and ballast
Web in hull girder
• Side plating act as the web in the hull girder beam
Slide 3 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Loads on the ship side - example 9.2 Side
Ballast condition Loaded condition
Water
Line
Water
Line
Slide 4 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Loads on the ship side - example 9.2 Side
Part load condition Part load condition

full draught low draught
Water
Line Empty
Net force
cargo Water
Net force
tank Line
Slide 5 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Local function: Watertight integrity 9.2 Side
External loads induce shear forces and bending

moments in the side longitudinals as single
beams (supported at web frame)
BM and SF distribtion for a single beam

with evenly distributed load and fixed ends
Slide 6 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Double hull ship side 9.2 Side
High shear stress
Slide 7 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Global function: Web in hull girder 9.2 Side
Global shear forces resulting from uneven distribution of

cargo and buoyancy are taken up in the ship side plating
Area effective in
transferring shear
force
Shear stress distribution resulting from

Slide 8 2008-01-28
global loads for midship section
Oil
Tankers Stringers in a double side 9.2 Side
• Stringers contribute to the stiffness of the double

15mm
hull ship side, which means:
20mm
25mm
20mm
High shear stress in

15mm
stringer
Slide 9
towards2008-01-28
the
transverse bulkhead
Oil Characteristic damages for ship
Tankers 9.2 Side
side:
1. Cracks in side longitudinals at web frames

2. Cracks in cut-outs for longitudinals
3. Cracks in side longitudinals at transverse bulkheads
4. Cracks in side shell plating at stiffeners/stringers
5. Indents of side shell and stiffeners
Slide 10 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Crack in side longitudinals 9.2 Side
Slide 11 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Cause for cracking in side longitudinals 9.2 Side
Dynamic loads (sea

and cargo) are forcing
the side longitudinal to
flex in and out
• High alternating bending stresses towards the

end supports (web frames)
• Highly stressed areas created around geometric
’hard points’ (bracket toes, scallops, flat bars)
Slide 12 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Stress concentration factors 9.2 Side
More Stress concentration factors ;
• Kg : Gross Geometry (from FEM analysis)
• Kn : Unsymmetrical Stiffeners (L& bulb-profiles)
Slide 13 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Standard repair proposal longs / webframes 9.2 Side
Slide 14 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Cracks in web frame cut outs 9.2 Side
Cr
ac Cracks around openings for
ks side longitudinals in web
frames
Slide 15 2008-01-28
Oil Cause for cracking in cut outs
Tankers 9.2 Side
for longitudinals
Sea loads induce shear stresses in the web frame
Shear stress
Shear stress
Slide 16 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Consequence of crack in web frame 9.2 Side
How does this damage impact on the function of the web frame?
Side longitudinals
lose their support
Re-distribution of shear
stresses in web frame
May lead to overloading

of adjacent structure
Slide 17 2008-01-28
Oil Crack in side longitudinal at
Tankers 9.2 Side
transverse bulkhead
Side longitudinal connections

to transverse bulkheads
Cracks in side longitudinal

connection to transverse
bulkhead
Slide 18 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Why cracking at transverse bhd.? 9.2 Side
Relative deflections occur between

the ’rigid’ transverse bulkhead and
the flexible web frame construction
Sea
pressure
The relative deflection induces additional

bending stresses at the end connection of side
longitudinals to the transverse bulkhead.
Slide 19 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers FEM plot of double hull oil tanker 9.2 Side
Loading condition:
External dynamic
sea pressure at full
draught
Relative
Slide 20 2008-01-28
deflection
Oil
Tankers Consequence of damage Suggestions? 9.2 Side
Cracks in side longitudinals:

- oil leakage and pollution
- longitudinal may break off
- in worst case (a series of cracks in
same area) could induce a larger
fracture (loss of ship side)
leakage
Slide 21 2008-01-28
Oil Crack in side shell plating at
Tankers 9.2 Side
stiffeners/stringers
Slide 22 2008-01-28
Tankers 9.2 Side
Slide 23 2008-01-28
Tankers 9.2 Side
A strip of plating considered as a beam

with fixed ends and evenly distributed load
Slide 24 2008-01-28
PLATE AS A BEAM
Oil
Tankers Indents of side shell with stiffeners 9.2 Side
Mainly from contact damages:
The terms ’indents’ and ’buckling’ should not be mixed up with each
other, as the cause for these damages are different:
-Indents: Mainly due to contact damages
Slide 25 2008-01-28
-Buckling: Due to excessive in-plane stresses

Oil
Tankers Consequense of indents 9.2 Side
Slide 26 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Consequense of indents 9.2 Side
Large area set in (plating and stiffeners)

gives reduced buckling capacity
Adjacent areas may then be overloaded
Sharp indents may lead to

cracks and possible leakage
Slide 27 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers 9.2 Side
End of ship side
Slide 28 2008-01-28
Tankers 9.3 Web frames
Web frames
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
6. Web frames
Slide 1 2008-01-28
Oil Structural build up of web
frame
Web frame flange
Web frames
Cross tie
Slide 2 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Function of web frames 9.3 Web frames
- Web frames are supports for the longitudinal stiffeners

- Web frames contributes to the hull girder transverse strength
Slide 3 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Function of web frame 9.3 Web frames
• Web frames are supports

for the longitudinals
• Web frames take up local
loads from the
longitudinal stiffeners and Internal
transfer them further into pressure
the hull girder

• Web frames keep the
cross sections together
and contribute to the
transverse stiffness
Slide 4 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Characteristic damages 9.3 Web frames
1. Corrosion / buckling of web frame

2. Corrosion / cracking of cross tie connection
3. Cracking of tripping bracket connection to web
frame flange
Slide 5 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Shear buckling of web frame 9.3 Web frames
High shear stress
SF
SF
Slide 6 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers TYP. WEB SEC. (SHEAR STRESS) 9.3 Web frames
LC 2
Shear buckling may occur in areas
where shear stress is high
Slide 7 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Shear buckling of web frame: 9.3 Web frames
Corrosion of web frame

increases the risk for
shear buckling
Corroded cut outs and openings

in web frame are exposed to
buckling, because of the reduced
shear area (high τshear)
Slide 8 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Corrosion of cross tie 9.3 Web frames
Slide 9 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Corrosion of cross tie 9.3 Web frames
Cross ties are subject to both

compression and tension stress
depending on loading condition
Corrosion
Increased stress level +/- Axial stress
Reduced Buckling capacity
Cross tie collapse?

Slide 10 2008-01-28
Oil Crack in tripping bracket
connection to web frame flange
Weld connection of large curved flanges

and tripping brackets on webframes
Slide 11 2008-01-28
Oil Cause for cracking in web frame
flange
Cracks occur due to additional

bending stresses from the presence
of a tripping bracket in the curved
part of the flange
- If flange is exposed to tension,

the flange will bend outwards
- If exposed to compression,
the flange will bend inwards
Slide 12 2008-01-28 Deflection pattern

of free flange
Oil
Tankers FEM plot of cross tie with deflections 9.3 Web frames
Slide 13 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Cracks in web frame 9.3 Web frames
• Webframe support for

longidudinals – reduced
support – excessive load on
longitudinals
• Increased loads on adjacent

webframes
• May lead to loss of stiffened

panel
Slide 14 2008-01-28
Tankers 9.4 Deck
Deck
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
6. Web frames
Slide 1 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Structural functions of deck 9.4 Deck
Flange in hull girder

- Deck plating and longitudinals act as the upper flange in
the hull girder beam
Slide 2 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Structural build up of deck 9.4 Deck
Deck plating
w/longitudinals
Transverse deck
girder / Web frame
Slide 3 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Function: Flange in hull girder 9.4 Deck
Hull girder bending moment induces longitudinal stresses in

the deck plating and longitudinals
Longitudinal stresses (+/-) are set up in
the deck plating and longitudinals due
to bending of hull girder
σL
Slide 4 2008-01-28
σ
L
Oil
Tankers Longitudinal stresses in deck 9.4 Deck
Longitudinal stresses from bending of hull girder is

maximum at midship
Midship area most
susceptible to fatigue
cracking and buckling
Bending
moment
Slide 5 2008-01-28
Max
Oil
Tankers Characteristic damages 9.4 Deck
1. Cracks in deck longitudinals

2. Crack in deck plating
3. Corrosion of deckhead
4. Buckling of deck
Slide 6 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Cracking in deck longitudinals 9.4 Deck
Deck longitudinal
connection to web frames
Deck longitudinal
connection to
transverse bulkhead
Slide 7 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Cracking in deck longitudinals 9.4 Deck
Oil Tanker
135,000 DWT built 1991
Crack main deck plating
Crack in underdeck support for hose

Slide 8 2008-01-28
handling crane (P/S, midship area)
Oil Cause for cracking in deck
Tankers 9.4 Deck
longitudinals
The wave induced excitation of the hull girder leads to

dynamic axial stress in the deck longitudinals
+ +
_ _
The cyclic variation of axial stress may lead to fatigue cracks

initiating at hot spots
A loaded condition will normally induce compression stress in the deck (sagging)
ASlideballast
9 condition
2008-01-28 will normally induce tension stress in the deck (hogging)
Oil
Tankers Cracks in deck longitudinals 9.4 Deck
- May result in oil spill on deck

- Corrosion is highly influencing the fatigue life
of a detail
- A crack could develop further in the deck
plating (brittle fracture)
Slide 10 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Openings in deck 9.4 Deck
Kg.Kw. σ
Longitudinal
stress-flow around Increased stress level around
Slide 11
manhole in deck
2008-01-28 openings in deck!
Oil Example: crack in scallop in deck
Tankers 9.4 Deck
longitudinal
Oil Tanker
123,000 DWT built 2000
Crack main deck plating (after 3 years)
Scallop
Slide 12 in deck2008-01-28
longitudinal is close to access opening in deck. This will give an additional
accumulated stress in the longitudinal, which is believed to be the cause for the damage.
Oil
Tankers Crack in deck plating 9.4 Deck
Tanker for Oil

99328 DWT
built 1996
Crack in deck plating
Crack in deck plating at hose

saddle support (midship area)
Slide 13 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Corrosion of deckhead 9.4 Deck
The ullage space (deckhead) is an area

susceptible to general corrosion
Slide 14 2008-01-28
Oil
A reduction of the deck transverse sectional area due to general corrosion

will lead to an increased stress level in deck Higher stress
level in deck
σL
Longitudinal Force
stress
F
σL = n.a.
A
Area
σL
Longitudinal Long. stress distribution
stress distribution (with reduced deck
sectional area)
Reduced sectional area in deck may lead to plate buckling

Slide 15 2008-01-28
Oil
Higher stress level in deck

due to general corrosion
σL
Max 10%
increase in Longitudinal Force
stress
stress level
allowable F
σL =
A
Area
σL
A reduction of the deck transverse sectional area due to general corrosion will lead
Slide 16 2008-01-28
to an increased stress level in deck may lead to buckling problems

Oil
Tankers
Acceptance criteria - corrosion 9.4 Deck
• T-min list
Slide 17 2008-01-28
Oil
Flatbars have poor

buckling capacity
L-profiles have good

Slide 18 2008-01-28 buckling capacity
Oil
Tankers Buckling in deck 9.4 Deck
Buckling in deck is most likely to occur in the midship

region where the hull girder bending moment is at its
maximum
Slide 19 2008-01-28
Buckling of a plate field (plating with stiffeners)

Oil
Tankers 9.4 Deck
Slide 20 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Corrosion of deckhead / buckling 9.4 Deck
- Heavy corrosion of deck may lead to buckling
- Small buckles (plate between stiffeners) is a strong

warning sign that longitudinal stresses are high!
- Large buckles (plate field) may lead to loss of global

strength and in worst case a total collapse of the hull
girder
Remember max 10% diminution of deck

transverse sectional area!
Slide 21 2008-01-28
Tankers 9.5 Bottom
Bottom
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
6. Web frames
Slide 1 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Structural functions of bottom 9.5 Bottom
• Resist external sea pressure
• Resist internal pressure from cargo and ballast
Flange in hull girder
• Bottom plating and longitudinals act together as the lower
flange in the hull girder beam
Slide 2 2008-01-28
Oil Structural build-up of a double
Tankers 9.5 Bottom
bottom structure
Inner bottom plating (tank

top) with longitudinals
Buttress
Hopper
plating with
longitudinals
Hopper web
plating CL double
bottom girder
Outboard girder
(margin girder) Transverse
Slide 3 2008-01-28 Bottom plating with girder / floor
longitudinals
Oil
Tankers Function: Watertight integrity 9.5 Bottom
Fixation?
External loads induce shear forces and bending moments
in the bottom longitudinals, acting as single beams
(between each web frame)
Cont.
Bottom longitudinal as a single beam
between two web frames BM and SF distribtion for a
Slide 4 2008-01-28 single beam with distributed
load and fixed ends
Oil
Beam with fixed ends and

concentrated loads from the
bottom longitudinals

moment towards ends SF
(side & long bhd.)
BM
Slide 5 2008-01-28
Oil
Bottom plating and inner bottom plating are also acting

as flanges for the transverse web frames:
A View A-A
A
Longitudinal
Floor
Plate
Slide 6 2008-01-28
Oil Bottom is supported by ship side and
Tankers 9.5 Bottom
longitudinal bulkhead
Double span for double bottom

without CL longitudinal
bulkhead
Shear stress in
double bottom floor
due to external sea
pressure
Slide 7 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Function: Flange in hull girder 9.5 Bottom
Global bending moment induces longitudinal stresses in the

bottom plating and longitudinals
σL
σL Longitudinal stresses (+/-) are acting in

Section A-A the bottom plating and longitudinals
Slide 8 2008-01-28 due to bending of hull girder
Oil
Tankers Characteristic damages 9.5 Bottom
1. Bilge keel terminations – crack in hull plating

2. Fatigue cracking in bottom longitudinal
connections to web frame and transverse bulkhead
3. Corrosion of bottom structures
4. Hopper knuckle – cracks
Slide 9 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Bilge keel cracking 9.5 Bottom
Oil Tanker
285,690 DWT built 1990
Crack in hull plating i.w.o. bilge keel
terminations
Bilge keel
Crack in hull plating in

way of bilge keel toes
Slide 10 2008-01-28
Oil
Bilge keel
Hot spot
Longi
tudina
l stres
s
Slide 11 2008-01-28
Oil
Web frame/Bilge
Bracket
All measures in mm
125
Edges to be grinded
smooth
Ship side
Pad plate
10-15mm
Bilge Keel
200
Full pen. weld
1600
25
100
100
Slide 12 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Cracking in bottom longitudinals 9.5 Bottom
Bottom long. flat

bar connection
Bottom long.
tripping bracket
connection
Similar cracking in bottom longitudinals is also

valid for double hull tankers
Slide 13 2008-01-28
Oil Cause for cracking in bottom
Tankers 9.5 Bottom
longitudinals
Bottom longitudinals are subject to both:
Web/ Web
Trans bhd
M M
p
1. Local stress from

lateral dynamic sea
loading
2. Longitudinal stresses
from
Slide 14
hull girder bending
2008-01-28
Oil Consequences of cracks in
Tankers 9.5 Bottom
bottom longitudinals:
-Leakage of oil
- Crack may propagate
further into bottom
plating and induce a
larger transverse fracture
Slide 15 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Example: Cracks in inner bottom 9.5 Bottom
Oil Tanker
95,371 DWT
Crack in tank top plating at toes of
transverse bulkhead buttress P/S
Crack in toe of big brackets connecting

transverse bulkhead and tank top plating
(in various cargo tanks along ships length)
Crack propagating Crack in

through tank top bracket toe
plating (a few cases)
Slide 16 2008-01-28
Oil Cracking in double bottom
Tankers 9.5 Bottom
longitudinals
Cracks in flatbar connections for bottom and inner

Slide 17 2008-01-28
Oil Cause for cracking in double
Tankers 9.5 Bottom
In a ballast condition there is a net overpressure in the double bottom ballast tank
(full ballast tank and empty cargo tank)
In a loaded condition there will be a negative net pressure on the double bottom
(empty ballast tank, full draft and full cargo tank)
This effect may cause yield stress in hot spots at flat bar connections
Due to the dynamic +/- variation of stresses, low cycle fatigue may occur
Slide 18 2008-01-28
Oil Illustration – double bottom flatbar
Tankers 9.5 Bottom
connections
Tensile stresses in critical structural details
The double bottom structure is

exposed to large forces both in
ballast and loaded condition
Slide 19 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Corrosion of bottom structures 9.5 Bottom
Local corrosion (pitting): may occur

all over the bottom plating, but area
below and around bell-mouth is
particularly exposed
Pitting is also applicable for double hull

Slide 20 2008-01-28tankers i.w.o. tank top plating
Oil
Tankers Corrosion of bottom structures 9.5 Bottom
- Pittings and local corrosion may cause leakage, in general not any
structural problem
- General corrosion will reduce the bottom sectional area, which can lead to
an increased stress level:
1. Higher risk for fatigue cracks in bottom longitudinals
2. Higher risk for buckling of plate fields in the bottom
Longitudinal Force
stress
F
σL =
A
Area
Increased risk for fatigue cracking and buckling of
bottom panels if general corrosion has developed
over the cross section
Slide 21 2008-01-28
Oil
Tankers Cracking in hopper knuckle 9.5 Bottom
Crack in hopper knuckle at web

Slide 22 2008-01-28 frame connections
Oil Cause for cracking in hopper
Tankers 9.5 Bottom
knuckle
- Bending of double bottom due to external and internal

dynamic loads induces membrane stresses in the inner
bottom (flange in the double bottom transverse girder)
Bending moment
σL
Bending stress in double σL

Bending stress in bottom girder
inner bottom plating
Slide 23 2008-01-28
Oil Cause for cracking in hopper
Tankers 9.5 Bottom
knuckle
- Inner bottom membrane stresses are transferred into the hopper plating
- The turn of the stress direction (inner bottom to hopper plating) results
in an unbalanced stress component
Resulting membrane
stress in hopper plating
Membrane stress from

bending of transverse girder
Un-balanced
stress component
- This effect together with the knuckle being a geometric ‘hard point’ at
web frame connections, induce very high stresses in the knuckle point
Slide 24 2008-01-28
Oil Hull Structural Breakdown - Transverse
Tankers 9.6
Transverse bulkhead bulkhead
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
6. Webframes
Slide 1 2008-01-28
Oil Structural build up of Transverse
Tankers 9.6
transverse bulkhead bulkhead
Transverse bulkhead
plating w/stiffeners
Stringers
Buttress
Slide 2 2008-01-28
Oil Transverse
Tankers Structural functions 9.6
bulkhead
- Resist internal pressure from cargo and ballast
(cargo boundary)
- Safety against collapse if water ingress (boundary for
flooding)
Hull girder stiffness
- Transverse bulkhead is an important contributor to the
hull girder transverse stiffness
Slide 3 2008-01-28
Oil Transverse
Tankers Functions of transverse bulkhead 9.6
bulkhead
The transverse bulkhead must withstand

internal pressure loads from cargo and ballast
The distribution of cargo and ballast introduces

alternate loading on sections of the transverse
bulkheads (single skin tanker)
Typical fully loaded Typical ballast condition

condition (single skin) (single skin)
Slide 4 2008-01-28
Oil Transverse
Tankers Function: tank boundary 9.6
bulkhead
Stringer
Shear
force
Bending
moment
Slide 5 2008-01-28
Stiffener
Oil Transverse
Tankers Function: tank boundary 9.6
bulkhead
One sided loading on the transverse bulkhead

introduces stresses in the transverse bulkhead as a panel
Bulkhead will flex out and high stresses occur at end
Slide 6 2008-01-28
connections towards deck and bottom

Oil Transverse
Tankers Function: transverse stiffness 9.6
bulkhead
Transverse bulkheads are an important contributor

to the hull girder strength
Sea Sea
pressure pressure
Transverse
stiffness
Slide 7 2008-01-28
Oil Transverse
Tankers Characteristic damages 9.6
bulkhead
1. Stringer toes – cracking

2. Bottom longitudinal bracket connection to
transverse bulkhead - cracks
3. Cracking of transverse bulkhead stiffeners
connection to stringers
4. Cracks due to corrosion in stringer
Slide 8 2008-01-28
Oil Transverse
Tankers Cracking in stringer toe 9.6
bulkhead
Cracks in stringer toes and heel
Slide 9 2008-01-28
Oil Transverse
bulkhead
Slide 10 2008-01-28
Oil Transverse
Tankers Cause for cracking in stringer toe 9.6
bulkhead
Compression/tension stresses
from one sided loading
Full cargo tank
Sea
pressure Full cargo tank
Slide 11 2008-01-28
Very high alternating bending stresses in stringer toe
Oil Transverse
Tankers Cracks in stringer 9.6
bulkhead
Crack
Stringer flange
Longitudinal bulkhead
Stringer web
May cause contamination of ballast water and

Slide 12 2008-01-28
small oil spills
Oil Transverse
Tankers Double btm at transverse bulkhead 9.6
bulkhead
Similarily, one sided alternate loading at the transverse bulkhead also

induces high stresses for a double bottom structure
Modern designs have no

longitudinal girders in
double bottom giving large
relative deflection
Critical areas
Slide 13 2008-01-28
Oil Crack in transverse bulkhead Transverse
Tankers 9.6
stiffeners connection to stringers bulkhead
Connection of stringer to transverse

bulkhead with associated brackets
Slide 14 2008-01-28
Oil Cause for cracking in transverse 9.6
Transverse
Tankers bulkhead
bulkhead stiffeners
One sided internal loading from cargo and ballast sets up a

stress distribution in the bulkhead stiffener:
Highly stressed areas are

created around geometric
’hard points’ at stiffener
end connections to the
stringer
-may cause ballast water contamination and possible oil spills

Slide 15 2008-01-28
Oil Transverse
bulkhead
Cracks in stringer toes and heel
Slide 16 2008-01-28
Oil Transverse
Tankers Corrosion/Cracking in Stringer 9.6
bulkhead
Cracks
SF
BM
Slide 17 2008-01-28
Oil Transverse
Tankers Corrosion/Cracking in Stringer 9.6
bulkhead
Slide 18 2008-01-28
Oil Hull Structural Breakdown - Longitudinal
Tankers 9.7
Longitudinal bulkhead Bulkhead
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
6. Web frames
Slide 1 2008-01-28
Oil Structural build up of Longitudinal
Tankers 9.7
longitudinal bulkhead Bulkhead
Longitudinal
bulkhead plating
with stiffeners
Inner side
plating with
stiffeners
Web frames
Cross ties
Slide 2 2008-01-28
Oil Longitudinal
Tankers Structural functions of long.bhd 9.7
Bulkhead
- Resist internal pressure from cargo and ballast (cargo boundary)
- Safety against collapse if water ingress (boundary for flooding)
Web in hull girder
- Contributes to hull girder longitudinal stiffness
Slide 3 2008-01-28
Oil Longitudinal
Tankers Function : Cargo boundary 9.7
Bulkhead
Internal loads induce shear forces and

bending moments in the longitudinal
bulkhead stiffener
Forces are loaded onto the web frames
from the stiffener, and the webframe is
supported at deck / bottom / hopper tank
Slide 4 2008-01-28
Oil Longitudinal
Tankers Function: Web in hull girder 9.7
Bulkhead
Longitudinal bulkhead together with ship side is taking up global shear

forces from wave induced loads and weight/buoyancy distribution along
the vessel length
A A
F
R1 R2
A A
2008-01-28 Section
SF
Slide 5 A-A
Oil Longitudinal
Tankers Characteristic damages 9.7
Bulkhead
1. Crack in longitudinal bulkhead knuckle line for

hopper tank
2. Fracture of inner side plate due to local heavy
grooving corrosion
Slide 6 2008-01-28
Oil Longitudinal
Tankers Crack in inner side at upper knuckle line 9.7
Bulkhead
View from ballast tank side
100mm long horizontal crack in

sloping hopper plate just below
knuckle line
Slide 7 2008-01-28
View from cargo tank side
Oil Longitudinal
Tankers Cause for crack 9.7
Bulkhead
Vertical Horizontal Longitudinal

view view view
Knuckles in three directions at one location, lack of

support in vertical direction
Slide 8 2008-01-28
Oil Longitudinal
Tankers Reinforcement proposal 9.7
Bulkhead
KL
• Increased support in vertical
W
direction by new carlings
No scallop 15,0
KL
STR #3
• Reduce stress level by locally
increased thickness 13,5mm –
W 15,0mm
Looking • Remove stress concentration
No scallop
outboard factor due to weld by insert a bent
Existing plate in knuckle line
Stiffeners
KL
S/Shell
Looking S S
forward W
KL
Looking
down
LBHD
Slide 9 2008-01-28
Oil Longitudinal
Tankers Reinforcement proposal 9.7
Bulkhead
Looking fwd.
• Give increased support in
vertical direction by new
carlings
• Reduce stress level by
locally increased thickness
Looking out 13,5mm – 15,0mm
• Remove stress concentration
factor due to weld by insert
a bent plate in knuckle line
15,0mm
Slide 10 2008-01-28
Oil Longitudinal
9.7
Tankers Fracture of inner side plate Bulkhead
2,0m long fracture in inner side

oil flooded the ballast tank
Wastage
Stringer
B Crack
Long.
Bhd.
Grooving.
Just above
weld at B-
stringer.
Slide 11 2008-01-28
Oil Longitudinal
Tankers Cause for fractured plate 9.7
Bulkhead
• Localised coating breakdown –

small area exposed – local groove
act as anode
• Heated cargo inside tank
• Accelerated excessive corrosion
• Remaining thickness down to 4mm

– plate sheared off
Slide 12 2008-01-28
Oil Shear buckling of longitudinal 9.7
Longitudinal
Tankers Bulkhead
bulkhead
Shear buckling is most likely to occur in

areas towards the transverse bulkheads, but
may also occur in other areas depending on
Slide 13 2008-01-28 the thickness of the bulkhead plating
Oil Shear buckling of longitudinal 9.7
Longitudinal
Tankers Bulkhead
bulkhead
SF maximum at
transverse bulkheads
Longitudinal shear force

distribution – an example
Slide 14 2008-01-28
Oil Longitudinal
Tankers Cause for shear buckling 9.7
Bulkhead
Result of excessive shear stress in the bulkhead plating

Corrosion increases possibility for shear buckling
SF SF
Shear buckling (middle and upper area of

bulkhead most exposed due to corrosion
risk and reduced original scantlings)
Shear buckled panels will have a reduced shear strength,

Slide 15 2008-01-28
which may lead to an overload of adjacent areas
Bulk
Carriers Bulk Carriers - Hull Structure
Slide 1 2008-01-28
Bulk
Carriers Contents – Bulk Carriers
1. Introduction to Bulk carrier hull structure

• Side, bottom, deck, transverse bulkhead, longitudinal bulkhead,
web frames including relevant hull damages for all structural
elements
3. Case
Slide 2 2008-01-28
Bulk
Carriers Characteristics for Bulk Carriers
• Single skin / hopper & top-wing tanks

• Heavy cargoes
• Large net load on double bottom
• High shear stresses shell side
• Sensitive to leakage - total structural loss
• High loading rate
• Transverse strength
• Green seas
• Not much public attention (no vetting)
• High number of vessels going down
• Low survival capability when flooded
Slide 3 2008-01-28
Bulk
Carriers Bulk Carrier loading flexibility
• Bulk Carrier HC/EA

– Any hold empty at full draught
Increased double btm. stresses

• Bulk Carrier HC/E – hold 2,4,6 …. Empty
Reduced flexibility
– Given combination of holds empty at full draught
• Bulk Carrier HC
– Any hold empty at 80% of full draught
• Bulk Carrier
– Any hold empty at 60% of full draught
NEW HARMONISED BULK CARRIER NOTATIONS
• BC-A
– Dry bulk cargoes of cargo density 1.0 tonne/m3 and above with specified holds empty
• BC-B
– Dry bulk cargoes of cargo density 1.0 tonne/m3 and above with all cargo holds loaded
• BC-C
– Dry bulk cargoes of cargo density less than 1.0 tonne/m3
Slide 4 2008-01-28
Bulk
Carriers
Standard design loading conditions
Class Design loading conditions
BC-A Min. 1 heavy cargo condition with empty holds [plus all
conditions required for BC-B]
BC-B Homogeneous heavy cargo condition [plus all conditions
required for BC-C]
BC-C Homogeneous light cargo condition
Normal ballast condition[s]
Heavy ballast condition[s]
Slide 5 2008-01-28
Bulk
Carriers
Design loading condition BC-A
At least one cargo loaded condition with specified holds empty, with cargo density 3.0
tonnes/m3, and the same filling rate (cargo mass/hold cubic capacity) in all loaded
cargo holds at maximum draught.
The combination of empty holds shall be indicated with the additional notation {holds a,
b,…. may be empty}. MHD
[ρ ~ 3.0t/m3]
In such cases where the design cargo density applied is less than 3.0 tonnes/m3, the
maximum density of the cargo that the vessel is allowed to carry shall be indicated
UR S17 [1998]
Slide 6 within the additional notation, e.g. {holds a, b,…. may be empty,
2008-01-28 with maximum cargo
Hold flooding requirements
density x.y tonnes/m3}. [applicable for single skin only]
Bulk
Carriers History
• 1954 Cassiopeia
•First bulk carrier with hopper

tank – topwing tank cross
section
Slide 7 2008-01-28
Bulk
Carriers Main types of bulkcarriers
Lakesize ~35,000 tdw

5 holds
Handymax ~52,000 tdw

5 holds
Panmax ~75,000 tdw

7 Holds
Capesize above
75,000 tdw
9 Holds
Slide 8 2008-01-28
Bulk
Carriers Nomenclature
Slide 9 2008-01-28
Bulk
Carriers Nomenclature
Slide 10 2008-01-28
Bulk
Carriers Structural breakdown of hull
- A vessel’s hull can be divided into different hull

structural elements
- Each element has its own function in the total hull

integrity
- In order to assess the structure of a Bulk Carrier you
need to understand the function of the structural element
you are looking at
Slide 11 2008-01-28
Bulk
Carriers
Typical damages and repairs
WWW.witherbys.com
Slide 12 2008-01-28
Bulk
Carriers Breakdown of hull into structural elements
7. Hatch coaming & cover
3. Deck
4. 5. Topside tank
1. Side Transverse bulkhead
6. Hopper tank
Slide 13 2. 2008-01-28
Bottom
Bulk
Carriers Hull Structural Breakdown
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
5. Hopper tank
6. Topside tank
7. Hatch cover & coaming
Slide 14 2008-01-28
Bulk Hull Structural Breakdown -
Carrier 10.2 Side
Ship side
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
5. Hopper tank
6. Topside-tank
Slide 1
Bulk
Carrier Structural functions of ship side 10.2 Side

- Resist external sea pressure
- Resist internal pressure from cargo and ballast
- Side plating act as the web in the hull girder beam
Slide 2
Bulk
Carrier Structural build up of ship side 10.2 Side
Upper
bracket
Side plating
Side
frames
Lower
bracket
Slide 3
Bulk
Carrier Structural functions of ship side 10.2 Side
Watertight integrity (local strength)

Ship side must withstand static and dynamic
loads from external sea pressure as well internal
pressure from cargo and ballast
Loads are taken up by the hull plating, stresses are

transferred into the vertical side frames – further
into the upper and lower bkt’s further into the
topwing tank and hopper tank structure
Slide 4
Bulk
Carrier Functions of ship side 10.2 Side
Watertight integrity (local strength)
Lateral loads induces shear forces

and bending moments in the
vertical side frames. The side
frame is a single beam supported at
hopper / twt bkt’s
SF Bm
Slide 5
Bulk
Ore hold load response;

Net load down cause rotation of hopper tank structure.
additional moment in the mid-field and upper end
SF Bm Bm
Slide 6
Bulk
Empty hold load response;

Net load up cause rotation of hopper tank structure.
additional moment in the mid-field and lower end
SF Bm Bm
Slide 7
Bulk
Web in hull girder (global strength)

Ship side is taking up
global shear forces
resulting from the
hull girder bending Global loads are
acting on the hull
moment and girder beam
weight/buoyancy
distribution along the
vessel length
Side plating is acting

as web in hull girder
beam
Cont.
Slide 8
Bulk
Carrier Function of ship side 10.2 Side
(longitudinal shear strength)
Shear Distribution at a
cross section Cont.
Hogging
Shear force (t-m)
moment
Shear force
0
Bending
Sagging
Slide 9
Bulk
Web in hull girder (global strength)

- Global shear forces are distributed in the ship side plating Cont.
Shear force distribution

resulting from global
loads for midship
section
Slide 10
Bulk
Carrier Hull damages in ship side 10.2 Side
Two characteristic damages for ship side:

1. Cracks in side frames at lower / upper bracket connection
2. Corrosion of side frames and lower bkt. – detached bkt’s
Hold 9 in a VLBC (L=300m, 211’ DWT)

Easy to inspect?
Slide 11
Bulk Crack in side longitudinal web frame
Carrier 10.2 Side
connection
Cracking in vertical side frame:
Vertical side frame lower

bkt. commection
Slide 12
Bulk
Cause for cracking in vertical side
Carrier 10.2 Side
frames lower bkt. connections
1b.
1a.
The dynamic loads from the sea are taken up by the

side plates supported by the vertical side frames and
load is transferred to the upper and lower bkt’s. This
gives peak of bending moment and shear in way of
lower bkt. connection.
1a. The sniped termination of the bracket flange creates a local stress
concentration, which may develop cracks from the toe of the bracket
In this point a high bending stress in flange and a stress

1b. concentration due to weld (overlap) increase the risk for fatigue
cracks.
Slide 13
Bulk Crack in side longitudinal web frame connection
Carrier Possible consequence 10.2 Side
• As these cracks develop, the lower end fixation of the

side frame is reduced:
– higher bending moment in the middle of the frame
– some of the load will be carried by adjacent frames
• Crack through stiffener:

– beam simply supported lower end, profile may buckle at mid-
field
• Side shell may crack.
• Adjacent frames crack – panel collapse, possible water

flooding.
Slide 14
Bulk
Corrosion of side frames and lower
Carrier 10.2 Side
bkt. connection
Side frames and bkt’s are prone to

corrosion, both general corrosion
as well as grooving corrosion
which may result in :
• Fracture in plating/bracket toes
• Fractured/detached frames
• Local corrosion and grooving
• General wastage.
Slide 15
Bulk
Carrier Revised Minimum Thickness List 10.2 Side
Torig T-min T-subst T-Coat

Hold 1:
Aft end of Hold 1:
Upper bracket web 13,0 9,8 10,6 11,2
Frame web, middle and upper part 13,0 9,8 10,6 11,2
Frame web, Lower part 13,0 11,2 11,6 11,2
Lower bracket web 15,0 11,3 12,2 12,7
Frame flange thickness, middle and upper part 20,0 15,0 16,3 N/A
Upper Bracket
Frame flange thickness, lower part 20,0 15,0 16,3 N/A
Lower bracket flange thickness 20,0 15,0 16,3 N/A
Middle part of Hold 1:
Upper bracket web 13,0 9,8 10,6 11,2 Middle and upper
Frame web, middle and upper part 13,0 9,8 10,6 11,2 part of Frame
Frame web, Lower part 13,0 9,9 10,7 11,2
Low er part of Frame
Lower bracket web 15,0 11,3 12,2 12,7
Forward end of Hold 1:
Upper bracket web 13,0 9,8 10,6 11,2 Low er Bracket
Frame web, middle and upper part 13,0 9,8 10,6 11,2
Frame web, Lower part 13,0 13,9 NB! N/A
Lower bracket web 15,0 16,9 NB! N/A
Slide 16
Bulk
Corrosion of side frames and lower
Carrier 10.2 Side
bkt. Connection – Consequences
• General corrosion of side frames reduce the shear

area and section modulus.
– Bending moment stress level increases
– Stiffeners may trip out of shape
• Local grooving of side frame support bkt’s

– Shear area of profile web reduced
– If angle bar specially critical
• Detached lower side frames

– Frames simply supported, increase BM – buckling
– Side plate rupture top of hopper tank - flooding
Slide 17
Bulk
Carrier Damage impact on function 10.2 Side
1. Cracks in vertical side frame

- may increase moment in field for frame
- may increase loads on adjacent frames
- may cause water ingress leakage
- may develop to panel collapse
- flooding – stability - strength (loss of ship)
2. Corrosion of side frames

- As above
Slide 18
Bulk Hull Structural Breakdown -
Carrier 10.3 Bottom
Bottom
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
5. Hopper tank
6. Topside-tank
Slide
1
Bulk
Carrier Structural functions of bottom 10.3 Bottom
1. Watertight integrity (local strength bottom / inner bottom)

- Resist external sea pressure (bottom)
- Resist internal pressure from cargo/ballast & fuel oil
2. Carry net load on double bottom girder structure
- Inner bottom / bottom plate & stiffn. are girder flanges
- double bottom floors / girders are webs in double bottom
girders
3. Bottom flange in hull girder (global strength)
- Bottom and inner bottom structure is the bottom flange
in the hull girder
Slide
2
Bulk
Carrier Structural build up of bottom 10.3 Bottom
Longitudinal girders
Floor/Transverse
girder Pipe tunnel
Slide
3
Bulk

Bottom plate must withstand static and
dynamic loads from external sea
pressure as well internal pressure from
ballast or fuel oil
Inner bottom plate must withstand

static and dynamic loads from cargo
hold as well as static and dynamic
pressure from ballast or fuel oil
Slide
4
Bulk
• Stress distribution in a double bottom structure

• Forces are taken up by the stiffest structure
• Middle of hold more stresses in transverse
direction
• Towards bhd. – more stresse in
longitudinal direction
Slide
5
Bulk
Functions of inner bottom (local 10.3 Bottom
Carrier
stiffener level)
Cargo hold boundary (local strength)
Loads on inner bottom induce shear forces and

bending moments in the inner bottom
longitudinals as single beams (between floors)

Slide
6
Bulk
Carrier Load response double bottom 10.3 Bottom
Stresss flow
shortest way to
support
Slide
7
Bulk Double bottom girders load response
Carrier 10.3 Bottom
• girders & floors carry the net load to hopper tank and
transverse bulkhead
• floors carry most of the loads in middle of hold
• longitudinal girders carry most of the load towards
transverse bulkhead
• length / width ratio is important for the distribution of loads
between girders & floors
• The stiffest elements are taking most of the load / stresses
seek the shortest way to supports
Slide
8
Bulk
Carrier Functions of double bottom girder 10.3 Bottom
Net Load on double bottom
Simple
beam
model
Longitudinal girders represented by springs

Slide
9
Bulk
Carrier Floors / girders- design 10.3 Bottom
Long. Db.
girder
High Shear force – No

cut-outs / increased
thickness
Floor
Slide
10
Bulk
Carrier Functions of bottom 10.3 Bottom

The bottom and inner
bottom longs and
longitudinal girders
are carrying the Global loads are
acting on the hull
vertical bending girder beam
moments from still
water and wave
induced bending
moments along the
vessel length Bottom structure is
acting as web in hull
girder beam
Slide Cont.
11
Bulk
Carrier Moment diagram 10.3 Bottom
Double bottom BM limit homogen

stresses
BM limit alternate
Bending moment
TM
Still water bending moment [intact]

Max allowable bending moment [intact]
Slide
12
Bulk
Carrier Highly stressed areas 10.3 Bottom
Deck
Tanktop
NA
+
Inner bottom level
Bottom
Bottom
Global bending Double bottom bending
Bottom plate/longs middle of empty holds (compression )

Bottom plate in loaded holds (tension)
Inner bottom plate middle of loaded holds (compression )
Slide
13
Bulk
Carrier Combined stresses in double bottom 10.3 Bottom
Neutral axis
Same direction
Hull girder stresses

Ms + Mw
Double bottom stress
Slide
14
Bulk
Carrier A possible buckling problem 10.3 Bottom
Bottom plate in empty hold Inner bottom plate filled hold

Max compression Max compression
Slide
15
Bulk
Carrier Bottom plate middle of hold 10.3 Bottom
Increased thickness
due to double bottom
stresses
Slide
16
Bulk
Carrier Local strength diagram 10.3 Bottom
Maximum allowable load in hold

Avoid excessive
Weight
Mass cargo hold
Allowable Avoid
region excessive
buoyancy
Draught T Tscantling
Slide
17
Bulk Hull damages bottom / inner
Carrier 10.3 Bottom
bottom
Three characteristic damages for bottom are:

1. Cracks in inner bottom plate in way of knuckle to hopper tank
2. Crack / Corrosion of floors – girders in ballast tanks
3. Indents of inner bottom plate due to cargo handling
Slide
18
Bulk Crack in webframe at hopper
Carrier 10.3 Bottom
tank / inner bottom knuckle
Heavy ballast condition
Net load down and out on
shell side
Stress concentration in
way of scallop
Slide
19
Bulk
Carrier Cracks in way of hopper knuckle 10.3 Bottom
Hopper plate
Inner bottom plating
Slide
20
Bulk
Carrier Cracks in way of hopper knuckle 10.3 Bottom
Slide
21
Bulk Cracks in way of hopper knuckle
Carrier 10.3 Bottom
Impact on function
• Loss of watertight integrity – leak ballast –

cargo
• Cracks extending from one webframe to another
severe impact on double bottom strength
Slide
22
Bulk Repair method 10.3 Bottom
Carrier
• Close scallop by doubler

plate, (reduce local stress
concentration)
• Fit bracket in line with inner
bottom (reduce effect of
hard spot where inner
bottom welded to webframe)
Or:
• Vertical brackets fwd. / aft
of webframe (distribute the
stresses in way of the
webframe)
Slide
23
Bulk
Carrier Crack in floor 10.3 Bottom
• Floor in way of high shear stress

• Connection at bottom longitudinals
Repair A
Lug
Damage
Floor or
transverse
web frame
Longitudinal Buckling and/or

fracturing
Fractures New plating of

enhanced thickness
Repair B
Bottom shell plating,
inner bottom plating, Fractures
side shell plating or
hopper sloping plate
Slide
24 Full collar plate
Bulk
Carrier Crack in floor impact on function 10.3 Bottom
• Loss of support of longs – increased stresses at

adjacent floors – longs
• Large crack in floor – increased stresses in
adjacent floors - girders
Slide
25
Bulk Indents of inner bottom plate
Carrier 10.3 Bottom
Slide
26
Bulk
Carrier Indents of inner bottom plate 10.3 Bottom
Impact on function
• Difficult with discharge of cargo – cleaning

• Severe indents – cracks – leak
• Impact on buckling capacity of panel
Slide
27
Bulk Fracture in longitudinals at stool
Carrier 10.3 Bottom
connection
Damage Cause
Stool
Damage due to stress concentrations
Inner bottom and large relative deflections (bulkhead
longitudinal
stool - first floor) leading to accelerated
fatigue in this region.
Fractures
Bottom shell longitudinal

Slide
28
Bulk Fracture in longitudinals at 10.3 Bottom
Carrier
stool connection
Repair
Stool
Too large brackets may cause

further problems.
Additional
brackets with
soft toes
Where required the longitudinal to be

cropped and part renewed
Slide
29
Bulk Fracture in longitudinals at 10.3 Bottom
Carrier
stool connection
Damage Repair
Stool Modified brackets

with soft toes
Inner bottom
Bilge well
Fracture
Additional bracket
with soft toes
Fracture Where required the longitudinals to be

Slide cropped and part renewed
30
Bulk
Carrier Hull Structural Breakdown - Deck 10.4 Deck
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
5. Hopper tank
6. Topside-tank
Slide 1
Bulk
Carrier Structural functions of deck 10.4 Deck

2. Transverse strength of the hull girder
3. Upper flange in hull girder (global strength)
Slide 2
Bulk
Carrier Structural build up of deck 10.4 Deck
• Main deck outside line of hatches

• Deck between hatches
• Longitudinal hatch coaming

• Transverse hatch coaming
• Deck webframe
Slide 3
Bulk
Deck plate must withstand static and dynamic loads from green
sea pressure as well as internal pressure from ballast tank
Slide 4
Bulk
• Stress distribution in deck
Slide 5
Bulk
• Deck between hatches
Flexing in transverse direcction
Slide 6
Bulk
• The element contributing to transverse strength:

– Deck plate and transverse stiffener between hatches
– Hatch end girder
– Upper stool tank
Slide 7
Bulk
Carrier Functions of deck 10.4 Deck
2. Upper flange in hull girder (global strength)

The deck plating and
longs outside line of
hatches are carrying
the vertical bending Global loads are
acting on the hull
moments from still girder beam
water and wave
induced bending
moments along the
vessel length
Deck structure is
acting as web in hull
girder beam
Cont.
Slide 8
Bulk
Carrier Hull damages deck 10.4 Deck
Characteristic damages for deck are:

1. Cracks in deck plate at end of hatch side coaming
2. Buckling of deck between hatches
3. Crack in deck plate in way of hatch corner
Slide 9
Bulk Crack in deck plate at
Carrier 10.4 Deck
termination of hatch side coaming
• Longitudinal stresses are going into the side hatch coamings
• At the toe of the bkt. There is a local stress concentration
Possible consequences:
- Water leak to cargo
- Long crack – longitudinal strength problem
Slide 10
Bulk
Carrier Buckling of deck between hatches 10.4 Deck
• Ore carrier (250 000 DWT) Local buckling of deck

plates and transverse stiffeners.
• Deck plates and transv. Stiffn. buckled
•
Slide 11
Bulk
Slide 12
Bulk
• Buckling caused by excessive stresses in

transverse direction deck between hatches
2 adjacent holds filled
Slide 13
Bulk
Slide 14
Bulk
• Possible consequences of buckling of deck

between hatches:
- Ships transverse strength severely affected
- Ships sides comes in
- Hatch coamings deformed
- Loss of weather tight integrity
Slide 15
Bulk
Carrier 10.4 Deck
Crack in deck at hatch corner
Looking into cargo hold
Crack in deck
Slide 16
Bulk
Carrier 10.4 Deck
Crack in deck at hatch corner
OK ?
Slide 17
Bulk
Carrier 10.4 Deck
Damage cause
Reduction in fatigue strength
welded / non welded structure
Approved drawing
No welding!
Slide 18
Bulk
Carrier Consequence of crack 10.4 Deck
• Transverse crack in upper deck

– Watertight integrity
– Growing crack – impact longitudinal strength
Slide 19
Bulk Hull Structural Breakdown - 10.5 Bhd.
Carrier
Bulkhead
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
5. Hopper tank
6. Topside tank
Slide 1
Bulk
10.5 Bhd.
Carrier Structural functions of bhd.
1. Cargo hold boundary (local strength)

- Resist internal pressure from cargo / ballast
- Resist water flooding
2. Transverse strength of the hull girder
Slide 2
Bulk
10.5
Carrier Structural build up of bulkhead Bhd.
Corrugated bhd.
Lower stool
Upper stool
Slide 3
Bulk
10.5
Carrier Structural build up of bulkhead Bhd.
Upper stool diaphragm

Hatch coaming bkt
Lower stool diaphragm
Shedder plate
Slide 4
Bulk
10.5 Bhd.
Carrier Structural functions of bulkhead
Transverse bhd. plate must withstand static

and dynamic loads from bulk cargo and ballast
The bulkhead must also withstand the water

pressure from flooding of cargo hold without
collapse
Slide 5
Bulk
Carrier Structural functions of bulkhead 10.5 Bhd.
Design load conditions

• Water flooding
• ” Light cargo ” full hold
SF Bm
High stress lower /

upper end & midfield
Slide 6
Bulk
flange
Web
Slide 7
Bulk
Carrier
Structural functions of bulkhead 10.5 Bhd.
Moment
One sided load on bulkhead introduces a
moment in the lower stool.
Size of reaction force increased by narrow
lower stool ( s – on sketch).
High stress at intersection of lower stool
diaphragms and longitudinal girders.
s
Slide 8
Narrow stool – high shear stress in
diaphragms.
Bulk Structural functions of bulkhead 10.5 Bhd.
Carrier
• Transverse bhd. Supports the double bottom long. girders
Moment on
lower stool
Empty hold
Loaded hold
Slide 9
Bulk
• Transverse bhd. Carry

global shear from
double bottom to ship
side
Net load from cargo
Slide 10
Bulk Structural functions of bulkhead
10.5 Bhd.
Carrier
• Upper and lower stool transverse strength of hull
Flexible part
Slide 11
Bulk
Carrier
Hull damages transverse 10.5 Bhd.
bulkhead
Three characteristic damages for transverse bulkheads:

1. Collapse of bulkhead due to corrosion in lower stool diaphragms.
2. Shear buckling of corrugated bulkhead due to excessive
corrosion
3. Cracks in connection bulkhead stool to inner bottom in way of
pipe tunnel
Slide 12
Bulk
10.5 Bhd.
Carrier Collapse of transverse bulkhead
Capesize Bulk Carrier 9 holds – 20 years

• Loaded with pellets alternate holds
• Bhd. Hold 8/9 collapsed at bottom
• Hatch coamings / covers pulled
down
Moment
• Inspection revealed heavy corrosion
in lower stool
• Void space – humidity – heating in
double bottom below.
Heavy corrosion s
Slide 13
Bulk
10.5 Bhd.
Carrier Collapse of transverse bulkhead
LO W
E
Bulk Carrier loaded with pellets DIA R STO
PHR O
AM L
E
1. Transverse bulkhead collapsed at
connection between lower stool and
tank-top
2. Inspection revealed excessive corrosion

at the lower end of the diaphragms in SF Bm
excess of 50%.
3. Bulkhead collapsed due to insufficient

shear area at connection to tank-top
Slide 14
Bulk Collapse of transverse bulkhead
10.5 Bhd.
Carrier Impact on function
• No boundary between cargo holds

• Transverse strength of hull girder lost
• Longitudinal double bottom girders lost support
• Floors in double bottom must carry more load
• Watertight integrity lost upper deck
• To be repaired before leaving port
Slide 15
Bulk Shear buckling - transverse 10.5 Bhd.
Carrier
corrugated bulkhead
Capesize bulkcarrier 7,5 years found with shear buckling on

transverse corrugated bulkhead observed during routine
inspection.
2 adjacent holds filled
Slide 16
Bulk Shear buckling - transverse 10.5 Bhd.
Carrier
corrugated bulkhead
Transverse corrugated bulkhead
Sh
ea
r
de
fo
mr
at
io
n
Slide 17
Bulk Shear buckling transverse corrugated
10.5 Bhd.
Carrier bulkhead impact on function
• Hatch end coaming will be deformed – impact

on weather-tightness – flooding.
• Longitudinal girders in double bottom are
getting less support at transverse bulkhead –
higher stresses in the floors.
• Hopper tanks will rotate more – loads on side
frames will increase.
• Vessels transverse strength will be severely
affected.
Slide 18
Bulk
Carrier Fractures i.w.o. duct keel 10.5 Bhd.
Insert plate of increased thickness

Damage Repair and/or enhanced grade
C
L Lower stool Lower stool
Inner bottom plating
A
Hopper
tank
A
Double bottom
Duct keel
Plate collar
Fractures
Lower stool
Increased depth of stiffener to suit

arrangement of pipes in duct keel
Full penetration
welds Plate collar Lower
stool space
Inner bottom
plating Bottom
Fillet weld of DB OT/WT girder to be made full
plating
penetration over length of the stool space
View A-A
Slide 19
Bulk Hull Structural Breakdown –
Carrier 10.6 Hopper tank
Hopper tank
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
5. Hopper tank
6. Topside-tank
Slide 1
Bulk
Carrier Structural functions hopper tank 10.6 Hopper tank

- Resist sea pressure on ship side
2. Give support for side structure and double bottom
3. Web and flange in hull girder (global strength)
- Side plating / hopper tank sloping plate are part of the

web in the hull girder beam
- Hopper tank bottom plate and lower part of side plate

are part of the bottom flange in the hull girder
Slide 2
Bulk
Carrier Structural build up hopper tank 10.6 Hopper tank
Hopper tank
sloping plate
Hopper tank side

plate
Bilge plate
Bottom side girder

outboard
Slide 3
Bulk
Carrier Structural build up hopper tank 10.6 Hopper tank
Hopper transverse web

frame
Vertical side frame
supporting bkt.
Slide 4
Bulk
Carrier
Structural functions of hopper 10.6 Hopper tank
tank

Hopper tank sloping plate must withstand
static and dynamic loads from bulk cargo
and ballast

Bottom and side plate must withstand static
and dynamic loads from external sea pressure
and from internal ballast
Slide 5
Bulk Structural function
Local loads
• Ballast pressure
• Ore load
Pressure due
to cargo
Pressure due
to ballast
Slide 6
Hopper tank Local loads
High stress at webframe

connection & midfield

Similar for side longs and

Slide 7 bottom longs
Hopper tank Local loads
Combined effect of pressure on ship side and on double
bottom gives compression stresses in hopper plate
ure
re ss
a p
Se
Full load condition

empty hold
Sea pressure
Slide 8
Bulk
Carrier Structural function of webframe 10.6 Hopper tank
Local loads
Concentrated
loads from
Hopper hopper longs
tank SF BM
webframe
Areas with high

shear stress
Slide 9
Bulk Functions of hopper tank
global loads
Global loads are acting on

Web in hull girder (global strength) the hull girder beam
Ship side, hopper

tank and top-wing
tanks is taking up
global shear forces
from wave induced
loads and
weight/buoyancy
vessel length
Slide 10
Bulk
Carrier Global function of hopper tank 10.6 Hopper tank
Shear flow
distribution in
hopper tank
Global shear force
Note the shear force is distributed between

hopper tank sloping plate and ship side
Slide 11
Bulk
Global response of hopper tank 10.6 Hopper tank
Carrier

hopper tank plate and
outboard double bottom
girder towards
bulkheads
NET LOAD
ON DOUBLE
BOTTOM
GIRDER
Slide 12
Bulk
Carrier Global response of hopper tank 10.6 Hopper tank
Net load
Sea on double
pressure h ear bottom
S ess
str
Effect of side pressure and net load on double bottom

gives torsion of hopper tank, specially in loaded ore hold
Slide 13
Bulk
Carrier Hull damages Hopper tank 10.6 Hopper tank
Characteristic damages for hopper tanks:

1. Crack in webframe in way of sloping plate lower long.
Connection to webframe
Slide 14
Bulk
Carrier Crack in webframe at lower end sloping plate 10.6 Hopper tank
Webframe cracked at
scallop for longitudinal
Slide 15
Bulk
Carrier Crack in webframe at lower end sloping plate 10.6 Hopper tank
Slide 16
Bulk
Carrier Crack in webframe impact on function 10.6 Hopper tank
• Crack will reduce webframe strength

• Hopper tank longitudinals will transfer more
load to the adjacent webframes
• Hopper tank longitudinal may loose its support
– double span of stiffener
• May develop cracks in adjacent webframes
• May develop cracks in hopper tank plate –
water flooding of cargo hold
Slide 17
Bulk Hull Structural Breakdown – 10.7 Topside tank
Carrier
Topside Tank
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
5. Hopper tank
6. Topside-tank
Slide 1
Bulk Structural functions topside 10.7 Topside tank
Carrier
tank
1. Cargo hold/ballast tank boundary (local strength)

- Resist sea pressure on ship side
2. Give support for side structure and hatch coaming
3. Web and flange in hull girder (global strength)
- Side plating / top-wing tank sloping plat are part of the
web in the hull girder beam
- topside tanks upper part is part of the upper flange in
Slide 2
Bulk
10.7 Topside tank
Carrier Structural build up topside tank
Deck plating & longs
Topside tank, vertical strake
Topside tank, sloping plate &

longs
Topside tank, side plate& longs
Slide 3
Bulk
10.7 Topside tank
Carrier Structural build up topside tank
Topside tank transveres webframe,

deck

side

sloping plate
Vertical side frame

supporting bkt’s, upper
Slide 4
Bulk
Carrier
Structural functions of topside 10.7 Topside tank
tank tank:

topside tank sloping plate must withstand
static and dynamic loads from bulk cargo
and ballast

Deck and side plate must withstand static
and dynamic loads from external sea pressure
and from internal ballast
Slide 5
Bulk Structural Function
10.7 Topside tank
Carrier Topside Tank - Local Loads

• Ballast pressure
• Light bulk cargo / ballast
• Sea pressure
Pressure due to
ballast (cargo)
Slide 6
10.7 Topside tank
Topside tank lower side long. High stress at webframe

connection & midfield

with distributed load from external and
sea-presure and fixed ends
Slide 7
10.7 Topside tank
BM & SF upper end vertical side frame
External sea pressure Distributed load on side

frame
Sea pressure on long
+
Load from vert.
stiffener
BM
SF
Resulting BM and SF
Slide 8
Bulk Global strength function of topside 10.7 Topside tank
Carrier
tank - bending moment
Flange in hull girder (global strength)
Global loads are acting on the Upper part of ship side and sloping plate are
hull girder beam from cargo important contributors to the top flange in the hull
distribution and wave loads girder beam
Slide 9
Carrier
tank - shear
Global loads are acting on

Web in hull girder (global strength) the hull girder beam
Ship side, hopper

tank and top-wing
tanks is taking up
global shear forces
from wave induced
loads and
weight/buoyancy
vessel length
Slide 10
Carrier
tank - shear
Shear flow
Global shear force
distribution in
topside tank
Note the shear force is distributed between

topside tank sloping plate and ship side
Slide 11
Bulk
Carrier Strength - topside tank 10.7 Topside tank
Full load condition

Ore hold
FEM - PLOT
Topside tank rotate up and out
POSTFEM 5.6-02 SESAM 18 MAR 3
2: LINEAR ANALYSIS
GAUSS D-STRESS SIGMX
SURFACE: 1
MAX = 85.8 MIN = -168
73.8
61.7
49.6
37.5
25.5
13.4
1.33
Sea pressure -10.7

-22.8
-34.9
-47
-59
-71.1
-83.2
-95.2
Z -107
-119
X Y -131
-144
-156
Cont.
Net load on double bottom and side

Slide 12
pressure rotate hopper tank as shown
Bulk
10.7 Topside tank
Carrier Global response of topside tank
High shear stress in topside tank

sloping plate and ship side towards
transverse bulkheads due to global
shear stresses and torsion of topside
tank
Slide 13
Bulk
10.7 Topside tank
Carrier Hull damages topside tank
Characteristic damages for topside tanks:

1. Buckling deformation due to overpressure of ballast tank
2. Crack in lower side long in topside tank
3. Heavy corrosion topside tank webframe
Slide 14
Bulk
Carrier 1. Overpressure of topside tank 10.7 Topside tank
• Vessels with high ballast pump capacity,

filled to overflow through air pipes, with
possible excessive pressure in topside
tank
Typical location for

overpressure buckling
Slide 15
Bulk
1. Overpressure of topside tank 10.7 Topside tank
Carrier
impact on function
• Deformed webframe has lost its strength and

may not be able to support the side and sloping
plate longs.
– If longs are not efficiently supported at webframes
they may be excessively loaded in the mid-field, and
may buckle, however normally a local strength
problem
Slide 16
Bulk
Carrier 2. Crack - lower side long 10.7 Topside tank
Fatigue crack through

side long. Flange in
way of weld to flatbar
stiffener on top
Slide 17
Bulk 2. Crack lower side longitudinal -
10.7 Topside tank
Carrier impact on function
S B • Crack impact on function

F m – Crack through side long. may lead to
penetration of shell side, and cause
leak of water.
• If side longs are cracked, the upper
support for the vertical side frame is
weakened
• Less fixation at upper end of vertical
side frame will give higher stresses in
the field and in way of lower end.
• The stresses in the vertical side
frames may become excessive –
could lead to collapse of side frame
and water flooding.
Slide 18
Bulk
3. Heavy corrosion in topside tank 10.7 Topside tank
Carrier
Vessel with vertical

stiffener on ship side
and sloping plate
Poor buckling strength
exposed to longitudinal
compression stresses
Calculation of allowable
t-min values for side &
sloping plate revealed
marginal allowable reduction
Slide 19
Bulk
3. Corrosion of webframes in topside tank 10.7 Topside tank
Carrier
Heavy local wastage of

webframe in way of deck &
side longs
Slide 20
Bulk
Carrier 3. Corrosion of webframes in topside 10.7 Topside tank
tank consequence
• Local corrosion of webframe

may lead to deck longs lose
their attachment to webframe
– Span for deck longs two times
design value, Local strength
requirement increase by 4-
times (square of the stiffener
span)
– Buckling capacity significantly
reduced
May lead to global structural collapse !
Slide 21
Bulk
Carrier Hatch cover & coaming 10.8 Hatch cover & coaming
1. Side
2. Bottom
3. Deck
5. Hopper tank
6. Topside-tank
7.
Hatch cover & coaming
Slide 1
Bulk Structural functions of
Carrier 10.8 Hatch cover & coaming
Hatch cover & coaming

- Resist dynamic loads from green seas, horizontal
& vertical pressure
2. Hatch coaming supports the hatch covers
3. Hatch end coaming contributes to transverse strength
Slide 2
Bulk
Carrier Structural build up of deck 10.8 Hatch cover & coaming
• Longitudinal hatch coaming, web & flange

• Hatch end coaming, web & flange
• Hatch end bracket
• Hatch side bracket
Slide 3
Bulk Structural functions
Hatch cover & coamings

Hatch cover & coaming plate must withstand dynamic loads from
green sea pressure as well internal pressure from ballast in
combined cargo / ballast hold.
2. Load on hatch covers (local strength)

Hatch cover & coaming plate must withstand static and dynamic
loads from deck cargo if this is allowed (containers / timber ).
Slide 4
• Longitudinal global stresses High stress areas
• The longitudinal stresses in deck due to cargo

distribution and wave loads will ”flow” into the
longitudinal hatch coamings. The hatches in the
midship region with full longitudinal stresses
most exposed
Slide 5
• Transverse stresses
Slide 6
Bulk
Structural function local load 10.8 Hatch cover & coaming
Carrier
hatch cover
l
q
Transv.
girder
q x l /2
SF. Q = q x l /2
BM.
M = q x l2 / 8
Hatch cover with green Transverse girder

seas load single beam with
distributed load
Slide 7
Bulk
Carrier
Hull damages hatch 10.8 Hatch cover & coaming
cover/coaming
Characteristic damages for hatch cover & coaming are:

1. Crack in hatch coaming flange
2. Crack in coaming end brackets
3. Corrosion on hatch covers
Slide 8
hatch coaming end
Crack in hatch coaming flange
amidships
Note cut-outs for hatch

cover hydraulic lifting
jacks
Local high stress

concentration due to
square cut-outs and
reduced cross section
area
Slide 9
hatch coaming, consequence
- Crack in coaming may cause

water leakage – damage to
cargo
- Crack may propagate to main
deck
- Impact on longitudinal
strength
Slide 10
Bulk Crack in coaming end
brackets
Slide 11
Bulk Crack in coaming end
brackets
• Panamax bulk carrier.

• Vessel was built in 2000 – 5 years old.
• Repair ok?
• Proposed modification?
Slide 12
Bulk
Carrier Corrosion of hatch covers 10.8 Hatch cover & coaming
Slide 13
Bulk
Slide 14
Bulk
Slide 15
Bulk Corrosion of hatch covers
Impact on function
• Moisture in cargo – some dry bulk cargoes may

become liquified (Ref. IMO code for safe practice for solid bulk
cargoes BC code sec. 7 App. A)
• Reduced thickness of stiffeners and girders may

cause collapse of stiffener / girder
• Possible flooding of cargo holds – impact on

longitudinal strength and stability / trim
Slide 16
Container
Ships Container Ships - Hull Structure
Slide 1 2008-01-28
Container
Ships Contents – Container Ships
1. Introduction to Container Ship hull structure

• Bottom, side, hatch, deck and hatch coaming and transverse
bulkhead including relevant hull damages for all structural
elements
3. Case
Slide 2 2008-01-28
Container
Ships Ship related characteristics
Feeder Any Open Top

proposals?
• Double Hull
• Flexible hull girder – torsion
• Critical hull girder strength – high tensile steel
• High freeboard
• Worlds largest engines (100 000 BHP)
• High Speed
• Light loads
• Value of cargo up to 5 times value of ship
• Liner Trade
Panamax
Slide 3 2008-01-28
Post Panamax
Container
Ships Historical Fleet Development
Container Carriers,
Bulk Carriers and Oil Tankers
Mill. TEU Mill. Dwt.

6 500
Container Carriers (TEU)
5 Bulk Carriers (Dwt.) 400
Oil Tankers (Dwt.)
4 300
3
200
2
100
1
0 0
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Average growth 1997 - 2002:

Container Carriers: Bulk Carriers: Oil Tankers:
+9.3 % +3.1 % + 3.2 %
2002 - Year-end
Slide 4 figures 2008-01-28
Source: Fairplay/Clarkson
Container
Ships Development of World Fleet and DNV Fleet
Container Fleet W orld W ide and DNV Fleet

World wide 8%
8 000 fleet + 8.7% 700
Market
per year Share
7 000 600
6 000
500
TEU World Fleet
TEU DNV Fleet

5 000
400
4 000
300
3 000
DNV fleet 200
2 000
2,3 % 1 000 100
Market
Share - -
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Slide 5 2008-01-28
Container
Ships It started in the late 50’s
Slide 6 2008-01-28
Container
Ships The Container Ship Development
• Container ship era started late 60’s

• 70 ship below 2000 TEU delivered before 1970
• In the 70’s ships up to 3000 TEU
• Big Panmax built in the 80’s, exceeding 4000 TEU
• Post Panmax ships today designed with capacity
exceeding 8000 TEU
• 10000 TEU now contracted at HHI
Slide 7 2008-01-28
Container
Ships Types of Container Ships
Feeder • Loa 100 - 200 m long Open Top

• Service speed range is 18 to 22 Knots in general
• Cranes are often arranged to achieve flexible
operating ability
• Damage stability criteria influence on hatch
cover tightness and subdivision of hold area
• Fully aft located deckhouse can be seen often
•
Mixed stowage (Russian stowage) in hold is
Panamax
common
Post Panamax
Slide 8 2008-01-28
Container
Feeder Open Top

• 3800 – 4800 TEU
• Max Loa = 294 m
• Service speed 24 knots
• 11 rows in hold in general, but 12 rows is possible
• 8 tiers in hold, 5 tiers on deck
Panamax
Post Panamax
Slide 9 2008-01-28
Container
• Loa 270Feeder
m (5,500 TEU) to 340 m (9000 TEU) Open Top
• 5,500 TEU has been popular size, but it’s a trend that the
ships become bigger and bigger
• Service speed 25-26 knots
• HT40 steel is often used to upper deck and hatch coaming
Panamax
Post Panamax
Slide 10 2008-01-28
Container
Ships Worlds Smallest Container Carriers?
Slide 11 2008-01-28
Container
Ships The Cargo
Total value = Ship + Cargo = 100 + 500 = 600 000 000 USD
Slide 12 2008-01-28
Container
Ships The Cargo
Post Panamax Container Ship in Typhoon

Babs - Pacific, October 98
• 300 containers lost
• ab. 100 more damaged
• Cargo claim ~ 50mUSD (or even higher)
Slide 13 2008-01-28 • New ship price ~ 92mUSD
Container
Ships
Typical hull damages and repairs
WWW.witherbys.com
Slide 14 2008-01-28
Container
Ships Structural breakdown of hull
- A vessel’s hull can be divided into different hull

structural elements
- Each element has its own function in the total hull

integrity
- In order to assess the structure of a Container Ship you
need to understand the function of the structural element
you are looking at
Slide 15 2008-01-28
Container
Ships Hull Structural Breakdown
1. Bottom
2. Side
3. Hatch
4. Deck & hatch coaming
5. Transverse Bulkhead
6. Stowing and securing
Slide 16 2008-01-28
Stowing & Securing of Containers
Slide 1
Stowing & Securing of Containers
Deck stowage
Slide 2
Basic deck stowage
Slide 3
Deck Stowage – 20’
Slide 4
ISO Gap
Release twistlock
Lift Container
Slide 5
Russian Stow
Slide 6
45’ Stowage
Slide 7
Various container sizes
Slide 8
CPC-Container EURO-Container
Slide 9
Standard ISO
Container has a
width of 2438 mm
Slide 10
Lashing bridge
Slide 11
Influence by Relative Displacement
A • Calculated additional lashing

B force is significant at position A
B
A
A • The force is dependent on
B
B
relative displacement, i.e. the
A
A
ship and hatch cover size are
B
B
the parameters
A
Ship Size Panamax. + 7000 TEU + 9000 TEU

Diagonal
deflection 70 100 150
(mm)
Slide 12
Hold stowage - cellguides
Slide 13
Mixed stowage
Slide 14
Mixed stowage
Slide 15
8th February 2000
Loss of Containers - Winter 1999 -2000
1999-2000
z North Pacific in February 2000:
OOCL America (4960TEU) from Long Beach to
Kaohsiung. 300 off 40ft containers lost, 200
damaged (some empty, some refrigerated goods)
Astoria Bridge, K-Line, 17 missing, 20 damaged
Sea-Land Hawaii (1446TEU) 21 off 40ft lost
Sea-Land Pacific (2361TEU) 20 containers lost
Slide 16
Parametric Roll of large Container Ships
Post Panamax Container Ship in Typhoon Babs - Pacific, October 98
• 300 containers lost
• Cargo claim ~50mUSD (or even higher)
• about 100 more damaged
• 18 m swell, 100 knot wind • New ship price ~92mUSD
• 45 degrees max roll
• lost power for 45 minutes
Slide 17
Container
11.3 Bottom
1. Bottom
2. Side
3. Hatch
Slide 1 2008-01-28
Container
11.3 Bottom
Ships Structural functions of bottom
1. Watertight integrity (local strength bottom / inner bottom)

- Resist external sea pressure (bottom)
- Resist internal pressure from ballast & fuel oil
2. Carry net load on double bottom girder structure
- Inner bottom / bottom plate & stiffn. are girder flanges
- Double bottom floors / girders are webs in double bottom
girders
- Bottom and inner bottom structure is the bottom flange
in the hull girder
Slide 2 2008-01-28
Container
Structural build up of bottom 11.3 Bottom
Ships
Bottom plating
Longitudinal girders w/ longitudinals
Floor Hopper Tank

Slide 3 2008-01-28
Container
11.3 Bottom
Ships Structural functions of bottom
Stress distribution in a double bottom structure

follows the hierarchy:
→ Plating
→ Longitudinals
→ Floors / girders
→ Bulkheads /side
Slide 4 2008-01-28
Container
Functions of inner bottom 11.3 Bottom
Ships
Cargo hold boundary (local strength)
The internal loads from tanks induce shear

forces and bending moments in the inner
bottom longitudinals as single beams
(between floors)

Slide 5 2008-01-28
Container
Functions of inner bottom 11.3 Bottom
Ships
External loads from container sockets

induce shear forces and bending moments
in the floors and girders
Slide 6 2008-01-28
Container
11.3 Bottom
Ships
Load response double bottom
Stresss flow
shortest way to
support
Slide 7 2008-01-28
Container
Double bottom girders load response 11.3 Bottom
Ships
• girders & floors carry the net load to hopper tank and
support- and water tight bulkhead
•longitudinal girders carry most of the load towards
transverse bulkhead
• length / width ratio is important for the distribution of loads
between girders & floors
• the stiffest elements are taking most of the load / stresses
seek the shortest way to supports
Slide 8 2008-01-28
Container
11.3 Bottom
Ships Functions of double bottom girder
Slide 9
Longitudinal girders represented by springs
2008-01-28
Container
11.3 Bottom
Shear Force
Bending
Moment
Slide 10 2008-01-28
Container
11.3 Bottom
Load on double bottom
20 ft 20 ft
Shear
Force
Bending
Moment
Slide 11 2008-01-28
Container
11.3 Bottom
Load on double bottom
40 ft
Shear
Force
Bending
Moment
Slide 12 2008-01-28
Container
11.3 Bottom
Ships Functions of bottom
Bottom flange in hull girder (global strength)

The bottom and inner Global loads are
acting on the hull
bottom longs and girder beam
longitudinal girders
are carrying the
vertical bending
moments from still
water and wave
induced bending Bottom structure is
moments along the acting as flange in
hull girder beam
vessel length
Slide 13 2008-01-28
Container
11.3 Bottom
Ships Functions of bottom
Post-Panamax Container Ship

Moment & Shear Force Diagram
Slide 14 2008-01-28
Container
11.3 Bottom
Ships Total BM acting on a vessel
Total hull girder bending moment = Mstill water + M wave
Mwave
BM limits
Hogging
Mstill water
Sagging
Slide 15 2008-01-28
Container
11.3 Bottom
Ships Highly stressed areas
Deck
•Bottom plate/longs middle of empty holds
(compression )
•Bottom plate in loaded holds (tension)
•Inner bottom plate middle of loaded holds
NA (compression )
Inner Bottom
Bottom
Global bending Double bottom bending

Slide 16 2008-01-28
Container
Hull damages bottom / inner 11.3 Bottom
Ships
bottom
Characteristic damages for bottom are:

1. Crack at connection of longitudinals to floors
2. Indents of inner bottom plate / bottom plate
Slide 17 2008-01-28
Container
Crack at connection of longitudinal to floor 11.3 Bottom
Ships
• Floor in way of high shear stress

• Connection at bottom longitudinals
• Areas exposed to high fatigue loading
Slide 18 2008-01-28
Container
Crack of floor 11.3 Bottom
Ships
Impact on function
• Loss of support of longitudinals – increased

stresses in adjacent structure
• Large crack in floor – increased stresses in
adjacent floors and girders
Slide 19 2008-01-28
Container
Ships
Indents of inner bottom plate 11.3 Bottom
Slide 20 2008-01-28
Container
Ships
Slide 21 2008-01-28
Container
Ships
• Severe indents – cracks – leakage

Slide 22 2008-01-28
Container
Ships
Contact damages in bottom plate 11.3 Bottom
Slide 23 2008-01-28
Container
Contact damages of bottom plate 11.3 Bottom
Ships
Impact on function
• Severe indents – cracks – leakage

Slide 24 2008-01-28
Container
Ships Hull Structural Breakdown 11.4 Side
1. Bottom
2. Side
3. Hatch
Slide 1
Container
Ships Structural functions of ship side 11.4 Side

- Resist internal pressure from ballast / fuel oil tanks
2. Carry net load on double side structure
- Inner side / side plate are girder flanges
- The webs act as web in double side girder

- Side plating and inner side act as the web in
Slide 2
Container
Ships Structural build up of ship side 11.4 Side
Strength deck
Side shell
Longitudinal
Side longitudinal bulkhead
Side stringer Hopper structure

Flat, recess or step
Side frame
Slide 3
Container
Ships Local function: Watertight integrity 11.4 Side
External static and dynamic loads

induces shear forces and bending
moments in the side and inner side
longitudinals as single beams (between
each web frame)
Side long.as a single

beam between two
web frames

Slide 4
Container
Ships Local function: Webs in a double side 11.4 Side
-Side longs are supported at the web

frames
- Web frames are supported at the
stringers and at the deck and bottom
Shear Bending
force moment
High Shear
Slide 5
Container
Ships Local function: Stringers in a double side 11.4 Side
Stringers contribute to the stiffness of the double hull

ship side, which means:

stringers towards the
transverse bulkhead
Slide 6
Container
Ships Loads on the ship side 11.4 Side
con tainers
fo rc e from
Net
Net force
Min cargo / max draught

Max cargo / min draught
Slide 7
Container
Ships Global function: Web in hull girder 11.4 Side
Web in hull girder (global strength) Global loads are

acting on the
Ship side is taking up hull girder beam
global shear forces
resulting from the
hull girder bending
moment and
weight/buoyancy
vessel length
Side plating is
acting as web in
hull girder beam
Slide 8
Container
Ships Function of ship side 11.4 Side
Shear Force Distribution
Be
n
mo ding
Shear force
me
nt
Slide 9
Container
Ships Global function: Web in hull girder 11.4 Side
Global shear forces resulting from the distribution of cargo

and buoyancy are taken up in the ship side plating
Area effective in
transferring shear
force
Shear stress distribution resulting from
global loads for midship section
Slide 10
Container
Ships Hull damages in ship side 11.4 Side
Characteristic damages for ship side:

1. Indents in ship side
2. Fatigue Cracks in side longitudinals
3. Fatigue Cracks in web frame cut out
4. Crack at container step
5. Crack at pilot door opening
Slide 11
Container
Ships Indents of side shell with stiffeners 11.4 Side
Mainly from contact damages:
The terms indents and buckling should not be mixed up with each other,
as the cause for these damages are different:
Indents: Caused by lateral forces.
Slide 12
Buckling: Due to excessive in-plane stresses
Container
Ships
Acceptance Criteria 11.4 Side
Deformations
Local Plate Indents (contact / slamming deformations);

Maximum Depth S/12 provided;
¾ smooth indent
¾ no cracks
Less than
¾ Small deformation (less than 15
15deg
deg) out of plane for stiffeners
and girders
New IS 5.1 Technical survey Guide

Slide 13
Container
Ships Consequense of indents 11.4 Side
Sharp indents may lead to

cracks and possible leakage
Large area set in (plating and stiffeners)

gives reduced buckling capacity
Adjacent areas may then be overloaded
Slide 14
Container
Ships Fatigue cracks in longitudinals 11.4 Side
• Cracks have been detected due

to FO leakage to the sea
• 270 cracked longitudinals
• Ship was 7 years of age
This could be the

future problem in
many container ships!
Slide 15
Container
Ships Fatigue cracks in longitudinals 11.4 Side
Side longs connection to

webSlideframe
16 & transverse bhd.
Container
Ships Cause for cracking in side longitudinals 11.4 Side
Fatigue Damages are caused by

Dynamic Loading
Slide 17
Container
Ships Cause for cracking in side longitudinals 11.4 Side
Potential problem area
Ex.
P ana
ma
x •High alternating bending stresses towards the end
supports (web frames)
•Highly stressed areas created around geometric
’hard points’ (bracket toes, scallops, flat bars)
Slide 18
Container
Ships Stress concentration factors 11.4 Side
• Kg : Gross Geometry (from FEM analysis or standard values)
• Kte : Eccentricity tolerance (production tolerances)
• Ktα : Αngular mismatch (production tolerances)
• Kn : Unsymmetrical Stiffeners (L & bulb-profiles)
Slide 19
Container
Ships Fatigue Life 11.4 Side
3
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
N ≈ C⎜ ⎟
⎜ σK ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Where:
N = Fatigue life (normally 20 years)
σ = Nominal Stress (dynamic stress amplitude)
K = Stress Concentration Factor
C = Constant (including the environment and mean stress
level i.e. compression / tension)
Slide 20
Container
Ships Standard repair proposal longs / web frames 11.4 Side
Slide 21
Container
Ships Consequence of damage 11.4 Side
Cracks in side longitudinals:

- oil leakage and pollution
- longitudinal may break off
- in worst case (a series of cracks in same area) could induce a
larger fracture (loss of ship side)
Slide 22
Container
Ships Fatigue cracks in web frames 11.4 Side
Cracks around openings for

side longitudinals in web
frames
Cr
ac
ks
Slide 23
Container
Cause for cracking in cut outs for
Ships 11.4 Side
longitudinals
Sea loads induce shear stresses in the web frame
High shear stresses

Shear stress around openings etc,
where shear area is
reduced
Shear stress
Slide 24
Container
Ships Consequence of fatigue crack in webs 11.4 Side
How does the damage impact on the function?
Side longitudinals
loose their support
Re-distribution of shear
stresses in web frame
May lead to overloading

of adjacent structure
Slide 25
Container
Ships “Rules of Thumb” Regarding Fatigue 11.4 Side
• Fatigue is not an exact science

– ±10% stress → ±30% fatigue life
• High tensile steel ≈ Mild steel
• Corrosive environment → (Fatigue life / 2)
• North Atlantic/Pacific → (Fatigue life / 2)
• Symmetric profiles have longer fatigue life
Slide 26
Container
“Rule of thumb” regarding fatigue crack
Ships 11.4 Side
repairs
• Workmanship has a significant impact on fatigue life

• Repair as function of time for crack to develop:
Years
0-5 Design improvement recommended, check
misalignment, possible vibration related
5-10 Design improvement recommended
10-15 Repair to original standard normally acceptable, grinding out

and re-welding may also be considered towards 15 years *
< 15 Repair by re-welding normally acceptable *
* Note! cracks in main deck / hatch opening

corners to be specially considered
Slide 27
Container
Ships Crack in Container Step 11.4 Side
5,500 TEU, Built 2002
Slide 28
Container
5,500 TEU, Built 2002
Slide 29
Container
5,500 TEU, Built 2002
Slide 30
Container
Ships Shell plate crack at pilot door 11.4 Side
5 year old Post Panamax
Slide 31
Container
Ships Cause/Consequence of crack 11.4 Side
Cause of crack
• High global shear stress level
• Stress concentration due to
termination of edge reinforcement
in way of radius
Consequence
• Watertight integrity affected
Slide 32
Container
11.5 Hatch
1. Bottom
2. Side
3. Hatch
Slide 1
Container
Ships Structural functions 11.5 Hatch
1. Load on hatch covers (local strength)
• must withstand static and dynamic loads from

containers
2. Allow for hull deformations
3. Weather tightness
• Resist water pressure
Slide 2
Container
Ships Structural build up 11.5 Hatch
Support Pads Pin stopper

(Vertical support) (Rolling / pitching)
Longitudinal
stopper (Pitching) Hold down device
(Vertical support)
Slide 3
Container
Structural functions: 11.5
Ships Hatch
Container load (local strength)
A-A
Shear
A Force
Bending
Moment
Hatch cover with container load

Slide 4
Container
Ships Hatch
Container load (local strength)
Wind Transverse
Acceleration
Ph
Slide 5
Container
Ships Hatch
Allow for Hull Deformations
Hull deformation looking down at deck
Ship Size Panamax. + 7000 TEU + 9000 TEU

Diagonal
deflection 70 100 150
(mm)
Slide 6
Container
Ships Hatch
Allow for Hull Deformation
Slide 7
Container
Ships Hatch
Weather tightness
• Weather tight hatches are to have packing
• Some hatches are not weather tight, i.e. no packing. In case

of non weather tight hatches, this is written in the Load Line
report.
Slide 8
Container
11.5 Hatch
Ships Hull damages
Characteristic damages related to the hatch cover are

damages to the:
• Hatch Cover Support
Slide 9
Container
Ships Hull damages - hatch cover support 11.5 Hatch
Heavily worn steel to steel
Damaged low friction pad
Damage due to corrosion

and high forces
Slide 10
Container
Ships Hull damages - hatch cover support 11.5 Hatch
Low friction bearing pad

Slide 11
Lubripads for big ships
Container
Ships Consequence of damage 11.5 Hatch
• Damages to friction pad may cause an undesired stiff

connection
• Introduction of new forces
• Potential cracks in the coaming
Slide 12
Container
11.6
Deck and
Ships Hull Structural Breakdown coaming
1. Bottom
2. Side
3. Hatch
Slide 1
Container
Deck and
Ships Structural build up 11.6
coaming
Hatch end coaming Hatch coaming top Hatch side coaming
Coaming stay
Hatch side coaming
Slide 2
Container
11.6
Deck and
Ships Structural functions coaming

2. Carry and transfer loads from hatch (local strength)
- Coaming stays are main load carrying element
3. Global strength
-Bending and torsion
Slide 3
Container
11.6
Deck and
Deck plate and hatch coaming must be watertight
Slide 4
Container
11.6
Deck and
2. Carry and transfer loads from hatch (local strength)
Slide 5
Hatch cover with container load
Container
Deck and
Ships Container load (local strength) coaming
Stays Support
Slide 6
Container
Deck and
Ships Global Strength coaming
What kind of global

loads are we talking
about and which effects
do they have?
Vertical Bending Moment
Slide 7
Container
Deck and
Horizontal Bending
Moment
Slide 8
Container
Deck and
Torsion
Slide 9
Container
Deck and
Ships Incorporate hull deformation coaming
Deck plate and coaming must be strong

enough to withstand the combination of all the
loadcases!
A typical combination of stresses could be:

• Max Still water bending moment (vertical + horizontal + torsion)
• 45% vertical wave bending moment
• 100% horizontal wave bending moment
• 100% wave torsion
Slide 10
Container
11.6
Deck and
Ships Hull damages coaming
Characteristic damages related to deck & hatch coaming are:

1. Hatch Coaming Stays
2. Hatch and Deck Corners
3. Knuckle at Side Hatch Coaming
4. Coaming Termination
Slide 11
Container
Deck and
Ships Cracks in hatch coaming stays 11.6
coaming
High Dynamic stress due

to friction between hatch
and bearing pad
Hatch Coaming Stays

Coaming stay
Upper deck Upper deck
Slide 12
Container
Deck and
Ships Consequence of damage 11.6
coaming
• Hatch coaming may loose its transverse strength

• The cracks may propagate into the deck
Slide 13
Container
Deck and
Ships Cracks in Hatch corners 11.6
coaming
High global stress (vertical and horizontal bending) in addition to

torsion may result in fatigue damages in the hatch corners
Slide 14
Container
Deck and
coaming
High global stress (vertical and horizontal bending) in addition to

torsion may result in fatigue damages in the hatch corners
Slide 15
Container
11.6
Deck and
Ships Crack in Coaming Top Plate coaming
Cell Guide
Welded to Corner
Slide 16
Container
Deck and
coaming
Forward Cargo Hold

Insert plate IWO hatch corners is to be 25
% thicker than adjacent deck plate
Hatch Corner
Insert Plate
Slide 17
Container
Cracks in hatch corners 11.6
Deck and
Ships Consequence coaming
• Cracks in hatch and deck corners should be

taken serious! (Contact MTPNO864 if in doubt)
• Crack in hatch corners could indicate a design
problem. It is therefore most likely to find
similar damages other places too.
• The cracks may develop rapidly in a highly
utilized structure
Repair
• Thickness increase
• Edge grinding
• Improved shape
Slide 18
Container
11.6
Deck and
Ships Crack in shear strake - Midship coaming
A crack of 1070 mm was detected

in the shear strake at the erection
joint
Slide 19
Container
Deck and
Ships Cause for the crack 11.6
coaming
Lack of • Main conclusion was lack of

fusion fusion
• Crack propagation partly
brittle nature
• New problem discovered
that weld deposit does not
meet the Rules requirement
to ductility.
Slide 20
Container
Deck and
Ships Consequence of damage 11.6
Suggestions?
coaming
The aft part of MSC Carla after breaking up off the Azores.
Slide 21
Container
Deck and
Ships Cracks in Hatch Coaming Knuckle 11.6
coaming
Upper
Deck
Additional force due to knuckle brings stress

concentration at upper deck connection
Cause of Damages:
• The transverse member was arranged 100 mm away from the knuckle line
• Fine mesh F.E. analysis results show high stress concentration factor of K
= 3.5 (75 mm offset distance and 20° of knuckle angle) at the knuckle point
Slide 22
Container
Deck and
coaming
Upper Deck
Hatch
Knuckle in Coaming
Coaming
Cracks
Upper Deck
Slide 23
Container
Deck and
coaming
The knuckle has to be

Consequence of crack supported. A possible
repair is insert of a
support bracket
• May influence the load carrying
characteristics of the hatch coaming
with regard to support of hatch
• Reduced longitudinal strength
Slide 24
Container
Deck and
Ships Hatch Girder / Coaming Termination 11.6
coaming
Slide 25
Container
Deck and
coaming
Slide 26
Container
Deck and
coaming
24mm
Slide 27
Container
Deck and
coaming
Crack
Slide 28
Container
Deck and
coaming
Consequence
Crack may develop and penetrate the deck
Repair proposal
– Meeting angle of bracket to be less than 15 degrees
– Bracket toe and flange end to be grinded after
welding
– Full penetration welding to be carried out for min.
500 mm IWO flange and 1000-1500 mm for bracket
toe
Slide 29
Container
11.6
Deck and
Ships Damages to the wave breaker coaming
Slide 30
Container
11.6
Deck and
Ships Damages to the wave breaker coaming
Possible buckling
problems
Sea pressure
Slide 31
Container
Damages to the wave breaker 11.6
Deck and
Ships coaming
Impact of function
• Collapse of wave breaker could lead to damages to

the containers or leakage into cargo hold
Slide 32
Container
5.
Transverse
Ships Hull Structural Breakdown Bulkhead
1. Bottom
2. Side
3. Hatch
Slide 1
Container
Transverse
Ships Structural build up 5.
Bulkhead
Transverse watertight Pillar or support

bulkhead bulkhead
Box beam Box beam web

(diaphragm)
Bulkhead stringer
Vertical girder
Slide 2
Container
5.
Transverse
Ships Structural functions Bulkhead

- Watertight integrity
- Support of container stacks
- Support the bottom
- Support the stringers in ship side
2. Stiffness to the hull girder (global strength)
Slide 3
Container
Structural functions: 5.
Transverse
Ships Watertight integrity (local strength) Bulkhead
Damaged condition Watertight

bulkhead
Shear Bending
Force Moment
Slide 4
Container
Transverse
Ships Support of container stacks (local strength) Bulkhead
Pillar bulkhead
Shear Bending
Force Moment
High stress lower / upper

Slide 5
end & midfield
Container
Transverse
Ships Support of container stacks (local strength) Bulkhead
Racking Tipping
Stringer
Slide 6
Container
5.
Transverse
Ships Structural function Bulkhead
Loads from containers on deck carried

by the box beam to inner side
Slide 7
Container
Transverse
Ships Support the bottom (local strength) Bulkhead
High compression
Slide 8
Container
Transverse
Ships Transverse strength of hull girder Bulkhead
Deformation
Torsion
Slide 9
Container
5.
Transverse
Ships Hull damages Bulkhead
Characteristic damages for transverse

bulkheads:
1. Damages to cell guide
2. Damages to webs and stringers
3. Overstressed / buckled support
bulkhead
4. Crack in way of stringer
opening for access
Slide 10
Container
Transverse
Ships Damages to cell guide 5.
Bulkhead
Slide 11
Container
Transverse
Bulkhead
Slide 12
Container
Transverse
Bulkhead
Consequences of damages?
• Difficulties in loading / unloading the cargo holds
• Loss of support of containers
Slide 13
Container
Transverse
Ships Damages to webs 5.
Bulkhead
Damages to webs due to improper loading of containers:
Slide 14
Container
Transverse
Ships Typical design 5.
Bulkhead
From Specification:
“7th tier in cargo holds
shall be suitable for 40ft
long 9 feet 6 inches high
container loading.”
Slide 15
Container
Typical design 5.
Transverse
Ships Bulkhead
8’6’’Bulkhead
Slide 16
Container
Transverse
Bulkhead
Slide 17
Container
Transverse
Bulkhead
Consequences of damages
• Difficulties in loading / unloading the cargo holds
• Damages to webs and stringers could reduce the
container support
• Reduced vertical support of bottom
Slide 18
Container
5.
Transverse
Ships Overstressed / buckled support bulkhead
Bulkhead
Crack repaired by welding and additional stiffener
• The support bulkheads are highly stressed in

shear and equivalent stress in the outer part
• Areas with lightening holes are to be
specially
Slide 19 checked Critical area of support bulkhead
Container
Overstressed / buckled support bulkhead 5.
Transverse
Ships Impact of function Bulkhead
• Damages may lead to cracks and hence

leakage from bottom / wing tank
• Containers may shift due to reduced support
• Reduced support of bottom and consequently
other overloaded areas
Slide 20
Container
Transverse
Ships Cracked bulkhead at cell guide support 5.
Bulkhead
Unfortunate bracket
termination at bulkhead
plate
Hard point – crack
Slide 21
Container
Crack in bulkhead repair proposal 5.
Transverse
Ships Bulkhead
Void space Repair proposal

move bracket to
above tanktop –
no pressure at the
bkt. toe
Fuel oil tank
Slide 22
Container
Transverse
Ships Crack in bulkhead stringer 5.
Bulkhead
Slide 23
Container
5.
Transverse
Ships Why does it crack Bulkhead
• Hull girder torsion – relative

displacement
• Constant shear force in stringer deck
• Increased shear stress due to cut-out
• Stress concentration in corners
• Secondary bending due to cut-out
Deformed
stringer
Slide 24
Container
5.
Transverse
Ships Repair proposal.. Bulkhead
• Insert plate with increased thickness A-A
10 to 15mm
• Replace rectangular opening with an
elliptical shape
• Weld a continuous edge stiffener
A-A
120x12mm
Insert plate 15mm

with elliptical cut-
out
Slide 25
Container
5.
Transverse
Ships Bulkhead
Slide 26

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Hull Structure

• Knowledge is a prerequisite for

• SiO surveyor scope of work;

After completion of the course, the participants

To train SiO surveyors about the basics of hull structures.

Target group is surveyors who are in need of improved

What are the main

What are the main

What are the main

9 Retention of Ship main functions

9 Retention of Ship hull functions

After completion of this chapter you should have gained:

The behaviour of simple beams with loads and

1. Simple beam theory

Bending When a beam is loaded it will bend dependent on its stiffness

Shear force and bending moment distribution varies with degree of

Degree of end fixation = 0 Simply supported

Structural clamping – spring support

Symmetrical load – full fixation

• Load on structure is important with regard to

Non symmetry in loads

Section A-A Distribution of stress

Slide 12 Max stress at flanges.

Area effective in Distribution of the

As the axial stresses are transferred in the flange of a beam, it is the

The load is carried in shear towards the supports by the web

Angle bar (rolled and welded)

Due to the skew bending, which gives a moment in the web-

An angle bar profile will twist when exposed to lateral loads

Additional bending .974

Bulb profile (single / double bulb)

Local stress : Plate / stiffener

Longitudinal between two

Max shear and bending

Symmetric load fwd and aft of

Beam with fixed ends and

Max shear and bending

Double bottom structure

Loads taken up by the bottom plating

• Level 1 Plate supported at stiffeners

• Level 2 Stiffener supported at webframe

• Level 3 Webframe supported at panel

• Level 4 Panel – hull girder

Consequences of damages level 1-4 above!

A vessel’s hull has many of the same properties as a single beam.

When a vessel’s hull is exposed to loading, it will bend similarly

• For a beam with fixed ends and an evenly

• Is it correct that the transverse girders are

• Are the ends of longitudinal stiffeners inside a tank,

• What is the main disadvantage of an angle profile

• Bending moment and shear force

1. Internal loads: - Cargo

2. External loads: - Sea

Static local load: The local load, internal and external

Dynamic local load: External - dynamic wave loads

Static global load: Global bending moment and shear

Dynamic global load: Dynamic bending moment and

Total external local load acting on a vessel:

Max at the bottom Max at the waterline