Chapter 2

DIFFERENTIATION
OF FUNCTIONS

§ 2.1. Definition of the Derivattve

The derivative f' (x) of the function y = f (x) at a given point x
is defined by the equality
f'()
x = 11m • - tJ.y
= 11m
. f(x+tJ.x)-f(x)
l'J.X
-+ o tJ.x t;.x o
-+ 11x ·
If this limit is finite, then the function f (x) is called differen-
tiable at the point x; and it is infallibly continuous at this point.
Geometrically, the value of the derivatiye f' (x) represents the
slope of the line tangent to the graph of the function y = f (x) at
the point x.
The number
f , (x) = Jim f (x+ tJ.x)- f (x)
+ t;.x-+ + O tJ.x

is called the right-side derivative at the point x

The number
f ,_ (X)-
-
.
1Im f (x+tJ.x)
l1
- f (x)
6.x-+-0 X

is called the left-side derivative at the point x.

The necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of the
derivative f' (x) is the existence of the finite right- and left-side
derivatives, and also of the equality f'_ (x) = f ~ (x).
If f' (x) = oo, the function f (x) is said to have an infinite deri-
vative at the point x. In this case the line tangent to the graph
of the function y = f (x) at the point x is perpendicular to the
x-axis.
2.1.1. Find the increment ~y and the ratio ~~ for the following
functions:
(a) y = v·x at X= 0 and ~X=0.0001;
I
(b) y= x2 + x- 6 at X= I and ~x=0.2.
 § 2.1. Definition of the Derivative 99

Solution. (a) !iy = ~; x+ lix-Vx = Vo.0001 =0.01;

Ay 0.01
IOO. tJ..x = 0.0001 =
2.1.2. Using the definition of the derivative, find the derivatives
of the following functions:
(a) y=cosax; (b) y=5x2 -2x.
Solution. (a) liy=cosa(x+lix)-cosax=
=- 2sin (ax+; !ix) sin ; x;

Ay -2sin ( ax+-f Ax) sin-f Ax •

tJ..x tJ..x '
. a A
. 8 . . . Sin 2 X •
y' = ltm ~ Y = -2 l11n sin (ax+!(:-- !ix) !rm Ax = - a sin ax.
11.x - 0 X 11.x -+ 0 2 11.x ... 0
In particular, if a= l, then y =cos x and y' =-sin x.
2.1.3. Show that the following functions have no finite derivati-
ves at the indicated points:
(a) y = V
x3 at the point x =0; !I
(b) Y=Vx-1 at the point x=l;
(c) y=31xl+ 1 at the point x=O.
Solution. V (x + lix) -Vx
(a) !iy = 3 3•

At x=O we have liy= V l\xa, 8y = VAx = 3

Ax tJ..x

=vi . ; hence, y' (0) = lim vi

J Ax 2 11.x ... o Ax2 = oo, __.__ __ . . _ _ . _ . :C '
-1 0 1
i.e. there is no finite derivative. .
(c) At l\x > 0 the increment of the func- Fig. 34
tion !J.y atx=O will be: liy=3(O+lix)+1-1 =31ix. Therefore
I"un ;:r-
Ay = 3.
11.x-+ +O X

At !ix< 0 the increment of the function !iy will be

liy = - 3 (0 + !ix)+ 1-1 = - 3/ix,
hence,
Jim tJ..y _ _ 3
11.x-+ -0 Ax- '

Since the one-sided limits are different, there is no derivative at

the point x=O (see Fig. 34).
4•
100 Ch. If. Difjerentiation of Functions

2.1.4. Investigate the function y =I In x I for differentiability at

the point x = 1.
Solution. At x = 1
11y =I In (1+11x) 1-1 ln l j =I ln(l + 11x) I.
i. e.
11 = j ln (1 + /1x) I= { Jn ( 1+ 11x) at 11x:;;;::: 0,
Y - In (1 + 11x) at 11x < 0.
Therefore
fly
In (I+ 11x)
!1x a
t A
uX
> O,
{
L1x = - In ( 111: 11x) at 11x < 0,
whence
lim ~Y = + 1 and lim ~Y = - 1.
/'>.x - +0 X il.x - - 0 X

Since the one-sided limits are different, there is no derivative.

Hence, the function y = j ln x I is not differentiable at the point
x=l (see Fig. 35).
2.1.5. Find the average velocity of
!f motion specified by the formula
S=(t 2 -5t+2) m
from t 1 = 5 sec to t 2 = 15 sec.
2. 1.6. Using the definition of the
0 1 x derivative, find the derivatives of
the following functions:
Fig. 35 (a) y=x 3 ; (b) y= l/x2 •
2.1.7. Investigate the function Y=lcosxl for differentiability at
the points x = n/2 + nn (n an integer).

§ 2.2. Differentiation of Explicit Functions

I. Basic Rules of Differentiation
(l)c'=O;
(2) (u+v)'=u'±v';
(3) (cu)' =cu';
+
(4) (uv)' = u' u uv', the product rule;
v =
(5) ( u )' u'v-uv'
v2 (v =I=- 0), the quotient rule.
Here c =canst, and u and v are functions of x which have deri-
vatives at a corresponding point.
(6) If the function u =qi (x) is differentiable at the point x0 , and
the function y=f(u) is differentiable at the point u0 =qi(x 0 ), then
 § 2.2. Differentiation of Explicit Functions IOI

the composite function y = f (qi (x)) is differentiable at the point x0

and y~ (x0 } = y~ (u 0 ) u~ (x0 }, the function of a function, or chain, rule.
II. Differentiation of Basic Elementary Functions
(1) (u")' = nu 11 - 1 u'; (2) (sin u)' =cos U· u';
(3) (cosu)'=-sinu-u';
u' u'
(4) (tan u)' = cos 2 u; (5) (cot u)' = - sin2 u;
u'
(6) (In u)' = u;
(7) (au)'= au In a· u'; 8) (e")' = euu';
(9) (sinh u)' =cosh U· u';
(10) (coshu)'=sinhu-u';
u'
(11) (arcsinu)'=y . =-(arccosu)';
l-u 2
u'
( 12) (arc tan u)' = 1+u 2 = - (arc cot u)'.
2.2.1. Find y', if:
(a) y = 5x 2 13 -3x•l 2 + 2x- 3;

(b) y =
a
V x. -
2 x
v-
x
b t
(a, b constan s).

Solution. (a) y'=5·: x 213 -i_3. ~ x•l 2 - 1 -2.3x- 3 - 1 = }~----

3V x
-~xVx-:4 •
2.2.2. Find y', if:
. sinx+cosx
(a) y=3cosx+2smx; (b} y=sinx-cosx;
(c) y = (x 2 + 1) arc tan x; (d) y = x 3 arc sin x.
Solution. (a) y'=3(cosx)'+2(sinx)'=-3sinx+2cosx;
(b) , =(sin x+ cos x)' (sin x-c~s x)- (sin x-cos x)' (sin x+ cos x) =
Y (sm x- cos x) 2
(cos x-sin x) (sin x-cos x)-(cos x+ sin x) (sin x+cos x)
(sin x- cos x)2
2
(sin x-cosx) 2 '

(d) y' = (x 3 )' arc sin x+ (arc sin x)' x 3 = 3x2 arc sin x+ y 1 x~ x2 .
2.2.3. Find the derivative of the given function and then com-
pute the particular value of the derivative at the indicated value
of the argument:
(a) f (x} = 1-V
x2 + 16/x at x = - 8;
102 Ch. II. Differentiation of Functions

(b) f(x)=(l-Vx) 2 /x at x=0.01;

(c) f(t)=(cost)/(1-sint) at f=n/6.

v3 ,--
Solution. (a) f'(x)=- 2 x- 113 -l6x- 2 = - 2 ~.1
3
3 x x
Putting x = - 8, we obtain
f' (-8) =
3 v
2
-8
16
(-8)2=12;
l

(c) f'(t)=-sint(l-s.inl)+cos 2 t = 1. .
(1-smt) 2 1-smt
Whence f' (n/6) = 2.
2.2.4. Taking advantage of the differentiation formulas, find the
derivatives of the following functions:
(a) y=2x 3 +3x-5; (b) y=Vx + /~-+O.lx 10 ;
2x 2 +x+ I
(c) y = x2 -x-t- I ·' (d) y =
x+ Vx
V ,·
x-2 x
e y = cosqi+sinqi
() ---o-~-~ (f) y = 2ex + In x;
1-cosqi
(g) y=ex(cosx+sinx); (h) y=ex~e~inx.
2.2.5. Taking advantage of the rule for differentiation of a com-
posite function find the derivatives of the following functions:
(a) y=sinax; (b) y=lntanx; (c) y=Scosx;
+
(d) y =In sin (x 3 l); (e) y =arc sin Vf=Xi;
(f) y =In" (tan 3x); (g) y = sin 2 V1/( 1-x).
Solution. (a) Here the role of the external function is played by
the power function: sin x is raised to the third power. Differentiating
this power function with respect to the intermediate argument
(sin x), we obtain
• 3
( Slll )' 3 . 2 •
X sin x = Sl!J X,

but the intermediate argument sin x is a function of an independent

variable x; therefore we have to multiply the obtained result by
the derivative of sin x with respect to the independent variable x.
Thus, we obtain
y: = (sin 3 x):in x (sin x)~ = 3 sin 2 x cos x;

(b) , = (I n t an X )tan x ( t an x )'x =tanl x cosl2 x =sin2 2x;

Yx
(c) y; =(Seas x)~os x (cos x)~ = 5cos x In 5 (-sin x) = - 5cos x sin x In 5;
 § 2.2. Diflerentiation of Explicit Functions 103

(d) y~= [In sin (x 3 + l)fsin <x'+1> [sin (x 3 + 1)]~•+ 1 [x 3 + l]~=

I
= sm . (x.3 + I) · cos (x3 + 1) · 3x2 = 3x2 cot (x 3 + 1)·•

(e) y~ =(arc s·in Vl-x2 )'vi-::-;:2 (Vl - x2)1-x• (l-x 2 )~=

I I x
Vt-(l-x2 ) 2 Vt-x 2 • (- 2x) =- lxJ J!1-x2 (x=#=O).
2.2.6. Find the derivatives of the following functions:
(a) y = (1+3x + 5x2 ) 4 ; (b) y = (3-sin x)3;
(c) y= VSTr12X+ l/cos 2 x;
(d) Y=V2ex+2x+l+ln&x;
(e) y =sin 3x +cos (x/5) +tan Vx;
(f) y =sin (x 2 - 5x + 1) + tan (a/x);
(g) y =arc cos Vx;
(h) y =arc tan (In x) +In (arc tan x);
(i) y = In 2 arc tan (x/3);

(j) y = v + -{ + vx.
x x
Solution. (a) y' = 4 ( l + 3x+ 5x2) 3 (1+3x+ 5x2) ' =
=4(1 +3x+5x2 ) 3 (3+ lOx);
(g)y'=- I (Vx)' =- 1 ~=- t ;
Vt-(Vx) 2 Yl-x 2 Yx 2 fx(l-x)

(j) y' =
2
I i
x+Vx+Vx
l + V x+Yx
1
2
i ( 1 + 2.1r-x-)
Y
J.
2.2.7. Find the derivative of the function
. 2x
y=arcsm l+x 2 •

We have

i. e.
, { 1 ~x 2 at Ix I < l,
y = 2
- I+ x2 at Ix I > 1.
At Ix I = l the derivative is non-existent.
2.2.8. Find the derivatives of the following functions:
(a) y = sinh 5x cosh (x/3);
104 Ch. II. Differentiation of Functions

(b) y = coth (tan x)-tanh (cot x);

(c) y =arc cos (tanh x) + sinh (sin 6x);
(d) y = sinh 2 x3 + cosh 3 x2 ;
esinh ax
(e) Y = sinh bx- cosh bx
Solution.
(a) y' = (sinh 5x)' cosh ; + sinh 5x ( cosh ; ) '=

= 5 cosh 5x cosh ; +-} sinh 5x sinh ; ;

(c) y' = jtanh x)' +cosh (sin 6x) (sin 6x)' =
l-tanh2 x
= _ l/cosh 2 x +
y (cosh x- sinh 2 x) /cosh2 x
2

+ 6 cos 6x cosh (sin 6x) = - -cos1h-x + 6 cos 6x cosh (sin 6x).

2.2.9. Find the derivatives of the following functions:
(a) y= il V xa (x2+ I)
5 -x; (b) y=[u(x)]v x> (u(x)>O);
1

(c) y= v~ l-x sin 3 xcos 2 x·

I +x2 '

(d) y= JI ( r--)x+l
tanx .
Solution. (a) Apply the method of logarithmic differentiation.
Consider, instead 6f y, the function
\x3\(x2+l) I I
z=ln!y)=ln V V 15-xl
0
=lnlxl+-
3 ln(x2 +1)--
15 lnl5-x[.

Taking into account that (In I u) )' = u' /u, we have

, I 2x I -24x3+ 125x2 -14x+ 75
z =x+3(x 2+1)+15(5-x) 15x(x2 +1)(5-x)
But z' =(In I y I)'= y' /y, whence
,_ z ' - V x 3 (x 2+I). -24x3+125x2-J4x+75
y -Y - Vs-x 15x(x2 +1 )(5-x) ·
(b) Suppose the functions u (x) and v(x) have derivatives in the
given domain of definiti.on. Then the function
z= lny=vlnu
also has a derivative in this domain, and
u'
z' = (v In u)' = v' In u + v -u •
 .§ 2.2. Differentiation of Explicit Functions 105

Hence, the function

y =elny== ez
also has a derivative in the indicated domain, and
y' = ezz' = yz'.
Thus,
y' = uv ( v' In u+ v~') =vuv- 1 u' +uv In U·v'.

2.2. IO. Show that the function y = xe-x'f 2 satisfies the equation
xy' = (l-x2 } y.
Solution.
y' = e-x•12-x2e-x•12 = e-x 2 12 (l-x2);
xy' = xe-x'f 2( l -x2 }.
Hence,
xy' = y (l-x2 ).

2.2.11. Show that the function y = xe-x satisfies the equation

xy' = (1-x} y.
2.2.12. Investigate the following functions for differentiability:
(a) y=arcsin(cosx}; (b) y=y1-V1-x2 •

Solution. (a) y' = {cos x)' sin x - ~ .

Y I - cos2 x V sin2 x Ism x I
Hence, y' = -1 at points where sin x > O; y' = I at points where
sin x < 0. At points where sin x = 0, i.e. at the points x =kn
(k = 0, +I, ±2, ... ) the function, though continuous, is not dif-
ferentiable.
(b) The domain of definition of this function is the interval
-l~x~l.

y' -- 1 .r-I (-2x) at x =;b 0 and x =;b ± 1.

-- 2V1-v 1-·x2 2 r l--x2

As X-+ 1-0 or x-.- l + 0 we have y' -++ oo. Let us find

out whether the derivative y' exists at the point x = 0, i.e. whe-
ther
.
I 1m
JI I- YI -
A
fJ.x 2 •
exists.
I\~-· 0 u.X

Since V. l-i1x2 - l,.., _ I

2 dx2 , then

.
J.im
VI - .r
r I - fJ.x 2
= Jim
V1-
r-
-
2
fJ.x 2
__
{ ,}.,,
r 2 I
as L1x-+O,

o
i\x ... fJ.x i\x·... 0 fJ.x - VT as dX-+-0.
106 Ch. 11. Differentiation of Functions

Thus, y'_ (0) =I= y: (0), which means that the function under consi-
deration has no derivative at the point x = 0, though it is cont i-
nuous at this point.
Note. There are cases of failure of existence of f' (x) and even of
t: (x) and f'_ (x) at a given point, i.e. when the graph of the f unc-
tion has neither a right-, nor a left-side tangent at the given point.
For instance, the function
f(x)= f xsin(l/x) at x=1=0,
\ 0 at x=O
is continuous at the point x = 0, but does not have even one-sided
. t·
denva . tl{(x) . I
1ves, smce -XX= sm !1x.
2.2.13. Find the derivatives of the following functions:
(a) f (x) = sinh (x/2) + cosh (x/2);
(b) f(x)=ln[coshx]; (c) f(x)=2Vcoshx-l;
(d) f(x)=arcsin[tanhx];
(e) f (x) =Vt+ sinh 2 4x;
(f) f (x) = eax (cosh bx+ sinh bx).
2.2.14. Applying logarithmic differentiation find the derivatives
of the following functions:
(a) y=(cosx)slnx; (b) y=· V sin3x
l-sin3x;
Vx-1
(c) y= V (x+2)2 JI (x+ 3) 3 •

2.2.15.
cos 2 x
f (x) = I -1- sin2 x;
show that
f (n/4)-3f' (n/4) = 3.
2.2.16. Show that the function
x-e-x•
y= 2x2

satisfies the differential equation

+
xy' 2y = e-x•.
2.2. 17. Find the derivatives of the following functions:
(a) y =In cosVarc sin 3- 2 " (x > O);
(b) y= Varc tan V co~ ln 3 x.
 § 2.3. Successive Di(Jerentiation. Leibniz Formula 107

§ 2.3. Successi'Ve Differentiation of Explicit Functions.

Leibniz Formula
If the derivative of the (n- l)th order of a function y= f (x) is
already found, then the derivative of the nth order is determined
by the equality
y<n> (x) = [y<n-ll (x)]'.
In particular, y"(x)=[y'(x)]', y"'(x)=[y"(x)]', and so on.
If u and v are functions differentiable n times, then for their
linear combination c1 u + c2v (c 1 , c2 constants) we have the following
formula:
(c1 u + c2v)<n> -
-1c u<n• + c2
v<n>,
and for their product uv the Leibniz formula (or rule)
(uv)<n> = u<mv+nu<"-uv' + n(n-1)
1. 2 u<n- 2
,,
•v +
n
+ ... + uv'n> = ~ C~u<n-k>v<k>,
k=O
<o>_ <o>- d Ck_n(n-1) ... (n-k+I)_ n!
where u - u, v -v an n- 1. 2 . 3 . .. k - kl (n-k)! are
binomial coefficients. Here are the basic formulas:
(1) (xmr>=m(m-1) .. . (m-n+ l)xm-".
(2) (ax)<ll) =ax Inn a (a > 0). In particular, (ex)<n> =ex.
(3) (lnxr> =(-l)n-1 (n nl) I.
x
(4) (sinx)<n>=sin(x+nn/2).
(5) (cosx)<n> =cos(x+nn/2).
2.3.1. Find the derivatives of the nth order of the following
functions:
(a) y=lnx; (b) y=ekx; (c) y=sinx; (d) y=sin5xcos2x;
(e) y=sinxcosx; (f) y=sin3xcos2 x; (g) y=ln(x2 +x-2).
Solution.
(a) y'=+=x- 1 ; y"=(-l)x- 2 ; y"'= 1·2x- 3 ;
y<4l '---=- l ·2·3X-4; ... ; y<n> =(-l)n-1 (n-1) ! x-"= (-1)11-:"(n-I) I.
(c) y' =cosx= sin (x+n/2);
y" =cos (x + n/2) =sin (x + 2n/2).
In general, if we assume that for a given n = k

y<k> =sin ( x + k ; ) ,
108 Ch. II. Differentiation of Functions

then it will turn out that

y<k+o=cos (x+k ~)=sin [ck+ 1) ~ +x].
Whence, by virtue of mathematical induction we conclude that for
afly natural n
y<n>=sin(x+n ~)·
(d) y =sin 5xcos 2x= f [sin 7x+ sin 3x] •
Therefore
yim=f [1nsin(7x+n~)+3"sin(3x+n~)J.
I 2x+1
(g) Y = x2+x-2 ·
To simplify the computations let us transform the obtained
function:
,= 2x+ I = (x+2)+(x- l) =-'-+-'-= (x- l)-1+-(x+ 2)-1.
Y x2 +x-2 (x-l)(x+2) x-1 x+2
Whence
y" =-1 (x-1)- 2 - l (x+2)- 2 ;
y"' = l · 2 (x-1)- 3 + l · 2 (x + 2)- 3 ;

y<n> = (-l)n-l (n- 1) ! [(x-1)-n + (x+ 2)-"] =

-- (- l)n-I (n- 1) ·I [ - 1- -t - 1 - ]
(x-1)" (x+2)" ·
- · fin d y<n>.
ax+b
2 ' 3 · 2 ' y = cx+d'
-
Solution. Transform the given expression in the following way:

Y
= ax+ b
ex+ d
= ~
c
+ cbe- ad = ~ + be - ad (ex
(ex+ d) c c
_L
1
d)- 1 •
Whence
y' = (-1) bc-:-ad e (ex+ d)-2,
e

y" = (-1) ( -2) be-; ad e2 (ex+ d)-a,

y"' = (-1) (-2) (-3) be-ad e3 (ex+ d)- 4 ,

c

y<n) = (-l)"n! be-ad en (ex +d)-(n-t-1) =

e
n' cn-l
= (-1)" (ex +d)n+1 (be-ad).
 § 2.3. Successive Differentiation. Leibniz Formula 109

2.3.3. y=x/(x2 - l); find y(m.

Solution. Transform the given expression

therefore (see Problem 2.3.2):

(nJ_(-l)nn! [ I --j I ]
Y - 2 (x+ l)n+l (x-l)n+l •

2.3.4. Using the Leibniz formula, find the derivatives of the

indicated orders for the following functions:
(a) y = x2 sin x; find y( 25 l;
(b) y=ex (x2 - l); find y( 24 >;
(c) y = e•x sin ~x; find y<n>.

Solution. (a) y( 25 >=(sin x. x2 )( 25 i = (sin x)< 25 i x 2 + 25 (sin x)< 241 (x2 )' +
+ 25 ; 24 (sin x)( 23 >(x 2 )'', since the subsequent summands equal zero.
Therefore
y( 25 i = x 2 sin ( x + 25 ; ) + 50x sin ( x + 24 ; ) + 600 sin ( x + 23 ; ) =

= (x2 -600) cosx+ 50x sin x.

2.3.5. Compute the value of the nth derivative of the function

3x+2 .
y = x2 _ 2x+S at the po mt x = 0.

Solution. By hypothesis we have y (x) (x 2 -2x+ 5) = 3x+ 2. Let

us differentiate this identity n times using the Leibniz formula;
then (for n ~ 2) we obtain
n (n-1)
yn(x)(x 2 -2x+5)+nyu•- 1l(x) (2x-2)+ 2 y<n- 2 >(x)·2=0.

Putting x = 0, we have
5y<n> (0)- 2ny(n-u (O)+ n (n- 1) g1n-z) (0) = 0.
Whence
y(n1 (0) = ~ ny<n-1) (0)- n (n;: I) y<n-2> (0).

We have obtained a recurrence relation for determining the nth

derivative at the point x = 0 (n ~ 2). The values y (0) and y'(O)
are found immediately: y (0) = 2/5;
110 Ch. fl. D1flerent tal ton a) Fuw twn.~

, -3x2 -4x+ 19 f (0 19
Y (x) = (x2-2x+5J' ; y ) = 25'

Then, successively putting n = 2, 3, 4, ... , find the values of

the derivatives of higher orders with the aid of the recurrence
relation.
For example,
" 2 19 2.1 2 56
y (0)=5· 2 ·25-5·5=125•

y'" (0) = ~ . 3. 152~- 3~2. ~~ = -~;:.

2.3.6. Find the derivatives of the ·second order of the following
functions:
_ arc sin x . ( ) _ _ x•
(b) Y- .r ' c y-e .
r l-x
2

2.3.7. Given the function

y = C1e2x +c2xe2x + eX.
Show that this function satisfies the equation
y"-4y' + 4y=ex.
2.3.8. Using the Leibniz formula give the derivatives of the in-
dicated orders for the following functions:
(a) y=x 3 sinx; find y' 20 >;
(b) y = e-x sin x; find y'";
(c) y=eX (3x 2 -4); find y<n;;
(d) y= (l-x2 ) cosx; find y< 2 n>.

2.3.9. Using the expansion into a linear combination of simpler

functions find the derivatives of the lOOth order of the functions:
I
(b) y= +x
I
(a) Y = x2-3x+ 2 ;
vr=x
2.3. IO. Show that the function
y = xn [c 1 cos (In x) +c2 sin (In x)]
(c1 , c2 , n constants) satisfies the equation
x2 y" + (l -2n) xy' + (1 +n 2) y =0.
2.3.11. Prove that if f (x) has a derivative of the nth order, then
[f (ax+ b)] ''" = a"f'n> (ax+ b).
 § 2.4. Inverse, Implicit and Parametrically Represented Functions 111

§ 2.4. Differentiation of ln'Verse, Implicit and Parametri-

cally Represented Functions
I. The Derivative of an Inverse Function. If a differentiable
function y = f (x), a < x < b has a single-valued continuous inverse
function x = g (y) and y~ =I= 0 then there exists also
, I
Xy=-, •
Yx
For the derivative of the second order we have
..
x" __ Yxx
yy- (l/~)3.

2. The Derivative of an Implicit Function. If a differentiable

function y = y (x) sat is fies the equation F (x, y) = 0, then we have
to differentiate it with respect to x, considering y as a function
of x, and solve the obtained equation d~ F (x, y) = 0 with respect
to y~. To find y;, the equation should be twice differentiated with
respect to x, and so on.
3. The Derivative of a Function Represented Parametrically. If
the system of equations
x=qi(t), y='IJ(t), a< t < ~.
where qi (t) and 'iJ (t) are differentiable functions and qi' (t) =I= 0,
defines y as a single-valued continuous function of x, then there
exists a derivative y~ and
Yx=
, ipi (t) Yi
-,-=--; ·
\Pl (t) Xt

The derivatives of higher orders are computed successively:

,. - (y~)i
YX y"' = (y;x)'i and so on
X- I ' XXX I ' •
Xt Xt

In particular, for the second derivative the following formula is

true:
" Xt Ytt -Xtt Yt
Yxx= • •
(x1)a
2.4. l. For the function
(a) y=2x 3 +3x&+x; find x~;
(b) y = 3x-(cos x)/2; find 11 ; x;
(c) y= x+ex; find x;11 •
Solution. (a) We have y~=6x 2 + 15x 4 + 1, hence,
' l l
X11= y~ = -6x_2 _+_1-5x-,+-I •
112 Ch. II. Differentiation of Functions

(c) y~= 1+ex, !f'xx=ex, hence,

, I • ex
Xy= I +ex' Xyy= (I +ex)3.

2.4.2. Using the rule for differentiation of an inverse function,

find the derivative y~ for the following functions:
(a) ii= f/ x; (b) y =arc sin V x; (c) y =In V~l+-x2- .
Solution. (a) The inverse function X= y 3 has the derivative
x~ = 3y2 • Hence,
, I I I
Yx = x~ = 3 y2 = 3 V x2 .

(c) At x >0
the inverse function x = Ve 2Y - 1 has the derivative
x~= e Y/Ve Y-1. Hence,
2 2

. I Jf~.v=i Jf x2 x
Yx = x~ = e2Y = x2 + I = x2 + I .
2.4.3. For each of the following functions represented paramet-
rically find the derivative of the first order of y with respect to x:
(a) x=a(t-sint), y=a(l-cost);
(b) X=ksint--sinkt, y=kcost+coskt;
(c) X= 2 ln cott, y= tan t +cott;
(d) X=ect, y=e-ct.
Solution. (a) Find the derivatives of x and y with respect to the
parameter t:
x;=a(l-cost); y/=asint.
Whence
dy a sin t t t
dx = a (I-cost) =co 2 (t =I= 2kn).
dx - 2 cosec2 t 4
(c) dt = cot t =- sin 2t ;
dy 2 t 2 t 4. cos 2t •
dt =sec -cosec = - sin 2 2t ,
dy _ 4 cos 2t sin 2t =
dx - 4 sin 2 2t co
t 21 (t =I= kn)
2 •

2.4.4. The functions are defined parametrically:

(a) {x=acos3 t, (b) { X= t 3 +3t+ 1,
y=bsin 3 t; y= t 3 -3t + l;
(c) { x =a (cos t + t sin t}, (d) {x=e1 c~~t.
y= a (sin t-t ms t); y= e1 sin t.
Find for them the second derivative of y with respect to x.
 § 2.4. Inverse, Implicit and Parametrically Represented Functions 113

Solution. (a) First find y;.

y/ = 3b sin 2 t cos t; xi = - 3a cos 2 t sin t;
, = _ 3b sin~2 t c~s t = _ !!_ tan t ( t =f: (2k + 1) ~)
Yx 3a cos t sm t a 2 •
Then we shall find y"xx using the formula
" (y;);
Yxx=-, •
Xt
where
(Yx')'1 = b
- a cos 2 t•
Whence
• b f)
Yxx = - a cos 2 t ( - 3a cos 2 t sin t) = 3a2 cos 4 t sin t'
(d) xl=e1 cost-e1 sint=e'(cost-sint);
y; = e1 sin t +et cost = e1 (cost+ sin t);
, cos t+sint
Yx= cost-sin t;

,. (y~)I
( cost+sin
cos t- sin t 1
t)' 2
Yn =--:; = et (cost-sin t) et (cos t-sin t)3

2.4.5. Find y;~x:

(a) x =e- 1; y = t 3 ; (b) x =Sect; y= tan t.

Solution. (a) First find
x; =-e- 1; y; = 3t 2 ,
whence
y: = - 3t2/e-t = - 3ett2.
Then find the second derivative

Yxx-
• - (y;); - -(3ett2+6tet) = 3te2t (t
, - -e-t
+ 2).
Xt

And finally, find the third derivative

y~;x = (y~~)I = 3e21 [2 (t2+2t)+ 2t + 2] _ 6eat (t 2 + 3t + 1).
Xt -e-1

2.4.6. Find the derivative y; of the following implicit functions:

(a) x 3 +x2 y+y2 =0; (b) lnx+e-ulx=c;
(c) x 2 +y2 -4x-10y+4=0;
+
( d) x·i. y'la =a''··
Solution. (a) Differentiate with respect to x, considering y as
a function of x; we get:
+
3x2 2xy x2y' 2yy' = 0. + +
114 Ch. 11. Diflerentiation of Functions

Solving this equation with respect to y' find

, 3x 2 +2xy
Y = - x 2 +2y ·
2.4.7. Find y;x if:
(a) arctan y-y+x=O; (b) ex-eY=y-x;
(c) x+ y =ex-y.
Solution. (a) Differentiate with respect to x, considering y as a
function of x and determine y':
' 1+
l~y 2 -y'+l=O, whence y'=---l-=y- 2 +1.
2

Differentiate once again with respect to x:

y" = - 2y-3y'.
Substituting the value of y' thus found, we finally get
" 2 (I+ y2)
Yxx =- y• ·

2.4.8. Find the value of y" at the point x = l if

x 3 -2x2 y 2 + 5x + y-5 = 0 and Y lx=t = l.
Solution. Differentiating with respect to x, we find that
3x 2 -4xy 2 -4x2 yy' + 5 + y' = 0.
Putting x = 1 and y = 1, obtain the value of y' at x = 1:
3-4-4y' +s+ y' =O; y' =4/3.
Differentiate once again with respect to x:
6x-4y 2 -8xyy' -8xyy' -4x2 y' 2 -4x 2 yy" + y" = 0.
Putting x= 1; y== 1 and y' =4/3, find the value y" at x~~ 1:
6 - 4 - 64
3
- 64 -
9
3y" = 0 • y" = - 8 27.
22

2.4.9. Find y~ for the following implicit functions:

(a) x+Vxy+y=a; (b) arctan(y/x)=lnVx 2 +y 2 ;
(c) exsiny-e-Ycosx=O;
(d) eY+xy=e; find y~ at the point (0, 1).
2.4.10. Find y;x ot the following implicit functions:
(a) y=x+arctany;
(b) x 2 +Sxy+y 2 -2x+y-6=0; find y" at the point (1, 1).
 § 2.5. Applications of the Derivative 115

2 .4.11. For each of the following functions represented parame-

trically find the indicated derivatives:
a sin t c cos t
(a) X=1+b.cost' Y=1+bcost; find y;;
(b) x =In (1 + t 2 ), y = t-arctan t; find y;;
(c) X=t 2 +2, y=t 3 /3-t; find y;x;
(d) x=e-t 2 , y=-arctan(2t+ l); find y;;
(e) x=4tan 2 (t/2), y=asint+bcost; find y~;
(f) x=arcsin(t 2 -l), y=arccos2t; find y;;
(g) x=arcsint, y=Vl-t 2 ; find y;x.
2.4.12. Show that the function y = f (x), defined by the parametric
equations x=e1 sint, y=e1 cost, satisfies the relation y"(x+y) 2 =
= 2(xy'-y).

§ 2.5. Applications of the Deri'Vati<ve

The equation of a line tangent to the curve of a differentiable
function y = y (x) at a point M (x 0 , y 0), where Yo= y (x 0 ), has the
form
Y-Yo = y' (x0 ) (x-x 0 ).
A straight line passing through the point of contact perpendicu-
larly to the tangent line is called the normal to the curve. The
equation of the normal at the
point M will be !I
I
y-yo= -y' (xo) (X-Xo),
y' (x0) =I= 0.
The segments AT, AN are
called the subtangent and the
subnormal, respectively; and the _D.,.......T-~---A~--~N~ :c
lengths MT and MN are the Fig. 36
so-called segment of the tangent
and the segment of the normal,
respectively (see Fig. 36). The lengths of the four indicated segments
are expressed by the following formulas:

AT=I:,/; AN=lyy'I; MT=l:,/v1+(y') 2;

MN= I y I Vl + (y') 2•

2.5.1. Write the equations of the tangent Iine and the normal:
(a) to the curve y = x 3 -3x + 2 at the point (2, 4);
116 Ch. II. Differentiation of Functions

(b) to the parabola y=2x 2 -x+5 at X=-0.5;

(c) to the curve y = x 4 + 3x2 - l6 at the points of intersection
with the parabola y = 3x 2 •
Solution. (a) Find the derivative at the point x = 2:
y' = 3x~-3, y' (2) = 9.
The equation of the tangent line has the following form:
y-4= 9(x-2) or 9x-y-14=0.
The equation of the normal is of the form:
l
y-4=--g(x-2) or x+9y-38=0.

(c) Solving the system of equations

y =X4 + 3x2 -16,
{
y=3x2 ,
we shall find the points of intersection of the curves
Xi=-2, X2=2, Y1=Y2=12.
Now we find the derivatives at the points x = - 2 and x = 2:
y' =4X3 + 6x, y' (-2) =- 44, y' (2) =44.
Therefore, the equations of the tangent lines have the form
y- 12 =- 44 (x+ 2), y- 12 -= 44 (x-2).
The equations of the normals have the form
I I
y-12 = 44 (x+ 2), y-12 = - 44 (x-2).

2.5.2. Find the points on the curve y=x 3 -3x+5 at which the
tangent line:
(a) is parallel to the straight line y = - 2x;
(b) is perpendicular to the straight 1ine y = - x/9;
(c) forms an angle of 45° with the positive direction of the x-axis.
Solution. To find the required points we take into consideration
that at the point of tangency the slope of the tangent is equal to
the derivative y' = 3x2-3 computed at this point.
(a) By the condition of parallelism
3x2 -3=-2,
whence x1 =-1/V3, x 2= 1/V3. The required points are:
M.(-1/V3, 5+8V3/9), M2(1/V3, 5-8V3/9).
 § 2.5. Applications of the Derivative 117

(b) By the condition of perpendicularity

3x2 -3 =9,
whence x1 = - 2, x 2 = 2. The required points: M 1 ( - 2, 3), M 2 (2, 7).
2.5.3. Find the angles at which the following lines intersect:
(a) the straight line y=4-x and the parabola y=4-x 2 /2;
(b) the sinusoid y =sin x and the cosine curve y =cos x.
Solution. (a) Recall that the angle between two curves at the point
of their intersection is defined as the angle formed by the lines tan-
gent to these curves and drawn at this point. Find the points of
intersection of the curves by solving the system of equations
y=4-x
{
y=4-x:/2.
Whence
M 1 (0, 4); M 2 (2, 2).
Determine then the slopes of the lines tangent to the parabola at
the points M 1 and M 2 :
y' (0) = 0, y' (2) = - 2.
The slope of a straight line is constant for all its points; in our
case it equals -1. Finally, determine
the angle between the two straight ff
lines:
tan qi 1 = 1; qi 1 = 45°; K
-1+2 1
tan qi 2 = l+:2 = 3;
q> 2 = arc tan ~ ~ 18.5°.
0 Xo
2.5.4. Prove that the segment of Fig. 37
the tangent to the hyperbola y = c/x
which is contained between the coordinate axes is bisected at the
point of tangency.
Solution. We have y' = - c/x 2 ; hence, the value of the sub tangent
for the tangent at the point M (x0 , y 0 ) will be

I:. l=lxoj,
i.e. Ox 0 =x0 T (Fig. 37), which completes the proof.
Whence follows a simple method of constructing a tangent to the
hyperbola y = c/x: lay off the x-intercept OT= 2x0 • Then MT will
be the desired tangent.
118 Ch. II. Differentiation of Functions

2.5.5. Prove that the ordinate of the catenary y =a cosh (x/a) is

the geometric mean of the length of the normal and the quantity a.
Solution. Compute the length of the normal. Since
y' = sinh (x/a),
the length of the normal will be
MN= Iy I Vl + (y') 2 = YV 1 + sinh 2 (x/a) =ycosh (x/a) =y 2/a,
whence y2 =a-MN, and y=Va-MN, which completes the proof.
2.5.6. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve
f X=f +3t-8,
2

'l y = 2t 2t - 5
2 -

at the point M (2, -1).

Solution. First determine the value of t corresponding to the gi-
ven values of x and y. This value must simultaneously satisfy the
two equations
I t 2 +3t-8=2
l 2t 2 -2t-5= - 1.
The roots of the first equation are t 1 = 2; t 2 = - 5, the roots of the
second equation t 1 = 2; t 2 = - 1. Hence, to the given point there
corresponds the value t = 2. Now determine the value of the deri-
vative at the point M:

y
'I X=2 = (y;)
Xf 1=2 =
(4t-2)
2/ +3 1=2
6
=7 •
And so, the slope of the tangent at the point M (2, -1) is equa I
to 6/7.
2.5.7. Prove that the tangent to the lemniscate p=aVcos20at
the point corresponding to the value 00 = n/6 is parallel to the x-axis.
Solution. Write in the parametric form the equation of the Iem-
niscate:
x= p cos0 =a V cos 20 cose,
y= p sin 0 =a V cos 20 sin 0.
Whence
,
Xe
a cos 8 sin 28
=-----=--=--a
v--
cos 20
. 0, sin
f cos 28
• a sin 8 sin 28
Yo = - y +a
v--
cos20 0,co~
cos 28
x~ (n/6) = - a V2, ye (n/6) = o.
 § 2.5. Applications of the Derivative 119

y~ (n/6)
Thus, the slope k= . =0. Consequently, the line tangent to
x0 (n/6) ·
the lemniscate at the point with 00 = n/6 and Po= aVr cos 200 =
= a/V-2 is parallel to the x-axis.

2.5.8. Find the equations of the tangent and the normal to the
following curves:
(a) 4x 3 -3xy2 +6x2 -5xy-8y2 +9x+ 14=0 at the point (-2, 3);
(b) x•+y•-2xy=0 at the point (1, 1).
Solution. (a) Differentiate the implicit function:
12x2 -3y2 -6xyy' + 12x-5y-5xy' -16yy' + 9 = 0.
Substitute the coordinates of the point M (-2, 3):
48-27 + 36y'-24-15 + IOy' -48y' + 9 =0;
whence
y'=-9/2.
Thus the equation of the tangent line is
9
y-3 = - 2 (x + 2)
and the equation of the normal
2
y-3 =g-(x+2).

2.5.9. Through the point (2, 0), which does not belong to the
curve y = x4, draw tangents to the latter.
Solution. Let (x 0 , xt,) be the point of tangency; then the equation
of the tangent will be of the form:
y-xg = y' (x0 ) (x-x 0 )

y-xt, = 4xi (x-x 0 ).

By hypothesis the desired tangent line passes through the point
(2, 0), hence, the coordinates of this point satisfy the equation of
the tangent line:
-x3=4xH2-x0 ); 3xg-8xi=o,
whence x0 = O; x0 = 8/3. Thus, there are two points of tangency:
M 1 (0, 0), M 2 (8/3, 4096/81).
Accordingly, the equations of the tangent lines will be
4096 2048 ( 8 )
y=O, y-81=21 X-3 .
120 Ch. JI. Differentiation of Functions

2.5.10. f (x) = 3x&- 15x3 + 5x- 7. Find out at which of the points x
the rate of change o.f the function is minimal.
Solution. The rate of change of a function at a certain point is
equal to the derivative of the function at this point
f' (x) = 15x4 -45x2 + 5 = 15 [(x2 - l/2) 2 + 1/12].
The minimum value of f' (x) is attained at x = + l/V2. Hence the
minimum rate of change of the function f (x) is at the point
x = ± t;V2 and equals 5/4.
2.5.11. A point is in motion along a cubic parabola 12y=x3 •
Which of its coordinates changes faster?
Solution. Differentiating both members of the given equation with
respect to t we get the relation between the rates of change of the
coordinates:
12yi = 3x2 ·xi
or

Hence,
(1) at -2 < x < 2 the ratio y;:xi is less than unity, i.e. the rate
of change of the ordinate is less than that of the abscissa;
(2) at x = ±2 the ratio y;: x; is equal to unity, i.e. at these
points the rates of change of the coordinates are equal;
(3) at x < -:-2 or x > 2 the ratio yi: x; is greater than unity, i.e.
the rate of change of the ordinate exceeds that of the abscissa.
2.5.12. A body of mass 6g is in rectilinear motion according to
the law s=-l+ln(t+l)+(t+l) 3 (sis in centimetres and t, in
seconds). Find the kint>tic energy (mv 2/2) of the body one second
after it begins to move.
Solution. The velocity of motion is equal to the time derivative
of the distance:
v (t) = s/ = t~1 + 3 (t + 1)2.
Therefore
v(l)= 12 2I and mv
y= 26 ( 12 2I ) =468 43 (erg).
2 2

2.5.13. The velocity of rectilinear motion of a body is proporti-

onal to the square root of the distance covered (s), (as, for example,
in free fall of a body). Prove that the body moves under the action
of a constant force.
Solution. By hypothesis we have
v=si=aVs (a=const);
 .~ 2.5. Applications of the Derivative 121

whence
s"11 = v1' =a ---:;p
I s'1 =a·''/2 .
2 f s
But according to Newton's law the force
F = ks/1 (k = const).
Hence,
F = ka. 2/2 =canst.
2.5.14. A raft is pulled to the bank by means of a rope which
is wound on a drum, at a rate of 3 m/min. Determine the speed
of the raft at the moment when it is 25 m distant from the bank
if the drum is situated on the bank 4 m above water level.
Solution. Let s denote the length of the rope between the drum
and the raft and x the distance from the raft to the bank. By
hypothesis
s2 =x2+42_
Differentiating this relation with respect to t, find the relation-
ship between their speeds:
2ssi =2xx/,
whence
' s '
X1=xSt 0

Taking into consideration that

si=3; x=25; s=V25 2 +4 2 ~ 25.3,
we obtain
' = v2s2+ 42 · 3 ~ 3.03 (m/mm).
Xt
.
25

2.5.15. (a) Find the slope of the tangent to the cubic parabola
y=x3 at the point x=V3/3.
(b) Write the equations of the tangents to the curve y= 1/(1 +x 2 )
at the points of its intersection with the hyperbola y = 1/(x+ 1).
(c) Write the equation of the normal to the parabola y = x2 +4x+ I
perpendicular to the line joining the origin of coordinates with the
vertex of the parabola.
(d) At what angle does the curve y =ex intersect the y-axis?
2.5.16. The velocity of a body in rectilinear motion is determi-
ned by the formula v=3t+t 2 • What acceleration will the body
have 4 seconds after the start?
2.5.17. The law of rectilinear motion of a body with a mass of
+ +
100 kg is s = 2t 2 3t l. Determine the kinetic energy (mv 2/2) of
the body 5 seconds after the start.
122 Ch. II. Diflerentiat ion of Functions

2.5.18. Show that if the law of motion of a body is s=ae1 +be- 1,

then its acceleration is numerically equal to the distance covered.
2.5.19. A body is thrown vertically with an initial velocity of
am/sec. What altitude will it reach in t seconds? Find the velocity
of the body. In how many seconds and at what distance from the
ground will the body reach the highest point?
2.5.20. Artificial satellites move round the Earth in elliptical
orbits. The distance r of a satellite from the centre of the Earth
as a function of time t can be approximately expressed by the fo-
llowing equation:
r = a [ I - e cos M - e; (cos 2M - I) J
where M = ?; (t- tn)
t =time parameter
a= semi-major axis of the orbit
e =eccentricity of the orbit
P =period of orbiting
tn=time of passing the perigee 1 ty the satellite.
Here a, e, P and tn are constants.
Find the rate of change in the distance r from the satellite to the
centre of the Earth (i.e. find the so-called radial velocity of the
satellite).

§ 2.6. The Differential of a Function .

.4pplication to Approximate Computations
If the increment !J.y of the function y = f (x) can be expressed as:
!J.y = f (x+ !J.x)-f (x) =A (x) !J.x+a (x, !J.x) !J.x,
where
Jim a (x, !J.x) = 0,
l'J.X - 0

then such a function is called ditferentiable at the point x. The

principal linear part of this increment A (x) !J.x is called the ditfe-
rential and is denoted df (x) or dy. By definition, dx = !J.x.
For the differential of the function y = f (x) to exist it is nece-
ssary and sufficient that there exist a finite derivative y' =A (x).
The differential of a function can be written in the following way:
dy = y' dx= f' (x)dx.
1 The perigee of the satellite orbit is the shortest distance from the sate-
llite to the centre of the Earth.
 § 2.6. Differential of a Function 123

For a composite function y = f (u), u =qi (x) the differential is

retained in the form
dy =f' (u) du
(the invariance of the form of the differential).
With an accuracy up to infinitesimals of a higher order than dx
the approximate formula dy :::::::: dy takes place. Only for a linear
function y =ax+ b do we have dy = dy.
Differentials of higher orders of the function y = f (x) are succes-
sively determined in the following way:
d 2 y=d(dy); d 3 y=d(d2 y), .. . , dny=d(d"- 1 y).
If y = f (x)and x is an independent variable, then
d y = y" (dx) 2 ; d 3 y = y"' (dx)3, ... , dny = y<tl) (dx)".
2

But if y -= f (u), wt:ere u =qi (x), then d 2 y = f" (u) du 2 + f' (u) d2 u, and
so on.
2.6. l. Find the differential of the function
y =In ( 1 + e10 x) +arc tan e•x.
Calculate dy at x = O; dx = 0.2.
Solution.
_ [(I+ etox)' (e•x)' ] _ Se•x (2e•x- I)
dy- I +eiox I +eiox dx- I +e1ox dx.
Substituting x = 0 and dx = 0.2, we get
5
dy lx=O; dx=0.2 = 2 · 0.2 = 0.5.
2.6.2. Find the increment and the differential of the function
y=3x 3 +x-1
at the point X= 1 at dx=0.1.
Find the absolute and relative errors allowed when replacing the
increment of the function with its differential.
Solution.
f:.y = [3 (x+ dx} 3 + (x+ dx)-l]-(3x 3 +x- l) =
= 9x2 dx + 9x dx2 + 3dx3 + dx,
dy = (9x 2 1) dx. +
Whence
dy-dy = 9x dx2 + 3dx3 •
At x=l and dx=0.1 we get
dy-dy = 0.09+ 0.003 =0.093,
dy =I; dy = 1.093.
124 Ch. II. Di(Jerentiation of Functions

The absolute error Ifl.y-dy I= 0.093, the relative error j !:ly-;/Y I=

= ~ :~~~ ~ 0.085 or 8.5 % .
2.6.3. Calculate approximately the increment of the function
y=x 3 -7x2 +8
as x changes from 5 to 5.01.
2.6.4. Using the concept of the differential, find the approximate
value of the function
y= Vr2-x
2 +x at
ri
X=0.15.
Solution. Notice that from fl.y = y (x+ fl.x)-y (x) we get
y (x+ fl.x) = y (x) + fl.y,
or, putting fl.y ~ dy,
y (x + fl.x) ~ y (x) + dy.
In our problem let us put x = 0 and fl.x = 0.15. Then

Y
,
=s
I V(2+x)
2-x
4 (-4)
· (2+x)2'
.

y'(O)=- ! , dy=- ! ·0.15=-0.03.

Hence,
y (0.15) ~ y (0) + dy= 1-0.03 = 0.97.
The true value of y (0.15) = 0.9702 (accurate to 10- 4 ).
2.6.5. Find the approximate value of:
(a) cos31°; (b) log 10.21; (c) V33; (d) cot 45°10'.
Solution. (a) In solving this problem we shall use the formula (*)
of the preceding problem. Putting x = n/6, fl.x = n/180, we compute:

y(x)=COS5=-2- ;
1t ¥3

I ( ) • 1t I
y X =-Stn5=-2;

cos31 o =cos 6 + 180 (n n) Y3

~ - 2 - - 2180
In =0.851.
(c) Put x = 32; fl.x = 1. By formula (*) we get

V -33~ v- y Xx=32·1=2+ v-
32+ (5/"-)' 5
I
32 G 4
2+ 80I =2.0125.
 § 2.6. Differential of a Function 125

2.6.6. All faces of a copper cube with 5-cm sides were uniformly
ground down. As a result the weight of the cube was reduced by
0.96 g. Knowing the specific weight of copper (8) find the reduction
in the cube size, i.e. the amount by which its side was reduced.
Solution. The volume of the cube v=x 3 , where x is the length
of the side. The volume is equal to the weight divided by the den-
sity: v = p/d; the change in cube's volume L1v = 0.96/8 = 0.12 (cm 3 ).
Since L1v approximately equals dv and taking into consideration that
dv = 3x2 dx we shall have 0.12 = 3 x 5 2 x L1x, whence
L1x = ~". 1225 = 0.0016 cm.
Thus, the side of the cube was reduced by 0.0016 cm.
2.6.7. Find the expressions for determining the absolute errors in
the following functions through the absolute errors in their argu-
ments:
(a) y = lnx; (b) y = logx;
(c) y =sin x (0 < x < :rt/2); (d) y = tanx (0 < x < :rt/2);
< <
(e) y = log (sin x) (0 x :rt/2};
(f} y =log (tan x) (0 < x < :rt/2).
Solution. If the function f (x) is differentiable at a point x and
the absolute error of the argument dx is sufficiently small, then
the absolute error in the function y can be expressed by the number
L1y =I y; I L1x.
(a) dy =I (In x)' Ix L1x =~xx , i.e. the absolute error of a natural
logarithm is equal to the relative error in its argument.
M
(b) dy =(log x)' dx = x dx, where M = loge= 0.43429;
(e) dy =I [log (sin x)]' I dx =MI cot x I dx;
(f) dy =I [log (tan x))' I dx = I s~~x I dx.
From (e) and (f) it follows that the absolute error in log tan x
is always more than that in log sin x (for the same x and dx)·
2.6.8. Find the differentials dy and d 2 y of the function
y= 4x~-7x 2 +3,
assuming that:
(1) x is an independent variable;
(2) x is a function of another independent variable.
Solution. By virtue of the invariance of its form the differential
of the first order dy is written identically in both cases:
dy = y' dx = (20x'-14x) dx.
126 Ch. 11. Differentiation of Functions

But in the first case dx is understood as the increment of the

independent variable dx (dx = dx), and in the second, as the diffe-
rential of x as of a function (dx may not be equal to dx).
Since differentials of higher orders do not possess the property
of invariance, to find d2 y we have to consider the following two
cases.
( 1) Let x be an independent variable; then
d2 y = y" dx 2 = (80x 3 - l4) dx2 •
(2) Let x be a function of some other variable. In this case
d2 y = (80x 3 - l4) dx 2 + (20x 4 - l4x) d2 x.
2.6. 9. Find differentials of higher orders (x an independent va-
riable):
(a) y=4-x2 ; find d2 y;
(b) y = Vln 2 x-4; find d2 y;
(c) y = sin 2 x; find d 3 y.
l-x2 •
2.6.10. y=ln i+x2 ; find d2 y 1f: (a) xis an independent variable,
(b) x is a function of another variable. Consider the particular
case when x = tan t.
2.6. t 1. The volume V of a sphere of radius r is equal to
: nr 3 • Find the increment and differential of the volume and
explain their geometrical meaning.
2.6.12. The law of the free fall of a material point is s=gt 2 /2.
Find the increment and differential of the distance at a moment t
and elucidate their mechanical meaning.

§ 2.7. Additional Problems

2.7.1. Given the functions: (a) f(x)=lxl and (b) 1P(X)=lx3 [.
Do derivatives of these functions exist at the point x = O?
2.7.2. Show that the curve y=elxl cannot have a tangent line
at the point x = 0. What is the angle between the one-sided tan-
gents to this curve at the indicated point?
2.7.3. Show that the function
f (x) =Ix-a I IP (x),
where IP (x) is a continuous function and IP (a) =f= 0, has no deriva-
tive at the point x =a. Find the one-sided derivatives f:_ (a) and
f: (a).
 § 2.7. Additional Problems 127

2.7.4. Given the function

f (x) = {. x2 sin ( l/x} at x :p 0,
0 at X=O.
Use this example to show that the derivative of a continuous
function is not always a continuous function.
2.7.5. Let
f (x)= f x2 , if x~x0 ,
l ax+b, if x > x 0 •
Find the coefficients a and b at which the function is continuous
and has a derivative at the point x 0 •
2.7.6. By differentiating the formula cos3x=cos 3 x-3cosxsin 2 x
deduce the formula sin 3x = 3 cos 2 x sin x-sin 3 x.
2.7.7. From the formula for the sum of the geometric progression
1-xn+l
I +x+x2 + ... +xn= l-x (x=F 1)
deduce the formulas for the following sums:
(a) I+ 2x+ 3x2 + ... + nxn-1;
(b) 12+ 22 x+3 2 x 2 + ... +n 2 xn- 1.
2. 7 .8. Prove the identity
cos x + cos 3x + ... + cos (2n- 1) x = -sin
2-
2nx
.- ,
smx
x =/= k n
and deduce from it the formula for the sum
sin x+ 3 sin 3x+ ... + (2n- l)sin (2n-1)x.
2.7.9. Find y' if:
(a) Y---'f(sin 2 x}+f(cos 2 x); (b} y=f(ex)eJ1x 1;
(c} y = logcp ex>'¢ (x) (qi (x) > O; '¢ (x) > 0).
2. 7. IO. Is it reasonable to assert that the product F (x) = f (x) g (x)
has no derivative at the point x = x 0 if:
(a) the function f (x) has a derivative at the point x 0 , and the
function qi (x) has no derivative at this point?
(b) neither function has a derivative at the point x0 ?
Consider the examples: (1) f(x)=x, g(x)=lxl;
(2) f (x) =Ix 1. g (x) = Ix I·
Is it reasonable to assert that the sum F (x) = f (x) + g (x) has no
derivative at the point x = x 0 if:
128 Ch. 11. Diflerentiation of Functions

(c) the function f (x) has a derivative at the point x 0 , and the
function g (x) has no derivative at this point?
(d) neither function has a derivative at the point x0 ?
2. 7. l l. Prove that the derivative of a differentiable even function
is an odd function, and the derivative of an odd function is an
even function. Give a geometric explanation to these facts.
2.7.12. Prove that the derivative of a periodic function with
veriod T is a periodic function with period T.
2.7.13. Find F' (x) if
x x2 x3
F (x) = I 2x 3x2
0 2 6x
2.7.14. Find the derivative of the function y=xlxl. Sketch the
graphs of the given function and its derivative.
2.7.15. Suppose we have a composite function y=f (u), where
u =qi (x). Among what points should we look for points at which
the composite function may have no derivative?
Does the composite function always have no derivative at these
points? Consider the function y=u 2 , u=lxl.
2.7.16. Find y" for the following functions:
(a) u=lxsl; (b) u={ x2sin(l/x), x=FO,
0 at x=O.
Is there y" (O)?
2.7.17. (a) f(x)=xn; show that
f (I)+ f' ~II) + fC2~~1) + • • • + f<n~~I) = 2n.
(b} f (x} =xn- 1e11 x; show that
[f (x)]<n>= (-l)nfx~~ (n= 1, 2, ... ).
2.7.18. y=x2e-x 1a; show that
f<nJ (0) = (-l)n;~~-1) (n ~ 2).
2.7.19. Show that the function y=arcsinx satisfies the relation
( l -x2 ) y" = xy'. Find y<n> (0) (n ~ 2) by applying the Leibniz for-
mula to both members of this identity.
2. 7 .20. Prove that the Chebyshev polynomials
I
Tn(x)= 2n_ 1 cos(narccosx) (n= 1, 2, ... )
 § 2.7. Additional Problems 12::l

satisfy the equation

(l-x 2 ) T~ (x)-xT~ (x) + n 2 T,, (x) = 0.
2.7.21. The derivative of the nth order of the function e-x• has
the form
(e-x 2 )( I I ) = e-x 2 H n (x),
where H 11 (x) is a polynomial of degree n called the Chebyshev··
Hermite polynomial.
Prove that the recurrence relation
H 11 + 1 (x)-2xH 11 (x)+2nH 11 _ 1 (x)=O (n=l, 2, ... )
is valid.
2.7 .22. Show that there exists a single-valued function y = y (x)
defined by the equation y~ + 3y = x, and find its derivative y:.
2.7 .23. Single out the single-valued continuous branches of the
inverse function x=x(y) and find their derivatives if y=2x 2 -x 4 •
I I +u . du du
2. 7 .24. u = 2 In 1 ~v; check the relation du du= 1.

2.7 .25. Inverse trigonometric functions are continuous at all

points of the domain of definition. Do they have a finite deriva-
tive at all points of the domain? Indicate the points at which the
following functions have no finite derivative:
x+I . I
(a) y=arccos-2-; (b) y=arcs111x.

2.7 .26. Show that the function y = y (x), defined parametrically:

x=2t-1tl, y=t 2 +tltl, is differentiable at f=O but its deriva-
tive cannot be found by the usual formula.
2.7.27. Determine the parameters a, b, c in the equation of the
parabola y = ax2 +bx+ c so that it becomes tangent to the straight
line y = x at the point x = 1 and passes through the point (-1, 0).
2.7 .28. Prove that the curves y 1 = f (x) (f (x) > 0) and y 2 =
= f (x) sin ax, where f (x) is a differentiable function, are tan-
gent to each other at the common points.
2.7.29. Show that for any point M (x 0 , y 0 ) of the equilateral
hyperbola x 2 -y 2 =a~ the segment of the normal from the point
M to the point of intersection with the abscissa is equal to the
radius vector of the point M.
2.7.30. Show that for any position of the generating circle the
tangent line and the normal to the cycloid x =a (t-sin t),
y=a(l-cost) pass through the highest (at, 2a) and the lowest
(at, 0) points of the circle, respectively.
5-3148
130 Ch. II. Differentiation of Functions

2.7.31. Show that two cardioids p=a(l+coscp) and p=

== a (I -cos cp) intersect at right angles.
2.7 .32. Let y = f (u), where u = cp (x). Prove the validity of the
cc;uality
d 3 y = f'" (u) du 3 + 3f" (u) du d 2 u + f' (u) d:iu.

2.7.33. Let y=f(x), where x=cp(t); the functions f(x) and

cp (t) are twice differentiable and dx =I= 0. Prove that
" d 2 ydx-dyd 2x
Yxx = dx3 •

where the differentials forming the right member of the relation

are differentials with respect to the variable t.
2. 7 .34. How will the expression
(l-x2) d2y -
dx 2
xdy
dx
+y
be transformed (where y is a twice differentiable function of x) if
we introduce a new independent variable t, putting x =cost?
2.7 .35. In determining an electric current by means of a tangent
galvanometer use is made of the formula
l=ktancp,
where I= current
k =factor of proportionality (depending on the instrument)
cp =angle of pointer deflection.
Determine the relative error of the result which depends on the
inaccuracy in reading the angle cp. At what position of the pointer
can one obtain the most reliable results?