12장 솔루션

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Ch12Ch02
솔루션입니다아아아아아아아아아아아아ㅋ키키키키키ㅣ키키
키키키키키키키키키키키키킹니아미;ㅏㅇㄴ미ㅏ임나이;
재료과학과 공학 (Yeungnam University)
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ㅁ나인마임낭ㅁㄴㅇㅁㄴㅇㅁㄴㅇㅁㄴㅇㅁㄴㅇCh02
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CHAPTER 12
PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
The Kinetics of Phase Transformations
12.1 Name the two stages involved in the formation of particles of a new phase. Briefly describe each.
Solution
The two stages involved in the formation of particles of a new phase are nucleation and
growth. The nucleation process involves the formation of normally very small particles of the new
phase(s) which are stable and capable of continued growth. The growth stage is simply the increase in
size of the new phase particles.
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purposes only to students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of
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copyright owner is unlawful.

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12.2 (a) Rewrite the expression for the total free energy change for nucleation (Equation 12.1) for the
case of a cubic nucleus of edge length a (instead of a sphere of radius r). Now differentiate this
expression with respect to a (per Equation 12.2) and solve for both the critical cube edge length,
a*, and also ΔG*.
(b) Is ΔG* greater for a cube or a sphere? Why?
Solution
(a) This problem first asks that we rewrite the expression for the total free energy change for nucleation
(analogous to Equation 12.1) for the case of a cubic nucleus of edge length a. The volume of such a
cubic radius is a3, whereas the total surface area is 6a2 (since there are six faces each of which has an
area of a2). Thus, the expression for G is as follows:
G = a3 Gv  6a 2
Differentiation of this expression with respect to a is as
d G d (a Gv ) d (6a  )
3 2
 
da da da
 3a 2 Gv  12a 
If we set this expression equal to zero as
3a 2 Gv  12a   0
and then solve for a (= a*), we have
4
a*  
Gv
Substitution of this expression for a in the above expression for G yields an equation for G* as
G *  (a*)3 Gv  6(a*)2 
æ 4 ö æ 4 ö
3 2
= çç ÷ Gv + 6 çç ÷
è Gv ÷ø è Gv ÷ø
32  3

(Gv ) 2

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é 3 ù æ 16 ö é 3 ù
(b) Gv for a cube—i.e., (32) ê ú —is greater that for a sphere—i.e., ç ÷ê ú =
êë ( Gv ) úû
2
è 3 ø êë ( Gv ) úû
2
é 3 ù
(16.8) ê ú . The reason for this is that surface-to-volume ratio of a cube is greater than for a
êë ( Gv ) úû
2
sphere.

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12.3 If copper (which has a melting point of 1085°C) homogeneously nucleates at 850°C, calculate
the critical radius given values of –1.77 × 109 J/m3 and 0.200 J/m2, respectively, for the latent
heat of fusion and the surface free energy.
Solution
This problem states that copper homogeneously nucleates at 849C, and that we are to
calculate the critical radius given the latent heat of fusion (–1.77  109 J/m3) and the surface free energy
(0.200 J/m2). Solution to this problem requires the utilization of Equation 12.6 as
æ 2 T öæ 1 ö
r * = çç m÷
÷çç T T ÷÷
è H f øè m ø
(2)(0.200 J/m 2 ) (1085 + 273 K) 1

= 9 3
÷
1.77 10 J/m 1085°C 850°C
 1.31  109 m  1.31 nm

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12.4 (a) For the solidification of iron, calculate the critical radius r* and the activation free energy
ΔG* if nucleation is homogeneous. Values for the latent heat of fusion and surface free energy
are –1.85 × 109 J/m3 and 0.204 J/m2, respectively. Use the supercooling value found in Table
12.1.
(b) Now calculate the number of atoms found in a nucleus of critical size. Assume a lattice
parameter of 0.292 nm for solid iron at its melting temperature.
Solution
(a) This portion of the problem asks that we compute r* and G* for the homogeneous nucleation of
the solidification of Fe. First of all, Equation 12.6 is used to compute the critical radius. The melting
temperature for iron, found inside the front cover is 1538C; also values of Hf (–1.85  109 J/m3) and
 (0.204 J/m2) are given in the problem statement, and the supercooling value found in Table 12.1 is
295C (or 295 K). Thus, from Equation 12.6 we have
æ 2 T öæ 1 ö
r * = çç m÷
÷çç T T ÷÷
è H f øè m ø
(2) (0.204 J/m 2 ) (1538 + 273 K) 1

= 9 3
÷
1.85 10 J/m 295 K
= 1.35  109 m  1.35 nm
For computation of the activation free energy, Equation 12.7 is employed. Thus
æ 16 3T 2 ö 1
G * = çç m ÷
2 ÷
è 3 H f ø m T)
(T 2
3
(16)( ) (0.204 J/m 2 ) (1538 + 273 K)2 1
=
3 2 (295 K)2
(3) ( 1.85 10 J/m 9
)
 1.57  1018 J
(b) In order to compute the number of atoms in a nucleus of critical size (assuming a spherical nucleus
of radius r*), it is first necessary to determine the number of unit cells, which we then multiply by the
number of atoms per unit cell. The number of unit cells found in this critical nucleus is just the ratio of
critical nucleus and unit cell volumes. Inasmuch as iron has the BCC crystal structure, its unit cell

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volume is just a3 where a is the unit cell length (i.e., the lattice parameter); this value is 0.292 nm, as
cited in the problem statement. Therefore, the number of unit cells found in a radius of critical size is
just
4 3
# unit cells/particle = 3
(r )*
a3
4
3
( )(1.35 nm)3
÷
= = 414 unit cells
(0.292 nm)3
Inasmuch as 2 atoms are associated with each BCC unit cell, the total number of atoms per critical
nucleus is just
(414 unit cells/critical nucleus)(2 atoms/unit cell)  828 atoms/critical nucleus

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12.5 (a) Assume for the solidification of iron (Problem 12.4) that nucleation is homogeneous, and the
number of stable nuclei is 106 nuclei per cubic meter. Calculate the critical radius and the
number of stable nuclei that exist at the following degrees of supercooling: 200 K and 300 K.
(b) What is significant about the magnitudes of these critical radii and the numbers of stable
nuclei?
Solution
(a) For this part of the problem we are asked to calculate the critical radius for the solidification of iron
(per Problem 12.4), for 200 K and 300 K degrees of supercooling, and assuming that the there are 10 6
nuclei per meter cubed for homogeneous nucleation. In order to calculate the critical radii, we replace
the Tm – T term in Equation 12.6 by the degree of supercooling (denoted as T) cited in the problem.
For 200 K supercooling,
æ ö
* = ç 2 Tm ÷æ 1 ö
r200 ç ç ÷
è H f ÷øè T ø
(2)(0.204 J/m 2 ) (1538 + 273 K) 1

= 9 3
÷
1.85 10 J/m 200 K
= 2.00  109 m = 2.00 nm
And, for 300 K supercooling,
* = (2)(0.204 J/m 2 ) (1538 + 273 K) 1

r300 ÷
1.85 10 9 J/m3 300 K
= 1.33  109 m = 1.33 nm
In order to compute the number of stable nuclei that exist at 200 K and 300 K degrees of
supercooling, it is necessary to use Equation 12.8. However, we must first determine the value of K1 in
Equation 12.8, which in turn requires that we calculate G* at the homogeneous nucleation temperature
using Equation 12.7; this was done in Problem 12.4, and yielded a value of G* = 1.57  1018 J. Now
for the computation of K1, using the value of n* for at the homogenous nucleation temperature (106
nuclei/m3):
n*
K1 =
æ G *ö
exp ç ÷
è kT ø

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106 nuclei/m3
=
1.57 10 18 J
exp
(1.38 10 23 J/atom ×K) (1538°C 295°C)
= 5.62  1045 nuclei/m3
Now for 200 K supercooling, it is first necessary to recalculate the value G* of using Equation 12.7,
where, again, the Tm – T term is replaced by the number of degrees of supercooling, denoted as T,
which in this case is 200 K. Thus
æ 3 2ö
Tm ÷ 1
* = ç 16
G200 
ç 3 H 2 ÷ ( T )2
è f ø
(16)( ) (0.204 J/m 2 )3 (1538 + 273 K)2 1

=
(3)( 1.85 109 J/m3 )2 (200 K)2
= 3.41  1018 J
And, from Equation 12.8, the value of n* is
æ * ö
G200
n200 = K1 exp ç
* ÷
ç kT ÷ø
è
3.41 10 18 J
= (5.62 1045 nuclei/m3 ) exp
(1.38 10 23 J/atom ×K) (1538 K 200 K)
= 3.5  1035 stable nuclei
Now, for 300 K supercooling the value of G* is equal to
* = é (16)( ) (0.204 J/m ) (1538 + 273 K) ù é ù

2 3 2
1
G300 ê úê 2ú
ë (3)( 1.85 ´ 10 J/m )
9 3 2
û ë (300 K) û
= 1.51  1018 J
from which we compute the number of stable nuclei at 300 K of supercooling as

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æ * ö
G300
n300 = K1 exp ç
* ÷
ç kT ÷ø
è
1.51 10 18 J
n* = (5.62 1045 nuclei/m3 ) exp
(1.38 10 23 J/atom ×K) (1538 K 300 K)
= 2.32  107 stable nuclei
(b) Relative to critical radius, r* for 300 K supercooling is slightly smaller that for 200 K (1.33 nm
versus 2.00 nm). [From Problem 12.4, the value of r* at the homogeneous nucleation temperature
(295 K) was 1.35 nm.] More significant, however, are the values of n* at these two degrees of
supercooling, which are dramatically different—3.5  1035 stable nuclei at T = 200 K, versus
2.32  107 stable nuclei at T = 300 K!

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12.6 For some transformation having kinetics that obey the Avrami equation (Equation 12.17), the
parameter n is known to have a value of 1.7. If, after 100 s, the reaction is 50% complete, how
long (total time) will it take the transformation to go to 99% completion?
Solution
This problem calls for us to compute the length of time required for a reaction to go to 99%
completion. It first becomes necessary to solve for the parameter k in Equation 12.17. In order to do
this it is best manipulate the equation such that k is the dependent variable. We first rearrange Equation
12.17 as
exp ( kt n ) = 1 y
and then take natural logarithms of both sides:
kt n = ln(1 y)
Now solving for k gives
ln (1 y)
k =
tn
And, from the problem statement, for y = 0.50 when t = 100 s and given that n = 1.7, the value of k is
equal to
ln (1 0.5)
k = = 2.76 10 -4
(100 s)1.7
We now want to manipulate Equation 12.17 such that t is the dependent variable. The above equation
may be written in the form:
ln (1 y)
tn =
k
And solving this expression for t leads to
1/n
ln (1 y)
t =
k

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Now, using this equation and the value of k determined above, the time to 99% transformation
completion is equal to
1/1.7
ln (1 0.99)
t= = 305 s
2.76 10 4

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12.7 Compute the rate of some reaction that obeys Avrami kinetics, assuming that the constants n and
k have values of 3.0 and 7  103, respectively, for time expressed in seconds.
Solution
This problem asks that we compute the rate of some reaction given the values of n and k in
Equation 12.17. Since the reaction rate is defined by Equation 12.18, it is first necessary to determine
t0.5, or the time necessary for the reaction to reach y = 0.5. We must first manipulate Equation 12.17
such that t is the dependent variable. We first rearrange Equation 12.17 as
exp ( kt n ) = 1 y
kt n = ln (1 y)
which my be rearranged so as to read
ln (1 y)
tn =
k
Now, solving for t from this expression leads to
1/n
ln (1 y)
t =
k
For t0.5 this equation takes the form
 ln (1  0.5) 
1/ n
t0.5 =   
 k
And, incorporation of values for n and k given in the problem statement (5.0 and 8  103, respectively),
then
1/ 5.0
 ln (1  0.5) 
t0.5    3   2.4 s
 8  10 

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Now, the rate is computed using Equation 12.18 as
1 1
rate = = = 0.417 s 1
t0.5 2.4

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12.8 It is known that the kinetics of recrystallization for some alloy obey the Avrami equation and that
the value of n in the exponential is 2.5. If, at some temperature, the fraction recrystallized is 0.50
after 200 min, determine the rate of recrystallization at this temperature.
Solution
This problem gives us the value of y (0.40) at some time t (200 min), and also the value of n
(2.5) for the recrystallization of an alloy at some temperature, and then asks that we determine the rate
of recrystallization at this same temperature. It is first necessary to calculate the value of k. We first
rearrange Equation 12.17 as
exp ( kt n ) = 1 y
kt n = ln (1 y)
Now solving for k gives
ln (1 y)
k =
tn
which, using the values cited above for y, n, and t yields
ln (1  0.50)
k  1.2  106
(200 min)2.5
At this point we want to compute t0.5, the value of t for y = 0.5, which means that it is necessary to
establish a form of Equation 12.17 in which t is the dependent variable. From one of the above
equations
ln (1 y)
tn =
k
And solving this expression for t leads to
 ln (1  y) 
1/n
t =  
 k

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For t0.5, this equation takes the form
 ln (1  0.5) 
1/ n
t0.5   
 k
and incorporation of the value of k determined above, as well as the value of n cited in the problem
statement (2.5), then t0.5 is equal to
1/2.5
 ln (1  0.5) 
t0.5 =   7 
= 201.7 min
 9.0  10 
Therefore, from Equation 12.18, the rate is just
1 1
rate = = = 4.96  103 (min) 1
t0.5 201.6 min

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12.9 The kinetics of the austenite-to-pearlite transformation obey the Avrami relationship. Using the
fraction transformed–time data given here, determine the total time required for 95% of the
austenite to transform to pearlite:
Fraction Transformed Time (s)

0.2 12.6
0.8 28.2
Solution
The first thing necessary is to set up two expressions of the form of Equation 12.17, and then
to solve simultaneously for the values of n and k. In order to expedite this process, we will rearrange
and do some algebraic manipulation of Equation 12.17. First of all, we rearrange as follows:
1  y  exp  kt n  
Now taking natural logarithms
ln (1 y) = kt n
or
ln (1 y) = kt n
which may also be expressed as
1
ln ÷ = kt n
1 y
Now taking natural logarithms again, leads to
1
ln ln ÷ = ln k + n ln t
1 y
which is the form of the equation that we will now use. Using values cited in the problem statement, the
two equations are thus

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
  1  
ln  ln 
    ln k  n ln (12.8)
 
 1 0.2 

  1  
ln  ln 
    ln k  n ln (28.5)

  1 0.8 
Solving these two expressions simultaneously for n and k yields n = 2.45 and k = 4.48  104.
Now it becomes necessary to solve for the value of t at which y = 0.95. One of the above
equations—viz
ln (1 y) = kt n
may be rewritten as
ln (1 y)
tn =
k
And solving for t leads to
1/n
ln (1 y)
t =
k
Now incorporating into this expression values for n and k determined above, the time required for 95%
austenite transformation is equal to
1/ 2.45
 ln (1  0.95) 
t   4 
 36.42 s
 4.48  10 

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12.10 The fraction recrystallized–time data for the recrystallization at 600°C (873 K) of a previously
deformed steel are tabulated here. Assuming that the kinetics of this process obey the Avrami
relationship, determine the fraction recrystallized after a total time of 22.8 min.
Fraction Time (min)

Recrystallized
0.20 13.2
0.70 29.3
Solution
The first thing necessary is to set up two expressions of the form of Equation 12.17, and then
to solve simultaneously for the values of n and k. In order to expedite this process, we will rearrange
and do some algebraic manipulation of Equation 12.17. First of all, we rearrange as follows:
1  y  exp  kt n  
ln (1 y) = kt n
or
ln (1 y) = kt n
1 n
ln ÷ = kt
1 y
1
1 y
which is the form of the equation that we will now use. The two equations are thus

  1 
ln  ln 
    ln k  n ln (13.2 min)

  1 0.20 

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
  1 
ln  ln 
    ln k  n ln (29.3 min)

  1 0.70 
Solving these two expressions simultaneously for n and k yields n = 2.12 and k = 9.58  10-4.
Now it becomes necessary to solve for y when t = 22.8 min. Application of Equation 12.17
leads to
y  1  exp kt n  
 1  exp  (9.58  104 )(22.8 min)2.12   0.52

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12.11 (a) From the curves shown in Figure 12.11 and using Equation 12.18, determine the rate of
recrystallization for pure copper at the several temperatures.
(b) Make a plot of ln(rate) versus the reciprocal of temperature (in K–1), and determine the
activation energy for this recrystallization process. (See Section 5.5.)
(c) By extrapolation, estimate the length of time required for 50% recrystallization at room
temperature, 30°C (303 K).
Solution
This problem asks us to consider the percent recrystallized versus logarithm of time curves for
copper shown in Figure 12.11.
(a) The rates at the different temperatures are determined using Equation 12.18, which rates are
tabulated below:
Temperature (C) Rate (min)1
135 0.105
119 4.4  10-2
113 2.9  10-2
102 1.25  10-2
88 4.2  10-3
43 3.8  10-5
(b) These data are plotted below.

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The activation energy, Q, is related to the slope of the line drawn through the data points as
Q =  (Slope) (R)
where R is the gas constant. The slope of this line is equal to
 ln rate ln rate1  ln rate 2

Slope  
 1 1 1

 
T  T1 T2
Let us take 1/T1 = 0.0025 K-1 and 1/T2 = 0.0031 K-1; the corresponding ln rate values are ln rate1 = 2.6
and ln rate2 = 9.4. Thus, using these values, the slope is equal to
2.6  (9.4)
Slope    1.133  104 K
0.0025 K 1  0.0031 K 1
And, finally the activation energy is
Q   (Slope)( R)   (1.133  104 K 1 ) (8.31 J/mol  K)
= 94,150 J/mol
(c) At room temperature (30C), 1/T = 1/(30 + 273 K) = 3.3  103 K-1. Extrapolation of the data in
the plot to this 1/T value gives
ln (rate)   11.9
which leads to
rate  exp (  11.9) = 6.79  106 (min) 1
But since
1
rate 
t0.5
1 1
t0.5  
rate 6.79  106 (min)1
 1.47  105 min  103 days

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12.12 Determine values for the constants n and k (Equation 12.17) for the recrystallization of copper
(Figure 12.11) at 102°C.
Solution
In this problem we are asked to determine, from Figure 12.11, the values of the constants n
and k (Equation 12.17) for the recrystallization of copper at 102C. One way to solve this problem is to
take two values of percent recrystallization (which is just 100y, Equation 12.17) and their
corresponding time values, then set up two simultaneous equations, from which n and k may be
determined. In order to expedite this process, we will rearrange and do some algebraic manipulation of
Equation 12.17. First of all, we rearrange as follows:
1  y  exp  kt n  
ln (1 y) = kt n
or
ln (1 y) = kt n
1 n
ln ÷ = kt
1 y
1
1 y
which is the form of the equation that we will now use. From the 102C curve of Figure 12.11, let us
arbitrarily choose two percent recrystallized values, 20% and 80% (i.e., y1 = 0.20 and y2 = 0.80). Their
corresponding time values are t1 = 50 min and t2 = 100 min (realizing that the time axis is scaled
logarithmically). Thus, our two simultaneous equations become

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  1 
ln ln     ln k  n ln (50)
  1  0.2  
  1 
ln ln     ln k  n ln (100)
  1  0.8  
from which we obtain the values n = 2.85 and k = 3.21  10-6.

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Metastable Versus Equilibrium States
12.13 In terms of heat treatment and the development of microstructure, what are two major limitations
of the iron–iron carbide phase diagram?
Solution
Two limitations of the iron–iron carbide phase diagram are:

(1) The nonequilibrium martensite does not appear on the diagram; and
(2) The diagram provides no indication as to the time–temperature relationships for the
formation of pearlite, bainite, and spheroidite, all of which are composed of the equilibrium ferrite and
cementite phases.

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12.14 (a) Briefly describe the phenomena of superheating and supercooling.

(b) Why do these phenomena occur?
Solution
(a) Superheating and supercooling correspond, respectively, to heating or cooling above or below a
phase transition temperature without the occurrence of the transformation.
(b) These phenomena occur because right at the phase transition temperature, the driving force is not
sufficient to cause the transformation to occur. The driving force is enhanced during superheating or
supercooling.

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Isothermal Transformation Diagrams
12.15 Suppose that a steel of eutectoid composition is cooled to 560°C (833 K) from 770°C (1043 K)
in less than 0.5 s and held at this temperature.
(a) How long will it take for the austenite-to-pearlite reaction to go to 50% completion? To
100% completion?
(b) Estimate the hardness of the alloy that has completely transformed to pearlite.
Solution
We are called upon to consider the isothermal transformation of an iron–carbon alloy of

eutectoid composition.
(a) From Figure 12.22, a horizontal line at 560C intersects the 50% and reaction completion curves at
about 2.6 and 6 seconds, respectively; these are the times asked for in the problem statement.
(b) The pearlite formed will be fine pearlite. From Figure 12.30a, the hardness of an alloy of
composition 0.76 wt% C that consists of fine pearlite is about 265 HB (27 HRC).

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12.16 Briefly cite the differences between pearlite, bainite, and spheroidite relative to microstructure
and mechanical properties.
Solution
The microstructures of pearlite, bainite, and spheroidite all consist of -ferrite and cementite
phases. For pearlite, the two phases exist as layers which alternate with one another. Bainite consists
of very fine and parallel needle-shaped particles of cementite that are surrounded an -ferrite matrix.
For spheroidite, the matrix is ferrite, and the cementite phase is in the shape of sphere-shaped particles.
Bainite is harder and stronger than pearlite, which, in turn, is harder and stronger than
spheroidite.

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12.17 What is the driving force for the formation of spheroidite?
Solution
The driving force for the formation of spheroidite is the net reduction in ferrite–cementite
phase boundary area.

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12.18 Using the isothermal transformation diagram for an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition
(Figure 12.22), specify the nature of the final microstructure (in terms of microconstituents
present and approximate percentages of each) of a small specimen that has been subjected to the
following time–temperature treatments. In each case assume that the specimen begins at 760°C
(1033 K) and that it has been held at this temperature long enough to have achieved a complete
and homogeneous austenitic structure.
(a) Cool rapidly to 700°C (973 K), hold for 10 4 s, then quench to room temperature.
Solution
Below is Figure 12.22 upon which is superimposed the above heat treatment.
After cooling and holding at 700°C for 10 4 s, approximately 50% of the specimen has
transformed to coarse pearlite. Upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 50% transforms to
martensite. Hence, the final microstructure consists of about 50% coarse pearlite and 50% martensite.
(b) Reheat the specimen in part (a) to 700°C (973 K) for 20 h.
Solution
Heating to 700°C for 20 h the specimen in part (a) will transform the coarse pearlite and
martensite to spheroidite.

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(c) Rapidly cool to 600°C (873 K), hold for 4 s, rapidly cool to 448°C (721 K), hold for 10 s,
then quench to room temperature.
Solution
After cooling to and holding at 600°C for 4 s, approximately 50% of the specimen has
transformed to pearlite (medium). During the rapid cooling to 448°C no transformations occur. At
448°C we start timing again at zero time; while holding at 448°C for 10 s, approximately 50 percent of
the remaining unreacted 50% (or 25% of the original specimen) will transform to bainite. And upon
cooling to room temperature, the remaining 25% of the original specimen transforms to martensite.
Hence, the final microstructure consists of about 50% pearlite (medium), 25% bainite, and 25%
martensite.

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(d) Cool rapidly to 398°C (671 K), hold for 2 s, then quench to room temperature.
Solution
After cooling to and holding at 400°C for 2 s, no of the transformation begin lines have been
crossed, and therefore, the specimen is 100% austenite. Upon cooling rapidly to room temperature, all
of the specimen transforms to martensite, such that the final microstructure is 100% martensite.

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(e) Cool rapidly to 398°C (671 K), hold for 20 s, then quench to room temperature.
Solution
After cooling and holding at 400°C for 20 s, approximately 40% of the specimen has
transformed to bainite. Upon cooling to room temperature, the remaining 60% transforms to
martensite. Hence, the final microstructure consists of about 40% bainite and 60% martensite.

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(f) Cool rapidly to 398°C (671 K), hold for 200 s, then quench to room temperature.
Solution
After cooling and holding at 400°C for 200 s, the entire specimen has transformed to bainite.
Therefore, during the cooling to room temperature no additional transformations will occur. Hence, the
final microstructure consists of 100% bainite.

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(g) Rapidly cool to 575°C (848 K), hold for 20 s, rapidly cool to 350°C (623 K), hold for 100
s, then quench to room temperature.
Solution
After cooling and holding at 575°C for 20 s, the entire specimen has transformed to fine
pearlite. Therefore, during the second heat treatment at 350°C no additional transformations will occur.
Hence, the final microstructure consists of 100% fine pearlite.

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(h) Rapidly cool to 250°C (523 K), hold for 100 s, then quench to room temperature in water.
Reheat to 315°C (588 K) for 1 h and slowly cool to room temperature.
Solution
After cooling and holding at 250°C for 100 s, no transformations will have occurred—at this
point, the entire specimen is still austenite. Upon rapidly cooling to room temperature in water, the
specimen will completely transform to martensite. The second heat treatment (at 315°C for 1 h)—not
shown on the above plot—will transform the material to tempered martensite. Hence, the final
microstructure is 100% tempered martensite.

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12.19 Make a copy of the isothermal transformation diagram for an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid
composition (Figure 12.22) and then sketch and label time–temperature paths on this diagram to
produce the following microstructures:
(a) 100% fine pearlite
(b) 100% tempered martensite
(c) 50% coarse pearlite, 25% bainite, and 25% martensite
Solution
Below is shown the isothermal transformation diagram for a eutectoid iron–carbon alloy, with
time–temperature paths that will yield (a) 100% fine pearlite; (b) 100% tempered martensite; and
(c) 50% coarse pearlite, 25% bainite, and 25% martensite.

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12.20 Using the isothermal transformation diagram for a 0.45 wt% C steel alloy (Figure 12.39),
determine the final microstructure (in terms of just the microconstituents present) of a small
specimen that has been subjected to the following time–temperature treatments. In each case
assume that the specimen begins at 850C (1123 K) and that it has been held at this temperature
long enough to have achieved a complete and homogeneous austenitic structure.
(a) Rapidly cool to 250C (523 K), hold for 103 s, then quench to room temperature.
Solution
While rapidly cooling to 250°C (523 K) about 80% of the specimen transforms to martensite;
during the 1000 s isothermal treatment at 250°C (523 K) no additional transformations occur. During
the final cooling to room temperature, the untransformed austenite also transforms to martensite.
Hence, the final microstructure consists of 100% martensite.

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(b) Rapidly cool to 700C (973 K), hold for 30 s, then quench to room temperature.
Solution
After cooling to and holding at 700°C (973 K) for 30 s, a portion of specimen has transformed
to proeutectoid ferrite. While cooling to room temperature, the remainder of the specimen transforms to
martensite. Hence, the final microstructure consists proeutectoid ferrite and martensite.

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(c) Rapidly cool to 398C (671 K), hold for 500 s, then quench to room temperature.
Solution
After cooling to and holding at 398°C (671 K) for 500 s, all of the specimen has transformed
to bainite. Hence, the final microstructure consists of 100% bainite.

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(d) Rapidly cool to 700C (973 K), hold at this temperature for 105 s, then quench to room
temperature.
Solution
After cooling to and while holding at 700°C (973 K) the specimen first transforms to
proeutectoid ferrite and coarse pearlite. Continued heat treating at 700°C (973 K) for 10 5 s results in a
further transformation into spheroidite. Hence, the final microstructure consists of 100% spheroidite.

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(e) Rapidly cool to 650C (923 K), hold at this temperature for 3 s, rapidly cool to 398C
(671 K), hold for 10 s, then quench to room temperature.
Solution
After cooling to and holding at 650°C (923 K) for 3 s, some of the specimen first transformers
to proeutectoid ferrite and then to pearlite (medium). During the second stage of the heat treatment at
398°C (671 K), some (but not all) of the remaining unreacted austenite transforms to bainite. As a
result of the final quenching, all of the remaining austenite transforms to martensite. Hence, the final
microstructure consists of ferrite, pearlite (medium), bainite, and martensite.

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(f) Rapidly cool to 448C (721 K), hold for 10 s, then quench to room temperature.
Solution
After cooling to and holding at 448°C (721 K) for 10 s, a portion of the specimen first
transformers to bainite. During the quenching to room temperature, the remainder of the specimen
transforms to martensite. Hence, the final microstructure consists of bainite and martensite.

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(g) Rapidly cool to 625C (898 K), hold for 1 s, then quench to room temperature.
Solution
After cooling to and holding at 625°C (898 K) for 1 s, a portion of the specimen first
transformers to proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite. During the quenching to room temperature, the
remainder of the specimen transforms to martensite. Hence, the final microstructure consists of ferrite,
pearlite, and martensite.

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(h) Rapidly cool to 625C (898 K), hold at this temperature for 10 s, rapidly cool to 398C
(671 K), hold at this temperature for 5 s, then quench to room temperature.
Solution
After cooling to and holding at 625°C (898 K) for 10 s, all of the specimen transformers to
proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite. During the second part of the heat treatment at 398°C (671 K) no
additional transformation will occur. Hence, the final microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite.

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12.21 For parts (a), (c), (d), (f), and (h) of Problem 12.20, determine the approximate percentages of
the microconstituents that form.
Solution
(a) From Problem 12.20(a) the microstructure consists of 100% martensite.

(c) From Problem 12.20(c) the microstructure consists of 100% bainite.
(d) From Problem 12.20(d) the microstructure consists of 100% spheroidite.
(f) Figure 12.39 onto which the heat treatment for Problem 12.20(f) has been constructed is shown
below.
From this diagram, for the isothermal heat treatment at 450C, the horizontal line constructed at this
temperature and that ends at the 10 s point spans approximately 70% of the distance between the bainite
reaction start and reaction completion curves. Therefore, the final microstructure consists of about 70%
bainite and 30% martensite (the martensite forms while cooling to room temperature after 10 s at
450C).
(h) Figure 12.39 onto which the heat treatment for Problem 12.20(h) has been constructed is shown
below.

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After holding for 10 s at 625C, the specimen has completely transformed to proeutectoid ferrite and
fine pearlite; no further reaction will occur at 400C. Therefore, we can calculate the mass fractions
using the appropriate lever rule expressions, Equations 11.20 and 11.21, as follows:
C0  0.022 0.45  0.022

Wp    0.58 or 58%
0.74 0.74
0.76  C0 0.76  0.45

W     0.42 or 42%
0.74 0.74

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12.22 Make a copy of the isothermal transformation diagram for a 0.45 wt% C iron–carbon alloy
(Figure 12.39), and then sketch and label on this diagram the time-temperature paths to produce
the following microstructures:
(a) 42% proeutectoid ferrite and 58% coarse pearlite
(b) 50% fine pearlite and 50% bainite
(c) 100% martensite
(d) 50% martensite and 50% austenite
Solution
Below is shown an isothermal transformation diagram for a 0.45 wt% C iron–carbon alloy,
with time–temperature paths that will produce (a) 42% proeutectoid ferrite and 58% coarse pearlite;
(b) 50% fine pearlite and 50% bainite; (c) 100% martensite; and (d) 50% martensite and 50% austenite.

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Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams
12.23 Name the microstructural products of eutectoid iron–carbon alloy (0.76 wt% C) specimens that
are first completely transformed to austenite, then cooled to room temperature at the following
rates:
(a) 200°C/s,
(b) 100°C/s, and
(c) 20°C/s.
Solution
We are called upon to name the microstructural products that form for specimens of an iron–
carbon alloy of eutectoid composition that are continuously cooled to room temperature at a variety of
rates. Figure 12.27 is used in these determinations.
(a) At a rate of 200°C/s, only martensite forms.
(b) At a rate of 100°C/s, both martensite and pearlite form.
(c) At a rate of 20°C/s, only fine pearlite forms.

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12.24 Figure 12.40 shows the continuous cooling transformation diagram for a 1.13 wt% C iron–
carbon alloy. Make a copy of this figure and then sketch and label continuous cooling curves to
yield the following microstructures:
(a) Fine pearlite and proeutectoid cementite
(b) Martensite
(c) Martensite and proeutectoid cementite
(d) Coarse pearlite and proeutectoid cementite
(e) Martensite, fine pearlite, and proeutectoid cementite
Solution
Below is shown a continuous cooling transformation diagram for a 1.13 wt% C iron–carbon
alloy, with continuous cooling paths that will produce (a) fine pearlite and proeutectoid cementite;
(b) martensite; (c) martensite and proeutectoid cementite; (d) coarse pearlite and proeutectoid
cementite; and (e) martensite, fine pearlite, and proeutectoid cementite.

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12.25 Cite two important differences between continuous cooling transformation diagrams for plain
carbon and alloy steels.
Solution
Two important differences between continuous cooling transformation diagrams for plain
carbon and alloy steels are: (1) for an alloy steel, a bainite nose will be present, which nose will be
absent for plain carbon alloys; and (2) the pearlite–proeutectoid noses for plain carbon steel alloys are
positioned at shorter times than for the alloy steels.

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12.26 Briefly explain why there is no bainite transformation region on the continuous cooling
transformation diagram for an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition.
Solution
There is no bainite transformation region on the continuous cooling transformation diagram for
an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition (Figure 12.25) because by the time a cooling curve has
passed into the bainite region, the entirety of the alloy specimen will have transformed to pearlite.

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12.27 Name the microstructural products of 4340 alloy steel specimens that are first completely
transformed to austenite, then cooled to room temperature at the following rates:
(a) 10°C/s
(b) 1°C/s
(c) 0.1°C/s
(d) 0.01°C/s
Solution
This problem asks for the microstructural products that form when specimens of a 4340 steel
are continuously cooled to room temperature at several rates. Figure 12.28 is used for these
determinations.
(a) At a cooling rate of 10C/s, only martensite forms.
(b) At a cooling rate of 1C/s, both martensite and bainite form.
(c) At a cooling rate of 0.1C/s, martensite, proeutectoid ferrite, and bainite form.
(d) At a cooling rate of 0.01C/s, martensite, proeutectoid ferrite, pearlite, and bainite form.

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12.28 Briefly describe the simplest continuous cooling heat treatment procedure that would be used in
converting a 4340 steel from one microstructure to another.
(a) (Martensite + bainite) to (ferrite + pearlite)
(b) (Martensite + bainite) to spheroidite
(c) (Martensite + bainite) to (martensite + bainite + ferrite)
Solution
This problem asks that we briefly describe the simplest continuous cooling heat treatment
procedure that would be used in converting a 4340 steel from one microstructure to another. Solutions
to this problem require the use of Figure 12.28.
(a) In order to convert from (martensite + bainite) to (ferrite + pearlite) it is necessary to heat above
about 720C, allow complete austenitization, then cool to room temperature at a rate slower than
0.006C/s.
(b) To convert from (martensite + bainite) to spheroidite the alloy must be heated to about 700C for
several hours.
(c) In order to convert from (martensite + bainite) to (martensite + bainite + ferrite) it is necessary to
heat to above about 720C, allow complete austenitization, then cool to room temperature at a rate
between 0.3C/s and 0.02C/s.

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12.29 On the basis of diffusion considerations, explain why fine pearlite forms for the moderate
cooling of austenite through the eutectoid temperature, whereas coarse pearlite is the product for
relatively slow cooling rates.
Solution
For moderately rapid cooling, the time allowed for carbon diffusion is not as great as for
slower cooling rates. Therefore, the diffusion distance is shorter, and thinner layers of ferrite and
cementite form (i.e., fine pearlite forms).

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Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys

Tempered Martensite
12.30 Briefly explain why fine pearlite is harder and stronger than coarse pearlite, which in turn is
harder and stronger than spheroidite.
Solution
The hardness and strength of iron–carbon alloys that have microstructures consisting of
-ferrite and cementite phases depend on the boundary area between the two phases. The greater this
area, the harder and stronger the alloy inasmuch as (1) these boundaries impede the motion of
dislocations, and (2) the cementite phase restricts the deformation of the ferrite phase in regions
adjacent to the phase boundaries. Fine pearlite is harder and stronger than coarse pearlite because the
alternating ferrite–cementite layers are thinner for fine, and therefore, there is more phase boundary
area. The phase boundary area between the sphere-like cementite particles and the ferrite matrix is less
in spheroidite than for the alternating layered microstructure found in coarse pearlite.

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12.31 Cite two reasons why martensite is so hard and brittle.
Solution
Two reasons why martensite is so hard and brittle are: (1) there are relatively few operable
slip systems for the body-centered tetragonal crystal structure, and (2) virtually all of the carbon is in
solid solution, which produces a solid–solution hardening effect.

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12.32 Rank the following iron–carbon alloys and associated microstructures from the highest to the
lowest tensile strength:
(a) 0.25 wt% C with spheroidite
(b) 0.25 wt% C with coarse pearlite
(c) 0.60 wt% C with fine pearlite
(d) 0.60 wt% C with coarse pearlite
Justify this ranking.
Solution
This problem asks us to rank four iron–carbon alloys of specified composition and
microstructure according to hardness. This ranking is as follows:
0.60 wt% C, fine pearlite

0.60 wt% C, coarse pearlite
0.25 wt% C, coarse pearlite
0.25 wt% C, spheroidite
The 0.25 wt% C, coarse pearlite is stronger than the 0.25 wt% C, spheroidite since coarse
pearlite is stronger than spheroidite; the composition of the alloys is the same. The 0.60 wt% C, coarse
pearlite is stronger than the 0.25 wt% C, coarse pearlite, since increasing the carbon content increases
the strength. Finally, the 0.60 wt% C, fine pearlite is stronger than the 0.60 wt% C, coarse pearlite
inasmuch as the strength of fine pearlite is greater than coarse pearlite because of the many more
ferrite–cementite phase boundaries in fine pearlite.

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12.33 Briefly explain why the hardness of tempered martensite diminishes with tempering time (at
constant temperature) and with increasing temperature (at constant tempering time).
Solution
This question asks for an explanation as to why the hardness of tempered martensite
diminishes with tempering time (at constant temperature) and with increasing temperature (at constant
tempering time). The hardness of tempered martensite depends on the ferrite–cementite phase
boundary area; since these phase boundaries are barriers to dislocation motion, the greater the area the
harder the alloy. The microstructure of tempered martensite consists of small sphere-like particles of
cementite embedded within a ferrite matrix. As the size of the cementite particles increases, the phase
boundary area diminishes, and the alloy becomes softer. Therefore, with increasing tempering time, the
cementite particles grow, the phase boundary area decreases, and the hardness diminishes. As the
tempering temperature is increased, the rate of cementite particle growth also increases, and the alloy
softens, again, because of the decrease in phase boundary area.

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12.34 Briefly describe the simplest heat treatment procedure that would be used in converting a 0.76
wt% C steel from one microstructure to the other, as follows:
(a) Spheroidite to tempered martensite
(b) Tempered martensite to pearlite
(c) Bainite to martensite
(d) Martensite to pearlite
(e) Pearlite to tempered martensite
(f) Tempered martensite to pearlite
(g) Bainite to tempered martensite
(h) Tempered martensite to spheroidite
Solution
In this problem we are asked to describe the simplest heat treatment that would be required to
convert a eutectoid steel from one microstructure to another. Figure 12.27 is used to solve the several
parts of this problem.
(a) For spheroidite to tempered martensite, austenitize at a temperature of about 760C, quench to room
temperature at a rate greater than about 140C/s, then isothermally heat at a temperature between 250
and 650C.
(b) For tempered martensite to pearlite, austenitize at a temperature of about 760C, then cool to room
temperature at a rate less than about 35C/s.
(c) For bainite to martensite, first austenitize at a temperature of about 760C, then quench to room
temperature at a rate greater than about 140C/s.
(d) For martensite to pearlite, first austenitize at a temperature of about 760C, then cool to room
temperature at a rate less than about 35C/s.
(e) For pearlite to tempered martensite, first austenitize at a temperature of about 760C, then rapidly
quench to room temperature at a rate greater than about 140C/s, then isothermally heat treat (temper)
at a temperature between 250 and 650C.
(f) For tempered martensite to pearlite, first austenitize at a temperature of about 760C, then cool to
room temperature at a rate less than about 35C/s.
(g) For bainite to tempered martensite, first austenitize at a temperature of about 760C, then rapidly
quench to room temperature at a rate greater than about 140C/s, then isothermally heat treat (temper)
at a temperature between 250 and 650C.
(h) For tempered martensite to spheroidite simply heat at about 700C for approximately 20 h.

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12.35 (a) Briefly describe the microstructural difference between spheroidite and tempered martensite.
(b) Explain why tempered martensite is much harder and stronger.
Solution
(a) Both tempered martensite and spheroidite have sphere-like cementite particles within a ferrite
matrix; however, these particles are much larger for spheroidite.
(b) Tempered martensite is harder and stronger inasmuch as there is much more ferrite-cementite phase
boundary area for the smaller particles; thus, there is greater reinforcement of the ferrite phase, and
more phase boundary barriers to dislocation motion.

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12.36 Estimate the Rockwell hardnesses for specimens of an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid
composition that have been subjected to the heat treatments described in parts (b), (d), (f), (g),
and (h) of Problem 12.18.
Solution
This problem asks for estimates of Rockwell hardness values for specimens of an iron-carbon
alloy of eutectoid composition that have been subjected to some of the heat treatments described in
Problem 12.18.
(b) The microstructural product of this heat treatment is 100% spheroidite. According to Figure
12.30a, the hardness of a 0.76 wt% C alloy with spheroidite is about 87 HRB.
(d) The microstructural product of this heat treatment is 100% martensite. According to Figure 12.32,
the hardness of a 0.76 wt% C alloy consisting of martensite is about 64 HRC.
(f) The microstructural product of this heat treatment is 100% bainite. From Figure 12.31, the hardness
of a 0.76 wt% C alloy consisting of bainite is about 385 HB. And, conversion from Brinell to Rockwell
hardness using Figure 8.18 leads to a hardness of 36 HRC.
(g) The microstructural product of this heat treatment is 100% fine pearlite. According to Figure
12.30a, the hardness of a 0.76 wt% C alloy consisting of fine pearlite is about 27 HRC.
(h) The microstructural product of this heat treatment is 100% tempered martensite. According to
Figure 12.35, the hardness of a water-quenched eutectoid alloy that was tempered at 315C for one hour
is about 57 HRC.

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12.37 Estimate the Brinell hardnesses for specimens of a 0.45 wt% C iron–carbon alloy that have been
subjected to the heat treatments described in parts (a), (d), and (h) of Problem 12.20.
Solution
This problem asks for estimates of Brinell hardness values for specimens of an iron–carbon
alloy of composition 0.45 wt% C that have been subjected to some of the heat treatments described in
Problem 12.20.
(a) The microstructural product of this heat treatment is 100% martensite. According to Figure 12.32,
the hardness of a 0.45 wt% C alloy consisting of martensite is about 630 HB.
(d) The microstructural product of this heat treatment is 100% spheroidite. According to Figure 12.30a
the hardness of a 0.45 wt% C alloy with spheroidite is about 150 HB.
(h) The microstructural product of this heat treatment is proeutectoid ferrite and fine pearlite.
According to Figure 12.30a, the hardness of a 0.45 wt% C alloy consisting of fine pearlite is about 200
HB.

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12.38 Determine the approximate tensile strengths for specimens of a eutectoid iron–carbon alloy that
have experienced the heat treatments described in parts (a) and (c) of Problem 12.23.
Solution
This problem asks for estimates of tensile strength values for specimens of an iron–carbon
alloy of eutectoid composition that have been subjected to some of the heat treatments described in
Problem 12.23.
(a) The microstructural product of this heat treatment is 100% martensite. According to Figure 12.32,
the hardness of a 0.76 wt% C alloy is about 690 HB. For steel alloys, hardness and tensile strength are
related through Equation 8.20, and therefore
TS (MPa)  3.45  HB  (3.45)(690 HB)  2380 MPa
(c) The microstructural product of this heat treatment is 100% fine pearlite. According to Figure
12.30a, the hardness of a 0.76 wt% C alloy consisting of fine pearlite is about 265 HB. Therefore, the
tensile strength is
TS (MPa)  3.45  HB  (3.45)(265 HB)  915 MPa

lOMoARcPSD|18212863
12.39 For a eutectoid steel, describe isothermal heat treatments that would be required to yield
specimens having the following Rockwell hardnesses:
(a) 93 HRB
(b) 40 HRC
(c) 27 HRC
Solution
For this problem we are asked to describe isothermal heat treatments required to yield
specimens having several Brinell hardnesses.
(a) From Figure 12.30a, in order for a 0.76 wt% C alloy to have a Rockwell hardness of 93 HRB, the
microstructure must be coarse pearlite. Thus, utilizing the isothermal transformation diagram for this
alloy, Figure 12.22, we must rapidly cool to a temperature at which coarse pearlite forms (i.e., to about
675C), allow the specimen to isothermally and completely transform to coarse pearlite. At this
temperature an isothermal heat treatment for at least 200 s is required.
(b) This portion of the problem asks for a hardness of 40 HRC the microstructure could consist of either
(1) about 75% fine pearlite and 25% martensite (Figure 12.32), or (2) tempered martensite (Figure
12.35).
For case (1), after austenitizing, rapidly cool to about 580C (Figure 12.22), hold at this
temperature for about 4 s (to obtain 75% fine pearlite), and then rapidly quench to room temperature.
For case (2), after austenitizing, rapidly cool to room temperature in order to achieve 100%
martensite. Then temper this martensite for about 2000 s at 535C (Figure 12.35).
(c) From Figure 12.30a, in order for a 0.76 wt% C alloy to have a Rockwell hardness of 27
HRC, the microstructure must be fine pearlite. Thus, utilizing the isothermal transformation diagram
for this alloy, Figure 12.22, we must rapidly cool to a temperature at which fine pearlite forms (i.e., at
about 580C), allow the specimen to isothermally and completely transform to fine pearlite. At this
temperature an isothermal heat treatment for at least 7 s is required.

lOMoARcPSD|18212863
DESIGN PROBLEMS
Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams

Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys
12.D1 Is it possible to produce an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition that has a minimum
hardness of 100 HRB and a minimum ductility of 35%RA? If so, describe the continuous
cooling heat treatment to which the alloy would be subjected to achieve these properties. If it is
not possible, explain why.
Solution
This problem inquires as to the possibility of producing an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid

composition that has a minimum hardness of 100 HRB and a minimum ductility of 35%RA. If the alloy
is possible, then the continuous cooling heat treatment is to be stipulated.
According to Figures 12.30a and b, the following is a tabulation of Rockwell B hardnesses and
percents area reduction for fine and coarse pearlites and spheroidite for a 0.76 wt% C alloy.
Microstructure HRB %RA

Fine pearlite > 100 20
Coarse pearlite 93 28
Spheroidite 88 67
Therefore, none of the microstructures meets both of these criteria. Both fine and coarse
pearlites are hard enough, but lack the required ductility. Spheroidite is sufficiently ductile, but does
not meet the hardness criterion.

lOMoARcPSD|18212863
12.D2 Is it possible to produce an iron–carbon alloy that has a minimum tensile strength of 690 MPa
and a minimum ductility of 50%RA? If so, what will be its composition and microstructure
(coarse and fine pearlites and spheroidite are alternatives)? If this is not possible, explain why.
Solution
This problem asks if it is possible to produce an iron–carbon alloy that has a minimum tensile
strength of 690 MPa and a minimum ductility of 50%RA. If such an alloy is possible, its composition
and microstructure are to be stipulated.
From Equation 8.20, this tensile strength corresponds to a Brinell hardness of
TS (MPa) 690 MPa

HB = = = 200
3.45 3.45
According to Figures 12.30a and b, the following is a tabulation of the composition ranges for fine and
coarse pearlites and spheroidite that meet the stipulated criteria.
Compositions for Compositions for

Microstructure HB 200 %RA  50%
Fine pearlite > 0.45 %C < 0.47 %C
Coarse pearlite > 0.7 %C < 0.54 %C
Spheroidite not possible 0-1.0 %C
Therefore, only fine pearlite has a composition range overlap for both of the hardness and ductility
restrictions; the fine pearlite would necessarily have to have a carbon content between 0.45 and 0.47
wt% C.

lOMoARcPSD|18212863
12.D3 It is desired to produce an iron–carbon alloy that has a minimum hardness of 180 HB and a
minimum ductility of 52%RA. Is such an alloy possible? If so, what will be its composition and
microstructure (coarse and fine pearlites and spheroidite are alternatives)? If this is not possible,
explain why.
Solution
This problem inquires as to the possibility of producing a iron–carbon alloy having a minimum
hardness of 175 HB and a minimum ductility of 52%RA. The composition and microstructure are to be
specified; possible microstructures include fine and coarse pearlites and spheroidite.
To solve this problem, we must consult Figures 12.30a and b. The following is a tabulation of
the composition ranges for fine and coarse pearlites and spheroidite that meet the stipulated criteria.
Compositions for Compositions for

Microstructure HB 180 %RA  52%
Fine pearlite > 0.36 %C < 0.33 %C
Coarse pearlite > 0.43 %C < 0.40 %C
Spheroidite > 0.70 <0-1.0 %C
Thus, only spheroidite has a composition overlap for both of hardness and ductility restrictions; the
spheroidite would necessarily have to have a carbon content greater than 0.70 wt% C.

lOMoARcPSD|18212863
Tempered Martensite
12.D4 (a) For a 1080 steel that has been water quenched, estimate the tempering time at 425°C (698 K)
to achieve a hardness of 50 HRC.
(b) What will be the tempering time at 315°C (588 K) necessary to attain the same hardness?
Solution
This problem asks us to consider the tempering of a water-quenched 1080 steel to achieve a
hardness of 50 HRC. It is necessary to use Figure 12.35.
(a) The time necessary at 425C is about 500 s.
(b) At 315C, the time required (by extrapolation) is approximately 4  106 s (about 50 days).

lOMoARcPSD|18212863
12.D5 An alloy steel (4340) is to be used in an application requiring a minimum tensile strength of
1380 MPa and a minimum ductility of 43%RA. Oil quenching followed by tempering is to be
used. Briefly describe the tempering heat treatment.
Solution
We are to consider the tempering of an oil-quenched 4340 steel. From Figure 12.34, for a
minimum tensile strength of 1380 MPa, a tempering temperature of less than 450C (723 K) is
required. Also, for a minimum ductility of 43%RA, tempering must be carried out at a temperature
greater than about 400C (673 K). Therefore, tempering must occur at between 400 and 450C (673
and 723 K) for 1 h.

lOMoARcPSD|18212863
12.D6 Is it possible to produce an oil-quenched and tempered 4340 steel that has a minimum yield
strength of 1500 MPa and a ductility of at least 42%RA? If this is possible, describe the
tempering heat treatment. If it is not possible, explain why.
Solution
This problem asks if it is possible to produce an oil-quenched and tempered 4340 steel that has
a minimum yield strength of 1500 MPa and a minimum ductility of 42%RA, and, if possible, to
describe the tempering heat treatment. In Figure 12.34 is shown the tempering characteristics of this
alloy. According to this figure, in order to achieve a minimum yield strength of 1500 MPa, a tempering
temperature of less that about 390C is required. On the other hand, tempering must be carried out at
greater than about 360C for a minimum ductility of 42%RA. Therefore, an oil-quenched and tempered
4340 alloy possessing these characteristics is possible; tempering would be carried out at between
360C and 390C for 1 h.

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The Kinetics of Phase Transformations

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Differentiation of this expression with respect to a is as

If we set this expression equal to zero as

and then solve for a (= a*), we have

G *  (a*)3 Gv  6(a*)2 

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(2)(0.200 J/m 2 ) (1085 + 273 K) 1

 1.31  109 m  1.31 nm

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(2) (0.204 J/m 2 ) (1538 + 273 K) 1

= 1.35  109 m  1.35 nm

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(414 unit cells/critical nucleus)(2 atoms/unit cell)  828 atoms/critical nucleus

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(2)(0.204 J/m 2 ) (1538 + 273 K) 1

= 2.00  109 m = 2.00 nm

And, for 300 K supercooling,

* = (2)(0.204 J/m 2 ) (1538 + 273 K) 1

= 1.33  109 m = 1.33 nm

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= 5.62  1045 nuclei/m3

(16)( ) (0.204 J/m 2 )3 (1538 + 273 K)2 1

And, from Equation 12.8, the value of n* is

= 3.5  1035 stable nuclei

Now, for 300 K supercooling the value of G* is equal to

* = é (16)( ) (0.204 J/m ) (1538 + 273 K) ù é ù

from which we compute the number of stable nuclei at 300 K of supercooling as

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= 2.32  107 stable nuclei

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and then take natural logarithms of both sides:

Now solving for k gives

And solving this expression for t leads to

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and then take natural logarithms of both sides:

which my be rearranged so as to read

Now, solving for t from this expression leads to

For t0.5 this equation takes the form

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Now, the rate is computed using Equation 12.18 as

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and then take natural logarithms of both sides:

Now solving for k gives

which, using the values cited above for y, n, and t yields

And solving this expression for t leads to

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For t0.5, this equation takes the form

Therefore, from Equation 12.18, the rate is just

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Fraction Transformed Time (s)

Now taking natural logarithms

which may also be expressed as

Now taking natural logarithms again, leads to

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And solving for t leads to

G *  (a)3 Gv  6(a)2 