MinDOT Fatigue Detail Classification of Steel Bridges

2007-22
Incorporation of Fatigue Detail Classification

of Steel Bridges into the Minnesota
Department of Transportation Database
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1. Report No. 2. 3. Recipients Accession No.
MN/RC-2007-22
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date
Incorporation of Fatigue Detail Classification of Steel Bridges June 2007
into the Minnesota Department of Transportation Database 6.
7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.

Adam Y. Lindberg
Arturo E. Schultz
9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
University of Minnesota
Department of Civil Engineering 11. Contract (C) or Grant (G) No.
500 Pillsbury Drive SE (c) 81655 (wo) 170
Minneapolis, MN 55455-0220
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered
Minnesota Department of Transportation Final Report
395 John Ireland Boulevard Mail Stop 330 14. Sponsoring Agency Code
St. Paul, Minnesota 55155
15. Supplementary Notes
http://www.lrrb.org/PDF/200722.pdf
16. Abstract (Limit: 200 words)
This report addresses the fatigue and fracture susceptibility of the Minnesota Department of
Transportation (Mn/DOT) steel bridge inventory and provides a framework for enumerating fracture and
fatigue sensitive details present in steel bridges. It also provides a method for rating the details in terms
of their overall frequency and consequence of cracking. The research examines eighteen details
identified as possible cracking locations, and a composite rank number is computed based on the details it
possesses. The report includes a collection of case studies on cracking due to fatigue and fracture, as well
as a timeline of changes to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
Specifications for Highway Bridges and the Minnesota Standard Specifications for Highway
Construction. Frequency of occurrence of cracking was defined on the basis of a national survey of state
Departments of Transportation, from which the experiences regarding steel bridge cracking were
collected from fifteen states. The results are organized in a comprehensive table correlating geometric
constraints to rank numbers. The report concludes with a program that calculates a composite rank
number for each bridge based upon distribution and rank of the individual details present in the bridge.
17. Document Analysis/Descriptors 18. Availability Statement

case studies national survey No restrictions. Document available from:
fatigue rating National Technical Information Services,
fracture rank number Springfield, Virginia 22161
geometric constraints steel bridges
19. Security Class (this report) 20. Security Class (this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
Unclassified Unclassified 191
Incorporation of Fatigue Detail
Classification of Steel Bridges into the
Minnesota Department of Transportation Database
Final Report
Prepared by:
Adam Y. Lindberg
Arturo E. Schultz
Department of Civil Engineering

June 2007
Published by:
Minnesota Department of Transportation
Research Services Section
395 John Ireland Boulevard, MS 330
Saint Paul, Minnesota 55155
This report represents the results of research conducted by the authors and does not necessarily represent
the views or policies of the Minnesota Department of Transportation and/or the Center for Transportation
Studies. This report does not contain a standard or specified technique.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Pete Wilson, Senior Engineering Specialist for Fracture Critical
Inspections (Mn/DOT Office of Bridges and Structures) for all of his hard work in helping to
locate details in bridge plans. The authors would also like to express their gratitude to James M.
Pierce (Principal Engineer for Bridge Management), Dave Dahlberg (Principal Engineer for
LRFD Implementation), Gary D. Peterson (Senior Administrative Engineer for Construction &
Maintenance), Erik O. Wolhowe (Principal Engineer for Bridge Standards & Research) of the
Mn/DOT Office of Bridges and Structures for their technical advice at every stage of this
research project. Finally, the authors are also appreciative of the administrative assistance
provided by Alan J. Rindels (Research Development Engineer, Mn/DOT Research Services
Section) to keep this project on schedule and within the budget.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1– INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................1

1.1 Overview....................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Chapter Summaries....................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER 2 – FATIGUE BACKGROUND ..............................................................................5

2.1 Identification of Details .............................................................................................................6
2.1.1 AASHTO S-N Categories ............................................................................................... 7
2.1.2 Distortional Fatigue Introduction................................................................................ 23
2.1.3 Case Studies ................................................................................................................. 25
2.1.3.1 Transverse Stiffener Web Gap ...............................................................................25
2.1.3.2 Insufficient Cope Radius ........................................................................................27
2.1.3.3 Partial Length Cover Plate....................................................................................27
2.1.3.4 Shelf Plate Welded to Girder Web ........................................................................28
2.1.3.5 Stringer or Truss Floor-beam Bracket .................................................................29
2.1.3.6 Welded Horizontal Stiffener...................................................................................30
2.1.3.7 Haunch Insert........................................................................................................31
2.1.3.8 Web Penetration.....................................................................................................32
2.1.3.9 Cantilever Floor-beam Bracket .............................................................................33
2.1.3.10 Tied Arch Floor-beam.........................................................................................34
2.1.3.11 Continuous Longitudinal Weld: Box Girder Corner ...........................................34
2.1.3.12 Cantilever: Lamellar Tear ...................................................................................35
2.2 NCHRP Report 299 – Fatigue Life Evaluation Procedure .....................................................37
2.3 University of Minnesota Distortional Stress Estimation Procedure ........................................42
CHAPTER 3 – FRACTURE BACKGROUND ........................................................................47

3.1 Standard Fracture Practice Reevaluation .................................................................................47
3.2 Welding Fracture Problems .....................................................................................................47
3.3 Case Studies .............................................................................................................................49
3.3.1 Plug-welded Misplaced Hole...................................................................................... 50
3.3.2 Eyebar and Pin Plate ................................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER 4 – VARIATIONS OF COMMON DETAILS......................................................53

4.1 Transverse Stiffener Web Gap.................................................................................................53
4.2 Insufficient Cope Radius..........................................................................................................55
4.3 Partial Length Cover Plate .......................................................................................................55
4.4 Shelf Plate Welded to Girder Web...........................................................................................56
4.5 Welded Horizontal Stiffener ....................................................................................................58
CHAPTER 5 – DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION HISTORY................................59

5.1 General.....................................................................................................................................59
5.2 Mn/DOT Detail History...........................................................................................................59
5.3 National Department of Transportation Survey.......................................................................67
5.3.1 Survey Document ......................................................................................................... 67
5.3.2 Survey Results .............................................................................................................. 70
5.3.3 Additional Survey Comments....................................................................................... 71
CHAPTER 6 – CODE CHANGE TIMELINE .........................................................................77

6.1 General Code Timeline ............................................................................................................77
6.2 Specific Code Timeline............................................................................................................78
6.2.1 Fatigue Code Changes 1977 to 1983........................................................................... 86
6.3 Changes to the “Minnesota Standard Specifications for Highway Construction” ..................89
6.4 Multiple Code Quick-reference Timeline................................................................................90
CHAPTER 7 – DETAIL CLASSIFICATION ..........................................................................92

7.1 Ranking Number......................................................................................................................92
7.2 Classification Table .................................................................................................................93
CHAPTER 8 – RANKING PROGRAM .................................................................................100

8.1 Overview................................................................................................................................100
8.2 Program Operation.................................................................................................................100
8.3 Examples................................................................................................................................106
CHAPTER 9 – CONCLUSIONS..............................................................................................123
9.1 Summary ................................................................................................................................123
9.2 Conclusions............................................................................................................................124
9.3 Recommendations..................................................................................................................124
REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................127
APPENDIX A: Steel Designations and Years in Use
APPENDIX B: Calculations for Web Gap Stresses
APPENDIX C: Survey Replies

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 AASHTO S-N categories for common details................................................................ 9

Table 2.2 AASHTO categories for plain material and mechanically fastened joints
(AISC 2001)...................................................................................................................... 10
Table 2.3 Diagrams for plain material and mechanically fastened joints (AISC 2001) ............... 11
Table 2.4 AASHTO categories for welded joints in built-up members & longitudinal fillet
welded ends (AISC 2001)................................................................................................. 12
Table 2.5 Diagrams for welded joints in built-up members and longitudinal fillet welded ends
(AISC 2001)...................................................................................................................... 13
Table 2.6 AASHTO categories for welded joints transverse to direction of stress (AISC 2001) 14
Table 2.7 Diagrams for welded joints transverse to direction of stress (AISC 2001) .................. 15
Table 2.8 AASHTO categories for welded joints transverse to direction of stress and base
metal at welded transverse member connections (AISC 2001) ........................................ 16
Table 2.9 Diagrams for welded joints transverse to direction of stress and base metal at
welded transverse member connections (AISC 2001)...................................................... 17
Table 2.10 AASHTO categories for base metal at welded transverse member connections
(AISC 2001)...................................................................................................................... 18
Table 2.11 Diagrams for base metal at welded transverse member connections (AISC 2001).... 19
Table 2.12 AASHTO categories for base metal at welded transverse member connections and
base metal at short attachments (AISC 2001)................................................................... 20
Table 2.13 Diagrams for base metal at welded transverse member connections and base metal
at short attachments (AISC 2001)..................................................................................... 21
Table 2.14 AASHTO categories for miscellaneous details (AISC 2001) .................................... 22
Table 2.15 Diagrams for miscellaneous details (AISC 2001) ...................................................... 23
Table 2.16 D factors for span length (Moses et al., 1987)............................................................ 39
Table 2.17 Table 10.3.1B of AASHTO Standard specifications for Highway Bridges ............... 40
Table 2.18 FL Values (Moses et al., 1987) ................................................................................... 41
Table 2.19 Skew constants (Berglund, 2002) ............................................................................... 44
Table 2.20 Cross-brace constants for 10.5 ft girder spacing (Severtson and Beukema, 2004) .... 45
Table 2.21 Cross-brace constants for 8 ft to 9.25 ft girder spacing (Li, 2005)............................. 45
Table 5.1 Survey Results Table .................................................................................................... 71
Table 6.1 Quick-Reference Timeline............................................................................................ 91
Table 7.1 Overall Classification Table ......................................................................................... 95
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 AASHTO S-N curves for detail classification A through E' ......................................... 6
Figure 2.2 Intersecting stiffeners weld detail (Fisher 1981) .......................................................... 8
Figure 2.3 Diaphragms and transverse stiffeners on steel girder bridge (Fisher 1984)................ 24
Figure 2.4 Differential girder displacement resulting in web rotations (Li, 2005)....................... 24
Figure 2.5 Relationship between variables for differential deflection and web gap distortion
(Li, 2005) .......................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 2.6 Transverse stiffener web gap cracks on the I-90 Bridge (Fisher 1984) ...................... 26
Figure 2.7 Crack originating from the coped stringer of Hwy 51.5 Bridge (Adapted from
Fisher 1984) ...................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 2.8 Typical cracking at weld toe of cover plate (Adapted from Fisher 1984)................... 28
Figure 2.9 Crack at end of cover plate of Yellow Mill Pond Bridge propagating into web
(Fisher 1984)..................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 2.10 Cracked girder of Lafayette Street Bridge (Adapted from Fisher 1984)................... 29
Figure 2.11 Stringer web cracks above bracket at roadway relief joint of the Walt Whitman
Suspension Bridge (Adapted from Fisher 1984) .............................................................. 30
Figure 2.12 Crack in girder web of Quinnipiac River Bridge (Adapted from Fisher 1984) ........ 31
Figure 2.13 Cracked end of haunch insert on Aquasabon River Bridge (Fisher 1984)................ 32
Figure 2.14 Crack through webs and flange of Dan Ryan Rapid Transit Structure (Adapted
from Fisher 1984) ............................................................................................................. 32
Figure 2.15 Crack through tie plate of Allegheny River Bridge (Adapted from Fisher 1984)..... 33
Figure 2.16 Crack originating at tack weld through tie plate of Lehigh River Bridge (Fisher
1984) ................................................................................................................................. 33
Figure 2.17 Cracking of floor-beam and floor-beam connection plate (Adapted from Fisher
1984) ................................................................................................................................. 34
Figure 2.18 Core of cracked section of corner weld from Gulf Outlet Bridge box girder
(Fisher 1984)..................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 2.19 Stress concentration diagram for corner weld from residual heating stresses
(Fisher 1984)..................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 2.20 Rigid box girder frame of Ft. Duquesne Bridge (Fisher 1984) ................................. 36
Figure 2.21 Lamellar cracks in girder tension flanges (left) and compression flanges (right)
(Fisher 1984)..................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 2.22 Standard fatigue truck geometry and loading (Moses et al., 1987)........................... 38
Figure 2.23 Growth rate graphs for determination of Ta value (Moses et al., 1987).................... 41
Figure 2.24 Distortional fatigue geometry (Jajich, 2000)............................................................. 43
Figure 3.1 Composite section cracks from studs (FHWA 1986).................................................. 49
Figure 3.2 Cracking at mislocated bolt holes of Highway 28 Bridge over I-57 (Fisher 1984) .... 50
Figure 3.3 Collapse of Point Pleasant (Silver Bridge) (Fisher 1984) ........................................... 51
Figure 3.4 Eyebar fracture from Point Pleasant (Silver) Bridge failure (Fisher 1984)................. 51
Figure 4.1 Mn/DOT vehicle classification scheme (Pierce, July 2006) ....................................... 54
Figure 4.2 Stress concentration factors for various cope radii (Yam, 1990) ................................ 55
Figure 4.3 Standard weld termination distances for stiffeners (Mn/DOT, 2002)......................... 57
Figure 5.1 Tack welded web gap filler plate - Bridge #55803 (Wilson, October 2006) .............. 60
Figure 5.2 Tack welded filler plate - Bridge #55804 (Wilson, October 2006)............................. 60
Figure 5.3 Haunch insert cracking - Lexington Avenue Bridge (Wilson, October 2006)............ 63
Figure 5.4 Haunch insert cracking (close-up) - Lexington Avenue Bridge (Wilson, October
2006) ................................................................................................................................. 63
Figure 5.5 Cracking at sealed web penetration - Bridge #69831 (Wilson, October 2006)........... 64
Figure 5.6 Cracking at coped web penetration - Bridge #69831 (Wilson, October 2006) ........... 65
Figure 5.7 Field welded splice – Bridge #90856 (Wilson, October 2006) ................................... 66
Figure 5.8 Wyoming DOT bracket detail – RG870-D (Fredrick, 2006) ...................................... 75
Figure 5.9 Wyoming DOT bracket detail member sizes – RG870-D (Fredrick, 2006) ............... 75
Figure 5.10 Wyoming DOT eyebar detail – 2156 (Fredrick, 2006) ............................................. 76
Figure 6.1 1977 AASHTO fatigue code (AASHTO, 1977) ......................................................... 79
Figure 8.1 Program Input Variables............................................................................................ 102
Figure 8.2 Blank program input sheet......................................................................................... 105
Figure 8.3 Transverse stiffener web gap (Bridge # 9330) .......................................................... 107
Figure 8.4 Transverse stiffener web gap – girders (Bridge # 9330) ........................................... 108
Figure 8.5 Transverse stiffener web gap – framing plan (Bridge # 9330).................................. 109
Figure 8.6 Insufficient cope radius (Bridge # 9320)................................................................... 110
Figure 8.7 Partial length cover plate (Bridge # 02803) .............................................................. 111
Figure 8.8 Shelf plate welded to girder web (Bridge # 9320) .................................................... 112
Figure 8.9 Shelf plate welded to girder web – plan view (Bridge # 9320)................................. 112
Figure 8.10 Shelf plate welded to girder web – welding detail (Bridge # 9320)........................ 113
Figure 8.11 Floor-beam bracket (Bridge # 5947) ....................................................................... 113
Figure 8.12 Welded horizontal stiffener (Bridge #9800)............................................................ 113
Figure 8.13 Haunch insert (Bridge # 9779) ................................................................................ 114
Figure 8.14 Web penetration (Bridge # 27788) .......................................................................... 114
Figure 8.15 Plug-welded misplaced hole (Bridge # 27552) ....................................................... 115
Figure 8.16 Field welded splice (Bridge # 90856) ..................................................................... 115
Figure 8.17 Pin and eyebar truss or pin and hanger assembly (Bridge # 9320) ......................... 116
Figure 8.18 Cantilever floor-beam bracket (Bridge # 5993) ...................................................... 117
Figure 8.19 Backing bar (Bridge # 27636) ................................................................................. 118
Figure 8.20 Intermittent weld (Bridge # 6566)........................................................................... 118
Figure 8.21 Tack weld (Bridge # 55804).................................................................................... 119
Figure 8.22 Tied arch bridge (Bridge # 9600N) ......................................................................... 120
Figure 8.23 Tied arch floor beam (Bridge # 9600S)................................................................... 120
Figure 8.24 Example program operation .................................................................................... 123
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In order for the Minnesota Department of Transportation to estimate future spending and
rehabilitation needs, it is important to establish the overall fatigue and fracture susceptibility of
its bridge inventory. This report provides a framework for enumerating fracture and fatigue
sensitive details present in steel bridges. It also provides a method for rating the details in terms
of their overall frequency and consequence of cracking. The research includes thorough
examination of eighteen details identified as possible cracking locations. A composite rank
number which represents overall bridge susceptibility to fatigue and fracture is computed based
on the details it possesses, enabling organization of bridges by vulnerability.
The research conducted includes a collection of case studies on cracking and predictive formulas,
as well as a timeline of changes to the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Specifications for Highway Bridges and the Minnesota
Standard Specifications for Highway Construction. Historic examples of cracking were
assembled through examination of bridge plans and inspection reports. Frequency of occurrence
was gathered by a national survey of the Departments of Transportation which collected data on
the occurrence of steel bridge cracking from fifteen states across the nation. The most common
problems were further analyzed with results from academic studies and then subdivided into
different rank groups based on geometry.
The result is a comprehensive table correlating geometric constraints to rank numbers. A year is
also given in the table which represents when use of a detail was ended, restricted by code, or
eliminated by code. The project concludes with the implementation of a program into the
Minnesota Department of Transportation (Mn/DOT) bridge database, which calculates a
composite rank number for each bridge based upon distribution and rank of the individual details
present in the bridge.
It was noted that little fracture and fatigue research has actually been performed in-situ on
bridges (as opposed to laboratory models). Therefore, the ranking developed in this study is
qualitative in nature and largely based on past experience. The only detail for which stresses can
be easily calculated is the transverse stiffener web gap, based on a method developed by the
University of Minnesota. These formulas require geometrical information that must be gathered,
as well as accurate traffic counts for each bridge. Simplifications can be made to these formulas
as well as those found in NCHRP 299 – “Fatigue Evaluation Procedures for Steel Bridges” to
estimate fatigue life, but after simplifications, the estimations are comparable to the ranking
developed in this report.
It is recommended that some form of the program developed here be used for actual
implementation into Minnesota Department of Transportation bridge databases to gain a better
understanding of the fatigue and fracture susceptibility of the bridge inventory. Comprehensive
examination of bridge plans and inspections are the most efficient methods to collect information
necessary for input into the program. Inspection records are necessary because some of the
details are not shown in bridge plans as they result from improper field practices.
CHAPTER 1– INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
Fatigue in steel bridges is a major concern nationwide, as many bridges are approaching an age
when fatigue life of certain details will be reached. Periodic inspections of these bridges may
lead to the discovery of cracks requiring repair or retrofit. It is important therefore, to gain an
understanding of how fatigue details reduce overall bridge inventory life. In doing so, fatigue
and fracture susceptible bridges can be enumerated to help estimate future spending and
rehabilitation needs.
Besides advancing steel bridge management and transferring valuable technology to the
Minnesota Department of Transportation (Mn/DOT), implementation of procedures in this report
can increase safety and reliability of the steel bridge inventory in Minnesota by facilitating the
identification of bridges that are vulnerable to fatigue and fracture problems. This research will
enable enhanced productivity and greater economy in bridge inspection, maintenance, and
evaluation operations by allowing Mn/DOT staff to more accurately identify bridges with fatigue
and fracture problems and assess their severity.
A system is developed for identification and gross ranking of bridges with high, medium, or low
need for preventative maintenance or special inspection. It consists of a list of flagged fracture
or fatigue susceptible details. It also includes a program which acquires data, such as geometry
of certain details, and outputs a rank which classifies the severity and frequency of possible
cracking for each detail. Bridges can then be ordered depending on which details they possess
and their frequency of cracking. Below is a list of the major tasks necessary to rank bridges:
1. Identification of details with susceptibility to fracture and fatigue

2. Examination of case histories on fatigue and fracture in Minnesota and the United
States and past research to discover the best approach to increase accuracy for the
most common details
3. Examination of code changes regarding fatigue and fracture
4. Development of a procedure for an intern or field inspector to review the entire suite
of bridges and collect information about details
5. Allocation of space in databases to contain necessary detail information
6. Development of a program to rank flagged details with fatigue or fracture
susceptibility
7. Implementation of a program to output rank numbers to database
Flagged details include all of the fracture and fatigue susceptible details considered in this study
and given a rank number. To rank the severity of flagged details, a comprehensive background
of current knowledge was gathered. First, an extensive review of literature was performed,
beginning with history of details that have shown a propensity for cracking. Next, a timeline was
created, listing when problematic details were addressed in bridge design codes to identify which
1
bridges were built after such changes and are thus exempt. By using geometries from actual
bridges and combining this information with crack histories and past research, factors affecting
cracking were identified.
To set the rank number for each type of detail, qualitative classification of acquired data was
necessary rather than quantitative methods. A sample set of bridge plans was studied to discover
what information could be gathered from them. A procedure was developed for extrapolation of
information from plans, entry into the ranking program, and output to a database compatible
format.
Research previously conducted on the topic of fatigue life estimation has left many loose ends in
terms of applicability. Past research may have identified useful equations for estimating stresses
based on parameters describing bridge geometry, material properties and loading; however,
many times not all of these parameters are available. Furthermore, some procedures are far too
complicated for applying them systematically to a large suite of bridges, and as such,
simplifications must be made.
Use of the program and application of results is at the discretion of Mn/DOT. The conclusions in
this report are based upon information obtained from existing research, evaluations, and code
recommendations. No further experimentation was performed; therefore, the limitations of the
conclusions depend upon the reliability of past work and experience. This report forms the basis
for implementation of a ranking system for bridge management needs. This includes assessing
the scope of individual bridge preservation projects, as well as identifying bridges most likely to
fatigue. This report may be used for identification of details requiring special attention during
inspections. It is not a substitute for periodic inspections, nor should the ranking be used as an
evaluation tool for bridge safety.
1.2 Chapter Summaries

Chapter 2 – Provides the background information on fatigue details:
• identification of fatigue details by AASHTO S-N category, distortional fatigue
summary, and case studies analyzed by Fisher (1984)
• NCHRP Report 299 fatigue life estimation procedure
• distortional stress approximations from University of Minnesota research
Chapter 3 – Provides the background information on fracture details:
• fracture code changes from the “Proposed Control Plan for New Bridges with
Fracture Critical Members and the Inspection of Fracture Critical Bridge
Members” (FHWA 1978)
• fracture case studies by Fisher (1984)
Chapter 4 – Provides information on geometric constraints for the five most common details:
• code language that classifies geometries based on S-N category
• other academic research that identifies effect of geometry
Chapter 5 – Specifies cracking case histories for Mn/DOT and the United States:
• Mn/DOT inspections review
• bridge plan review
2
• survey of other state Departments of Transportation (DOTs) for collection of
frequency of cracking and any details not previously identified
Chapter 6 – Summarizes changes to bridge codes involving fracture and fatigue since 1964:
• general summary of American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) code
• specific wording changes to AASHTO and Minnesota codes
• timeline representing the changes
Chapter 7 – Provides the overall classification for flagged details:
• rank numbering is identified and described
• details are separated into geometric categories and rank is assigned
• a classification table is developed to summarize all information
Chapter 8 – Describes the program used for connecting geometry to bridge rank:
• blank spreadsheet for input is developed
• functioning of the program is described
• program is included
• examples of details are subjected to ranking program
Chapter 9 – Conclusions are drawn to summarize report:
• summary of information collected conclusions drawn
• recommendations for use and further research
Appendix A – Table of dates during which various types of steel were used
Appendix B – Rank number calculations for web gap detail
Appendix C – Responses from survey of DOTs
3
4
CHAPTER 2 – FATIGUE BACKGROUND
The process of discovering a reliable method for assessing the potential for bridge damage and
remaining life requires a broad background into studies conducted on the subject. Gathering
information on past instances of steel bridge cracking and compiling the affects of geometric
factors is crucial. Only after gaining a broad understanding of these areas, can a classification
system be formulated to rank details according to their probable necessity for repair. This
chapter outlines some of the research performed, proposed design criteria, and established
procedures, which create the foundation of classifications presented in later chapters.
Research of fatigue has been performed for many decades, in an attempt to quantify the
sustainability of structures under repeated loading. Fatigue almost always precedes fracture and
can therefore help to predict where rapid crack growth may occur. A large body of research on
fatigue has been performed at Lehigh University since the 1970’s by Fisher (1981), who assisted
in developing a fatigue control plan for the National Cooperative Highway Research Program
(NCHRP) (FHWA 1978). Refinement of this plan was conducted over the course of the next
twenty years, including retrofit of web gaps in 1985 and alterations to certain weld applications
(FHWA 1978).
Geometric restrictions proposed in this research enabled subsequent bridges to be constructed

without highly fatigue-susceptible details. The Minnesota Department of Transportation later
adopted a plan to construct bridges with infinite fatigue life. Current research focuses on
assessing stresses and sustainability of existing details. Work done by the University of
Minnesota in 2000 and thereafter proposed and refined a method for approximating distortional
stresses in cross-braces and diaphragms. These and other stress approximation methods could be
used in the future, in conjunction with the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) fatigue curve classification (Figure 2.1) to generate an
approximate number of cycles to failure.
5
Figure 2.1 AASHTO S-N curves for detail classification A through E'
The AASHTO Fatigue Curves classify geometries of material and welds by A through E', in
order of decreasing fatigue resistance. Use of the curves necessitates correct classification of
each detail, as well as obtaining an appropriate stress range.
2.1 Identification of Details

Recognizing which details have fatigue issues is crucial to attempt classification. A fairly
comprehensive list of details with their AASHTO S-N category curve can be found in many
sources, including the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Bridge Inspector’s Manual, or
the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Manual of Steel Construction, Load and
Resistance Factor Design (LRFD). A summary of these is contained in section 0.
Differential displacement induced fatigue has caused more cracks in steel bridges then simple
fatigue. As mentioned before, these “distortional fatigue” details have only been eliminated
from design since 1985. Therefore, to anticipate the large number of distortional flaws, further
research was performed at the University of Minnesota to develop approximate stress methods
for these details. In doing so, this research has increased understanding of this problem
sufficiently to allow distortional details to be rated with a similar confidence to non-distortional
details. A basic overview of distortional fatigue is included in section 0.
Laboratory data on fatigue cracking does not cover all in-situ details due to the case-specific
nature of the fatigue stress states, and current practices are derived usually from past experiences.
6
These, in majority, consist of in-situ bridge failures that have been analyzed post-failure. Section
0 outlines specific cases across the United States and Canada in which details have cracked.
2.1.1 AASHTO S-N Categories

The classification for rating which geometries are vulnerable to fatigue is found consistently in
many sources. This section outlines some of the known problematic details including their
classification category for the AASHTO curves. A complete classification summary for
common geometries is given thereafter, in Tables 2.2 through 2.15.
Of the multitude of details present in bridges in the United States, some are more common than
others. For example, eyebars and pin plates are rare details. These were discovered to be
hazardous earlier than many details, and most have been replaced. On the other hand, fatigue
sensitive cover plates and horizontal stiffener weld intersections are found in many bridges; only
recently were they redesigned or eliminated from design.
Determination of which details to examine and which to ignore is an imperative portion of

organizing critical details. Locating details with A or B classification on the AASHTO curves is
unnecessary, since there are currently many C through F details present. Furthermore, sub-
ranking rare details may prove wasteful, and coarse classification of the details could be more
appropriate (Corwin 2002).
The most common susceptible detail is the flange cover plate used to increase moment capacity
locally. Welds on partial length flange cover plates create huge stress concentrations that could
develop cracks at the terminations of the weld returns or at the end of the cover plates. If the
plate is wider than the flange with welds across ends, or the plate is narrower than the flange with
or without welds across ends: then, if t f ≤ 0.8in. , then the category is E, or if t f > 0.8in. , the he
category is E'. Otherwise, the detail is E'. Placement of the termination within areas of high
stress reversals was discouraged by AASHTO with the adoption of its fatigue design.
When horizontal connection plates for lateral bracing and vertical stiffeners intersect they are
occasionally welded together. This, in turn, forms a built-in crack where butt-welds do not
achieve full penetration (Figure 2.2). This is a common and critical detail that must be
examined. Stress concentrations at the ends of horizontal connection plates, whether connected
to the bottom of the web or the tension flange, are a category E detail if longer than 4 inches.
They are classified by AASHTO as tension members even though they are secondary elements.
7
Figure 2.2 Intersecting stiffeners weld detail (Fisher 1981)
Overcut copes have a large increase in stress at the end of the cut. Any detail with this problem
should be examined since it acts as an initial fissure.
Another common fatigue issue is the backing bar left in place after the completion of a groove
weld. If left in place, a backing bar can create a stress concentration similar to a notch between
the bar and the welded metal. Since the primary stress fluctuation is usually perpendicular to the
bar, a fatigue crack can easily form. The current Bridge Welding Code, AWS D1.5 required the
removal of backing bars, but structures built prior to 1994 did not require removal (FHWA
1986).
Other common bridge details are listed in Table 2.1, and detailed descriptions are provided in
Tables 2.2 to 2.15.
8
Table 2.1 AASHTO S-N categories for common details
Description S-N category
Riveted/mechanically fastened joints (non-high-strength bolts) in shear D
Pin plates/eyebars (high stress on net section) E
Terminations of longitudinal fillet welds E
Attachments normal to flanges or plates, no significant load
L < 51mm C
51mm ≤ L ≤ 101mm D
101mm < L E
Edge Distance < 10mm for all lengths E
Attachment plates or flange thickness > 25mm for all lengths E'
Transverse stiffeners (like short attachments or cross-bracing or diaphragms) C
Load-carrying attachments with two stress ranges (distortion included) E
Attachments with rounded ends and fillet or groove welds ground smooth
Transition radius > 50mm D
Transition radius > 152mm C
This list is by no means complete; issues may arise regarding other common practices that
cannot be identified from plans. These include: notches, misalignment and other geometric
discontinuities, thermal cutting, weld joint design, residual stress, weld defects, intersecting
welds, and inadequate weld access holes. Lastly, if drawings are inconsistent with actual
conditions, it could prove difficult to identify where problems may occur. Space can be made
available for new problematic details noted by DOTs, from routine inspections. This data can be
used for future updating of databases.
9
Table 2.2 AASHTO categories for plain material and mechanically fastened joints (AISC 2001)
10
Table 2.3 Diagrams for plain material and mechanically fastened joints (AISC 2001)
11
Table 2.4 AASHTO categories for welded joints in built-up members & longitudinal fillet welded ends
(AISC 2001)
12
Table 2.1 Diagrams for welded joints in built-up members and longitudinal fillet welded ends (AISC 2001)
13
Table 2.2 AASHTO categories for welded joints transverse to direction of stress (AISC 2001)
14
Table 2.3 Diagrams for welded joints transverse to direction of stress (AISC 2001)
15
Table 2.4 AASHTO categories for welded joints transverse to direction of stress and base metal at welded
transverse member connections (AISC 2001)
16
Table 2.5 Diagrams for welded joints transverse to direction of stress and base metal at welded transverse member
connections (AISC 2001)
17
Table 2.6 AASHTO categories for base metal at welded transverse member connections (AISC 2001)
18
Table 2.7 Diagrams for base metal at welded transverse member connections (AISC 2001)
19
Table 2.8 AASHTO categories for base metal at welded transverse member connections and base metal at short
attachments (AISC 2001)
20
Table 2.9 Diagrams for base metal at welded transverse member connections and base metal at short attachments
(AISC 2001)
21
Table 2.10 AASHTO categories for miscellaneous details (AISC 2001)
22
Table 2.11 Diagrams for miscellaneous details (AISC 2001)
2.1.2 Distortional Fatigue Introduction

Distortional fatigue encompasses many distinct details, as seen in section 0. The premise is
simple, rather than stress fluctuations developed directly from traffic, the stresses are generated
by deformation, usually in the transverse direction. Researchers at the University of Minnesota
examined the effects of one specific distortional detail: web gap rotation. “Up to 50% of all
bridges with [the web gap] detail have fatigue cracks.” (Fisher 1981)
The principle is as follows: as a vehicle travels over a bridge, loading may be concentrated on
one of the girders, due to tire position. Or, if the girders are on skew supports, the distances from
the location of the load to the supports will differ for adjacent girders. These loading situations
cause differential deflection between adjacent girders. Braces or diaphragms connecting the
girders rotate (Figure 2.3 & Figure 2.4), thus rotating the stiffeners they are connected to. The
transverse stiffener and the girder web are stiff in comparison to the web alone when bent about
their strong axis (Figure 2.5). On most bridges built before 1985, a gap, roughly two inches
long, was left between the stiffener and the bottom girder flange to avoid welding to a tension
23
flange. The web gap region absorbs the deformation and bends around its weak axis. Large
stresses are generated in the thin web making them vulnerable to fatigue cracking (Figure 2.5).
Diaphragms
Figure 2.3 Diaphragms and transverse stiffeners on steel girder bridge (Fisher 1984)
Figure 2.4 Differential girder displacement resulting in web rotations (Li, 2005)
24
Figure 2.5 Relationship between variables for differential deflection and web gap distortion (Li, 2005)
After this problem was discovered, web gaps were eliminated from design by welding stiffeners
directly to the top flange around 1985 (Jajich, 2000). Stresses can be approximated at the web
gaps and those formulas are found in the stress estimation section, 0. Case studies for this and
other details are found in section 0.
2.1.3 Case Studies

To determine which details may be susceptible to fatigue cracking, an in-depth investigation of
past performance must be conducted. Throughout the United States cracks have affected a
diverse set of details, which made transportation officials aware of fatigue vulnerability and led
to exploration into their causes. Past examples are therefore a key mode for identifying problems
that will reoccur in similar circumstances. This section outlines selected case studies of
cracking; including a short description of the detail, cracking method, and an estimation of stress
range and loading cycles before failure. For the most part, this section was derived from Fatigue
and Fracture in Steel Bridges by Fisher (1984).
Fisher and his research team at Lehigh University have performed some of the most
comprehensive work on fatigue and fracture to date. His book (Fisher 1984) provides much
insight into the mechanisms of cracking and connects real examples with these mechanisms to
derive numerical methods to explain crack growth. Many different factors contribute to
cracking, including: traffic distributions, temperature conditions, welding flaws, and material
properties.
2.1.3.1 Transverse Stiffener Web Gap

Both the I-90 Bridge over the Conrail yard in Cleveland and the I-480 Cuyahoga River Bridge
near Independence, Ohio have approximately one inch spacing between transverse stiffeners and
the bottom flange of girders. The I-90 Bridge has X-shape diaphragms and the I-480 Bridge has
horizontal diaphragms with truss members connecting their midpoints to transverse stiffeners.
Cracking occurred in both circumstances; below the transverse stiffeners as seen in Figure 2.6.
25
The cracks began either in the stiffener welds, directly below the stiffeners, or at the toe of the
stiffener welds. (Fisher 1984)
Figure 2.6 Transverse stiffener web gap cracks on the I-90 Bridge (Fisher 1984)
In the case of the I-90 Bridge, cracks were discovered during erection, and the cause was
determined to be cyclic loading during transportation. The only members that were cracked
were those that were carried by train, and the only details affected were near wooden supports
during transportation. The members were presumed to have swayed during transportation,
approximately 50,000 cycles, and the reversed bending stress range was nearly 46 ksi. It was
discovered that the I-480 Bridge also cracked in transit, from approximately 88 ksi of stress
during 7300 stress cycles. (Fisher 1984)
26
2.1.3.2 Insufficient Cope Radius
Cracking has occurred in many instances in coped members spanning between girders. An
example of this is Canadian Pacific Railroad Bridge No. 51.5 near Ottawa, Ontario. The flame
cut edge at the beam cope caused a stress concentration which initiated cracking at the cope
corner (Figure 2.7). The traffic on this bridge was mostly coal trains, leading to an estimated
effective stress range of 18 ksi. An estimated 1.3 million cycles happened before cracking was
discovered. (Fisher 1984)
Figure 2.7 Crack originating from the coped stringer of Hwy 51.5 Bridge (Adapted from Fisher 1984)
In coping, since the flanges were removed from the beam, the bending resistance was reduced by
80%-90%. Approximately 1 million stress cycles would propagate a 0.015 in. edge crack to 4 in.
Due to flame cutting, residual stresses cause initial cracking. (Fisher 1984)
2.1.3.3 Partial Length Cover Plate

The first example of this deficiency was discovered on Yellow Mill Pond Bridge in Connecticut.
Cracking occurred at the ends of cover plates located on the bottom flange of girders (Figure
2.8). The cracks began at the toe of the weld and penetrated through the flange, severing it in
two. It proceeded 7 in. up the web before termination (Figure 2.9). (Fisher 1984)
27
Figure 2.8 Typical cracking at weld toe of cover plate (Adapted from Fisher 1984)
Figure 2.9 Crack at end of cover plate of Yellow Mill Pond Bridge propagating into web (Fisher 1984)
The cracking of the girder flange was completely fatigue related, and was due to the large stress
concentration at the end of cover plate weld. Under extreme load condition the maximum stress
intensity from tests ranged from 1.1 ksi to 1.98 ksi. The estimated number of cycles to grow the
crack to a depth of 1 in. was 36 million. This type of cracking is the most common among
bridges today. (Fisher 1984)
2.1.3.4 Shelf Plate Welded to Girder Web

The primary example of web connection plate fracture is the Lafayette Bridge over the
Mississippi River in St. Paul. Cracking began from a poor groove weld between a horizontal
28
connection plate and transverse stiffener. The crack was transferred through the connection plate
into the web of the girder (Figure 2.10). From there it moved up the web as well as down,
severing the bottom flange. The crack was discovered only 7.5 in. from the top flange. (Fisher
1984)
Girder Web
Transverse
Stiffener
Horizontal
Connection
Plate
Figure 2.10 Cracked girder of Lafayette Street Bridge (Adapted from Fisher 1984)
The web connection plate issue lay with the occurrence of intersecting welds where the
transverse stiffener met the lateral connection plate. Primarily, there was a defect in the weld
between the stiffener and plate and since the weld was perpendicular to the maximum stress
range, cracking occurred. This type of cracking was found on at least two other bridges with
similar connections. An estimated 3.19 million cycles and a stress range of 4.68 ksi in the flange
and 4.13 ksi in the gusset-web connection occurred before the crack was discovered. (Fisher
1984)
2.1.3.5 Stringer or Truss Floor-beam Bracket

For stringer to floor beam bracket distress, there is not a unique example. Cracking has occurred
on at least three truss structures and in the stringers of two suspension bridges. Cracks are either
located in the flange/web fillet or in the bracket itself (Figure 2.11). Cracking only occurred over
the road expansion joints where stringers were discontinuous. (Fisher 1984)
29
Figure 2.11 Stringer web cracks above bracket at roadway relief joint of the Walt Whitman Suspension Bridge
(Adapted from Fisher 1984)
Movement at stringer ends led to out-of-plane bending of beams and connection angles.
Approximately 19-35 ksi maximum stress range occurred over the web gap at relief joints. An
estimate of 3.6 million trucks with three or more axles crossed the bridge before cracking was
discovered. (Fisher 1984)
2.1.3.6 Welded Horizontal Stiffener

A transverse groove weld detail found at the center span of the Quinnipiac River Bridge in
Connecticut resulted in a crack spreading through the bottom one-half of the girder web (Figure
2.12). This crack began due to insufficient welding between a horizontal stiffener and the girder
web, which severed the stiffener before traveling into the web and bottom flange of the girder.
Brittle fracture occurred through the majority of the web, but all other cracking was fatigue. It
traveled 7in. up the web and cracked 65% of bottom flange. (Fisher 1984)
30
Horizontal Stiffener
Figure 2.12 Crack in girder web of Quinnipiac River Bridge (Adapted from Fisher 1984)
A stress of 1.92 ksi and 1.5 million cycles per year were estimated for this bridge, but these
numbers vary significantly depending upon the initial crack. Consequently, it would take about
2 years to crack the bottom flange and 15 to 20 years to propagate through the entire flange.
Over the 9.5 years of service life before discovery, an estimated 14.5 million trucks passed at
random over the bridge, which produced 30 million stress cycles. (Fisher 1984)
2.1.3.7 Haunch Insert

The first of three different types of transverse groove cracking details is at the end of haunch
inserts. Cracking of the vertical butt-welds on the Aquasabon River Bridge, East of Thunder
Bay is shown in Figure 2.13. The bottom flanges of the main girders were cut away to allow
attachment of curved haunches at the piers. Because the joint was located at the point of moment
reversal for dead load, the cracks fatigued heavily but no fracture occurred. (Fisher 1984)
31
Figure 2.13 Cracked end of haunch insert on Aquasabon River Bridge (Fisher 1984)
Cracking was determined to have begun in the poor-quality transverse groove welds and
propagated through the butt welds. The estimated effective stress range was 1.92 ksi at 1.5
million cycles per year. It would take 2 to 3 years to penetrate the bottom flange and 15 to 20 to
severe it. (Fisher 1984)
2.1.3.8 Web Penetration

The Dan Ryan elevated train structure in Chicago contains many box girder bents along its
length. A few of these experienced cracking at the point where the main girders penetrated
through these box girders (Figure 2.14). The box girder was flame cut, and then welded to the
main girder creating high stress in the welds adjacent to the stringer flange. This crack
penetrated through the box girder webs and through its bottom flange. (Fisher 1984)
Box Girder Web
Backing Bar
Box Girder Flange
Figure 2.14 Crack through webs and flange of Dan Ryan Rapid Transit Structure (Adapted from Fisher 1984)
32
This cracking was induced by backing bars that were left around the penetration when it was
groove welded. Examination of the weld found it to be poorly created, with large discontinuities.
Train traffic produced an estimated 1.3 million cycles of 2.2 ksi to 3 ksi stress ranges, before
fatigue cracks initiated. (Fisher 1984)
2.1.3.9 Cantilever Floor-beam Bracket

Cracking of cantilever floor-beam brackets such as those on the Allegheny River Bridge and the
Lehigh River Bridge are common. Cracking occurred in tie plates that were sometimes used to
connect the top flange of floor beams over main girders to another set of floor beams. Cracks
began at tack welds used to attach the floor beams before they were riveted in place (Figure 2.15
& Figure 2.16). Due to deflections of the floor beams, a rotation occurred about the weak axis of
the girders, causing bending at the girder interface. (Fisher 1984)
Figure 2.15 Crack through tie plate of Allegheny River Bridge (Adapted from Fisher 1984)
Figure 2.16 Crack originating at tack weld through tie plate of Lehigh River Bridge (Fisher 1984)
33
Cracking was substantial at the points in the span where largest deformations occurred.
Calculations approximate that it would take 1.9 million cycles at 11.6 ksi or 14 million cycles at
6 ksi to begin cracking the floor beam brackets. Sometimes rivets cracked and stress was
relieved, stopping crack growth. (Fisher 1984)
2.1.3.10 Tied Arch Floor-beam

The Prairie Du Chien Bridge between Wisconsin and Iowa contained floor beam to tied arch
girder connections that were designed to carry the vertical load transferred from the beams and
no bending moment. Namely, these were bolted/welded shear plate end connections. Cracks
occurred along the weld between the beam flange and web and at the ends of the welds between
the plate and girder (Figure 2.17). (Fisher 1984)
Floor-beam
Flange
Stress
Relief
Hole
Floor-beam
Web
Figure 2.17 Cracking of floor-beam and floor-beam connection plate (Adapted from Fisher 1984)
The cause for cracking was movement of the joints due to unexpected rotation. None of the
cracks appeared to be affected by temperature, which is unusual for many of the fatigue details.
It was approximated that only 1 million stress cycles resulted in the majority of cracking. From
calculations, this results in a stress differential of about 4.5 ksi. (Fisher 1984)
2.1.3.11 Continuous Longitudinal Weld: Box Girder Corner

The Gulf Outlet Bridge is a three-span truss bridge with a tied arch suspended span. Its box
girders were welded longitudinally on the corners, connecting flanges to webs. Hydrogen-
related cold cracking occurred in the welds at the time of fabrication (Figure 2.18). These cracks
were undetectable to the naked eye; and only after grinding the surface were cracks detectable.
Cracks occurred where extra weld thickness had been added manually to shop welds to increase
strength in certain areas (Fisher 1984).
34
Figure 2.18
Figure 2.18 Core of cracked section of corner weld Figure 2.19 Stress concentration diagram for corner
from Gulf Outlet Bridge box girder (Fisher 1984) weld from residual heating stresses (Fisher 1984)
Crack growth occurred likely only in the largest cracks, with a growth stress threshold of 3.6 ksi.
From calculations, if the effective range was 1.7 ksi, 4.8 million stress cycles would be necessary
to propagate the crack a mere 0.005 in. Therefore, any significant cracking would require a
larger stress range (Fisher 1984).
2.1.3.12 Cantilever: Lamellar Tear

Lamellar tearing is a failure mode that only occurs in highly restrained connections as in the case
of the I-275 Bridge in Kenton County, Kentucky. This bridge has extended box girders that
support one side of the road by cantilever (Figure 2.20). Cracks occurred at the top and bottom
of the joint for this cantilever. The cracks occurred parallel to the grain of the steel and
delaminated plies from each other (Figure 2.21) as the cantilever moment attempted to pull them
apart (Fisher 1984).
35
Figure 2.20 Rigid box girder frame of Ft. Duquesne Bridge (Fisher 1984)
Figure 2.21 Lamellar cracks in girder tension flanges (left) and compression flanges (right) (Fisher 1984)
36
Due to the geometry of the structure, a very large moment was applied to the supporting arm.
The girder flange was continuous through the column, creating a highly rigid connection.
Lamellar tearing occurred in all cases before erection. The growth of the crack from the weld toe
is what increased during the service life. If an initial crack of 1.8 in. is assumed, a stress range of
2 ksi yields an estimated 2.5 million cycles (Fisher 1984).
2.2 NCHRP Report 299 – Fatigue Life Evaluation Procedure

The following is a comprehensive procedure for estimation of the fatigue life of uncracked
members subject to primary stresses. This method was conceived for the NCHRP in 1987 in
response to the increased number of instances of cracking in steel bridges. The report consists of
a multi-pronged method, in which traffic counts, vehicle weights, bending moments, and other
factors, can be approximated. Furthermore, there are occasionally multiple different paths of
approximation, each with a different level of accuracy. For the best estimation, detail
dimensions can be measured and stresses can be gathered through instrumentation.
The procedure as it is shown below has a very low level of accuracy, since available traffic
counts, details, and detail locations are not well known throughout Minnesota. Hence, although
the procedure could be applied to the Minnesota Department of Transportation database, the
usefulness and validity of the output is substantially diminished. In this case, the procedure is a
reasonable starting point to establish which details will crack before others, rather than
approximate lifespan.
For distortion-induced fatigue, moment range and member section can be found using the
procedure described in Section 0. It outlines the stress estimation equations that were developed
at the University of Minnesota (Jajich 2000).
When following the procedure, each aspect must be addressed, including: truck loading, total
moment range, member section, reliability factor, remaining fatigue life factor, cycles per truck
passage, lifetime average daily truck volume, and finally the remaining fatigue life. The
structure of NCHRP 299 has been altered into a concise step-by-step procedure.
Truck Loading
Estimate fatigue truck geometry and weight by using either a standard AASHTO truck
configuration for fatigue analyses (Figure 2.22), or another known configuration.
37
Figure 2.22 Standard fatigue truck geometry and loading (Moses et al., 1987)
Bunching occurs (traffic signal on/near bridge, steep hill on two-lane road)
Increase weight (W) 15%
Road is smooth (low impact loading)
Increase W 10%
Joint or pavement roughness could increase impact loading
Increase W 10% to 30%
Total moment range, ΔM

Transverse members – Place one fatigue truck at center of the traffic lane that produces the
highest moment in the specific detail. The change in moment is the range.
Longitudinal members – Place one fatigue truck at locations that cause the maximum and
minimum moments (or axial forces in truss members) at a specific detail. The difference
is the range.
For straight longitudinal beams, girders, or stringers: ΔM new = ΔM ⋅ DF

DF = lateral distribution factor
Or use NCHRP Report 299 Appendix C method
Box-shaped members – divide into two I-shapes, each half of box and use
following method for I-shapes
I-shaped members
2 members supporting deck – Assume deck is a simple beam with truck in
center of outer lane.
More than 2 members

S S −3
Interior members – DFi = <
D S
DFi = interior distribution factor
S = girder spacing (ft)
D = interpolated from Table 2.16
38
Table 2.12 D factors for span length (Moses et al., 1987)
Span* (ft) D
≤30 17
40 19
60 20
90 22
≥120 23
*For positive & negative bending regions in continuous spans, span
length is distance between points of contraflexture under dead loads
Exterior members
Inner face of parapet or curb less than 1 foot outside
centerline of exterior member OR lane shoulder
width > 4 ft : DFe = DFi
DFe = exterior distribution factor
Otherwise
P > 0.5 : DFe = 0.7 − 0.4 P > DFi
P ≤ 0.5 : DFe = 0.9 − 0.8 P > DFi
P = distance from exterior member centerline to outer lane
centerline divided by girder spacing. (Negative if centerline is
outside of exterior girder)
Member section
Bending members
S r = ΔM / S member where S member = section modulus of member
Composite deck (with shear connectors)
Positive moment regions (dead load) – use composite section (article 10.38 of
AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges) and increase by
15%.
Negative moment regions (dead load) – use section including longitudinal rebar.
Noncomposite decks (without shear connectors)
No visual separation in positive bending regions – either use full composite
section, or 30% increase over steel section
Visual separation or negative moment regions – steel section only
P
Truss members – S r =
A
Reliability factor, Rs
Remaining mean life – 50% probability that the remaining life will exceed this time.
Rs = 1.0
Remaining safe life – 97.7% probability for redundant members and 99.0% probability
for nonredundant members that the remaining life will exceed this time.
Rs = Rs 0 ⋅ Fs1 ⋅ Fs 2 ⋅ Fs 3
Redundant members – Rs 0 = 1.35
39
Nonredundant members – Rs 0 = 1.75
Fsn = 1.0 unless otherwise noted
Remaining fatigue life, Yf

Infinite remaining life – if Rs S r < S SF or 2 Rs S t < S c fatigue life is infinite and no more
calculations are needed
S t = tension portion of stress range
S c = compressive dead load stress
S FL = limiting stress range from Table 2.17
Table 2.13 Table 10.3.1B of AASHTO Standard specifications for Highway Bridges
Detail Detail Limiting Stress

Category Constant, K Range, SFL (ksi)
A 68 8.8
B 33 5.9
B' 17 4.4
C 12 3.7*
D 6.0 2.6
E 2.9 1.6
E' 1.1 0.9
F 2.9 2.9
*Use 4.4 ksi for stiffeners
Cycles per truck passage, C

Longitudinal members
(a) Simple-span (L) girders
if L ≥ 40 ft , then C = 1.0
if L < 40 ft , then C = 1.8
(b) Continuous span; within 10% of span on each side of interior support
L − 80
if L ≥ 80 ft , then C = 1 + where L is in feet
400
if 40 ft ≤ L < 80 ft , then C = 1.0
if L < 40 ft , then C = 1.5
(c) Continuous span girders elsewhere
if L ≥ 40 ft , then C = 1.0
if L < 40 ft , then C = 1.5
(d) Cantilever girders (vibrations should be analyzed for increased stress cycles)
C = 2.0
(e) Trusses
C = 1.0
40
Transverse members (with spacing S, in ft)
if S ≥ 20 ft , then C = 1.0
if S < 20 ft , then C = 2.0
Lifetime Average Daily Truck Volume

Present average daily truck volume in outer lane, T = ADT ⋅ FT FL
ADT average daily traffic volume in both directions
FT = fraction of trucks (excluding panel, pickup, & other 4 wheel/2 axle trucks)
If unknown, use 0.2 for rural interstates, 0.15 for rural highways and urban
interstates and 0.1 for urban highways.
FL = fraction of trucks in outer lane from Table 2.18
Table 2.14 FL Values (Moses et al., 1987)

No. of
Lanes 2-Way Traffic 1-Way Traffic
1 -- 1.00
2 0.60 0.85
3 0.50 0.80
4 0.45 0.80
5 0.45 0.80
6 or more 0.40 0.80
Lifetime average daily trucks in outer lane, Ta is found using Figure 2.23.
T = present average daily truck volume in outer lane
a = present age of bridge
g = annual growth rate estimated by NCHRP Report 299 procedure
Figure 2.23 Growth rate graphs for determination of Ta value (Moses et al., 1987)
41
Finite remaining life
Single time period approximation method
f ⋅ K × 10 6
Yf = −a
Ta C ( Rs S r ) 3
Y f = remaining fatigue life in years

K = detail constant from Table 2.17
a = present bridge age (yr)
f = 1.0 for safe life, 2.0 for mean life
Double time period approximation method
⎡ Yp ⎤
Y f = YN ⎢1 − ⎥
⎣ Y1 ⎦
f ⋅ K × 10 6
Y1 =
T p C ( Rs S rW p / W ) 3
f ⋅ K × 10 6
YN =
TN C ( Rs S r W N / W ) 3
Y p = present age in years

Y1 = fatigue life in years from past volume
YN = fatigue life in years based on future volume
T p = past average daily truck volume for outer lane
TN = future average daily truck volume for outer lane
W p = past weight
W N = future weight
2.3 University of Minnesota Distortional Stress Estimation Procedure

Stresses caused by direct bending are well known. These can be replicated in a lab and
translated to in-situ situations. The bending patterns and rotations caused by differential
deflections, however, are more complicated. To gain an understanding of how stresses behave in
diaphragms, it would be necessary to test numerous, multi-axial forces with many different
lengths and positions. The solution instead is to attach strain gauges to actual bridges and
augment strain data with finite element models.
42
Researchers at the University of Minnesota, under a Mn/DOT sponsored program, developed
models of skewed bridges in an attempt to estimate the stresses in a certain web gap detail
mentioned in section 0. During a five-year period, sustained research led to refinement of
formulas and a more detailed classification of bridges.
In 2000, Jajich instrumented a skewed bridge that contained web gaps and beam diaphragms
(Jajich et al. 2000). This single detail was examined at many different locations. By measuring
displacements and stresses, an understanding of the stress concentration behavior was gained.
After, a finite element analysis was conducted and calibrated with the readings. Finally, the life
span of web gap fatigue was approximated.
From the data collected, it was discovered that the web gap stresses due to distortion were 2 to 4
times the stresses at the girder flange. From the finite element modeling, it was realized that the
largest stresses at the toe of the fillet connecting the stiffener to the web, was double the value
measured by strain gauges.
Traffic data over many months, as well as test runs with standard trucks enabled Jajich to
estimate the number of loadings that occur within a given time frame. Combining these
measurements, an estimate was made that the life of the web gap detail was between 45 and 75
years. Lastly, a general equation was formulated, Equation 2.1, estimating the relationship
between geometric constraints and the peak stress.
Figure 2.24 Distortional fatigue geometry (Jajich, 2000)
3Et w ⎡ 3Et w ⎤ ⎡ hΔgirders ⎤

Equation 2.1 σ web
max
− gap ≈ δ = ⎢ 2 ⎥⎢ ⎥
g2 ⎣ g ⎦⎣ S ⎦
Berglund and Schultz (2002) altered the formula by Jajich to better compare with calibrated
results (Equation 2.2). Berglund’s most important contribution, however, was the development
of a formula for estimating the differential displacement Δ, or Δgirders, between adjacent girders.
He also provided an estimate of gap length when none was available in the bridge plans.
Severtson et al. (2004) further modified this equation by neglecting lateral deflection of the web
gap, δ. His study focused on the behavior of cross braces rather than rolled plate diaphragms.
These braces resulted in significantly different results for stress approximation. Lastly, Li and
Schultz (2005) tuned the equation with a more comprehensive finite element model and
accounted for J-rail and sidewalk contributions. She also made changes to the estimation of
43
differential deflection. In this section, a brief overview of the progression of the web gap stress
equation is shown, as it could be incorporated into Mn/DOT’s database.
⎛ t w ⎞⎛ Δ ⎞
Equation 2.2 σ wg = 2 E ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ g ⎠⎝ S ⎠
Refinement of the formula resulted in inclusion of the bridge skew angle as shown below.
Δ A1 ⋅ L2 + A2 ⋅ L + A3
Equation 2.3 =
S L
Where values are taken from Table 2.19 for 20º, 40º, and 60º skews and interpolated for other
angles. L is the span length.
Table 2.15 Skew constants (Berglund, 2002)

(L in meters)
Deg. A1 A2 A3
20 -0.00001327 0.001486 -0.00864
40 -0.00001227 0.001522 -0.01034
60 -0.00001714 0.002185 -0.02328
(L in inches)
Deg. A1 A2 A3
20 -3.3700E-07 0.001486 -0.3399
40 -3.1150E-07 0.001522 -0.4065
60 -4.3520E-07 0.002185 -0.9156
Since engineering plans and shop drawings sometimes do not show the distance between the
bottom flange and the vertical stiffener, approximation for unknown web gap length is needed.
t w g from Equation 2.4 can be used as a substitute in these cases.
tw
Equation 2.4 = K ⋅ L + 0.4091
g
K = −0.002858 for L in meters
K = −0.00007260 for L in inches
Using reasoning similar to Jajich (2000), Severtson, Beukema and Schultz (2004) rederived the
web gap stress equation by simplifying the slope-deflection formula for linear beam theory
(Equation 2.5), and neglecting lateral deflection of the web gap, δ. This resulted in Equation 2.6
which accounted for the behavior of cross-brace diaphragms rather than rolled plate diaphragms.
As is evident these cross braces give a much larger coefficient (3.5) than the one in Berglund’s
equation.
44
E ⋅ tw δ
Equation 2.5 σ wg = (2θ b + θ t + 3 )
g g
⎛ tw ⎞⎛ Δ ⎞
Equation 2.6 σ wg = 3.5E ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝g ⎠⎝ S ⎠
Standard girder spacing for multi-girder bridges is 10.5 feet, for which Equation 2.6 was
derived. Equation 2.7 is a cross-brace correction factor, which is multiplied by the Δ for bent-
plate diaphragms to get Δ for cross-brace diaphragms of 10.5 ft. Rx is the ratio of deflection of
cross-brace diaphragms to the deflection of bent-plate diaphragms.
Equation 2.7 R x = 1 + B1 ⋅ L2 + B2 ⋅ L
Table 2.16 Cross-brace constants for 10.5 ft girder spacing (Severtson and Beukema, 2004)
L B1 B2
ft -1.931E-05 5.432E-04
in -1.341E-07 4.527E-05
m -2.078E-04 1.782E-03
Li and Schultz (2005) further analyzed the web gap stress by examining the I94/I694 Bridge and
the Plymouth Avenue Bridge. Her study focused on better estimation of differential deflection.
She calibrated the equation to include new factors for different girder spacing and a relationship
between sidewalks and J-rails on the Plymouth Avenue Bridge. These can then be applied to
σ wg = C ⋅ E (t w g )(Δ S ) , where C = (2θ b + θ t ) /(Δ / S ) is the web gap stress coefficient.
Table 2.17 Cross-brace constants* for 8 ft to 9.25 ft girder spacing (Li, 2005)
L B1 B2
ft -1.038E-05 3.232E-04
in -7.209E-08 2.694E-05
m -1.117E-04 1.060E-03
*Interpolate for spacing between 10.5 ft and 9.25 ft
Li’s factor for the case when sidewalks are present instead of J-rails (Equation 2.8) is applied to
Δ in the calculation of web gap stress. In most cases, Rd is less than unity, meaning sidewalks
reduce distortional stresses by stiffening the bridge and reducing differential deflection.
Equation 2.8 Rd = 0.0013 ⋅ L + 0.7378
For diaphragms and geometry similar to the I94/I694 Bridge, found by including correction
factors, C = 2.25. For cross-braces and geometry similar to Plymouth Ave. Bridge, found by
including correction factors and the sidewalk factor, C = 2.75.
45
If web gap lateral deformation is determined to be of importance, then defection the normalized
web gap deflection, δ , should be included (Equation 2.9 & Equation 2.10).
⎛ t w ⎞⎛ Δ ⎞
Equation 2.9 σ wg = C ⋅ (1 + 3δ ) ⋅ E ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ g ⎠⎝ S ⎠
δ/g
Equation 2.10 δ =
(θ t + 2θ b )
⎛ t ⎞⎛ Δ ⎞
By using the equation σ wg = C ⋅ E ⎜⎜ w ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ , where C depends on a number of variables as
⎝ g ⎠⎝ S ⎠
described above, the distortional stress range in the web gaps can be approximated. The factors
that affect this stress, such as presence of sidewalks and distance between girders, can be used to
connect the Mn/DOT bridge database and the equations developed in the distortional fatigue
research. These stresses can then be used in the procedure found in section 0 for approximation
of bridge lifespan to create a preliminary model for classification of details.
Because the details in this study are classified in such a coarse way, small changes to the
equations, such as sidewalks and J-rails, should not be considered. The resulting equation used
for the current study is a combination of Equation 2.2, Equation 2.3, and Table 2.19, taking C to
be 2.5. The reason for taking C equal to 2.5 is to represent an average between the C values for
rolled plate diaphragms (2.0 from Jajich’s study) and cross-brace diaphragms (3.5 form
Severtson’s study), as well as the differential deflection modifications from Li. Different
constants could be used for the different types of diaphragms, but the coarse ranking is already
limited to a lower level of accuracy. The resulting web gap stress formula is
⎛ t w ⎞⎛ A1 ⋅ L2 + A2 ⋅ L + A3 ⎞
Equation 2.11 σ wg = 2.5E ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ g ⎠⎝ L ⎠
where E is the modulus of elasticity (29,000 ksi), t w is girder web thickness, A1 , A2 , A3 are factors
for bridge skew (Table 2.19), g is web gap width, and L is bridge span length.
46
CHAPTER 3 – FRACTURE BACKGROUND
Brittle fracture is cause for concern in many of the details which exhibit fatigue problems. Few
examples are present which show rapid fracture without initial fatigue. Therefore, to enumerate
which details are prone to fracture, one must have a thorough understanding of which are
fatigue-sensitive. It is also common to have both types of cracking, where a fatigue crack causes
rapid fracture, then more fatigue, followed by fracture again.
Because fracture happens much faster than fatigue, taking only minutes compared to years, it is
important to protect against catastrophic failure. Another problem with fracture is the inability to
predict cracking due to a reduced number of warning signs. To best address these issues, a basic
understanding of fracture mechanics and fracture histories can be used to note where possible
hotspots are.
Factors contributing to fracture include: geometry, initial defects, temperature, Charpy V-notch
toughness, and loading rate. Of these, temperature is almost impossible to predict, Charpy V-
notch toughness may not be available, loading rate is difficult to quantify without measurement,
and initial defects are unknown unless they are already recorded from inspections. This leaves
geometry, which is shown to a certain degree, on bridge plans.
3.1 Standard Fracture Practice Reevaluation

Some important lessons have been learned from past experiences to help mitigate fracture and
these have led to changes in standard practices. However, there are still many current issues that
need to be addressed. A few code changes that have been made are the use of greater toughness
welds, the removal of backing bars from bottom flanges, and sealing at top flanges. There are
many areas that need improvement: The first is the rotary straightening of rolled shapes, which
reduces toughness and ductility in the K-area. Welding of stiffeners in the K-area may continue
to cause fabrication cracks. UT testing has proven to be unreliable and costly. Weld toughness
is certified only once per year, hence it is significantly variable. This testing is also only
performed in butt-welds on a flat plate; furthermore, a safety factor should exist between
certification and Charpy-V Notch brittle fracture (Dexter 2003).
3.2 Welding Fracture Problems

In 1978 the United States Department of Transportation published “A Proposed Fracture Control
Plan for New Bridges with Fracture Critical Members.” (FHWA 1978) This plan consisted of
changes to welding codes, AASHTO Bridge Specifications, and general practice. By outlining
changes that needed to be incorporated into current design, USDOT forecasted issues with
former designs. Following are many of the changes to welding standards proposed by the
document.
Some specific welds were outlined by the plan as being prone to fracture.
47
• Partial joint penetration (PJP) welds in fracture critical members (FCM) or loaded in
tension orthogonally.
• Grinding groove-, butt-, and corner-welds flush on FCMs is necessary to reduce any
stress concentration.
• Plug, slot, intermittent fillet, and groove welds are also stress-raisers.
• Holes or slots for another member to pass through should not be seal welded. Where
used, the seal welds should not provide any rigidity.
• Fillet welds are permitted for shear only, not tension or compression normal to the weld.
Other changes include prohibiting types of details that stress welds in similar ways to those in the
previous list.
• Lap joints in FCMs and Corner and T-joints that have some component of tension would
all put fillet welds into tension.
• Butt-joints and groove welding from a single side without steel backing are considered
problematic.
• Joints perpendicular to the applied stress with backing left in place or backing fillet
welded outside the groove weld will cause stress concentration and possible fracture.
• Temporary tack-welding must be removed from bridges.
• Field welding of all FCMs is disallowed.
• Because of the way bolts are forgiving and welds are rigid, connections are no longer
allowed to be designed to split the load between these two mechanisms.
• If stiffeners are used on only one side of the web, they must be welded to the
compression flange.
• Diaphragms and hangers with flange or web connections perpendicular to applied stress
require a complete joint penetration (CJP) welded T-joint.
• Cover plates have been restricted to eliminate the stress concentration at their ends.
There are limited to one per flange, no more than 1.5 times the flange thickness. The
plates should have square ends, be ground flush, and welded continuously across ends.
In FCMs, when partial-length cover plates are used, the ends of the cover plates should
be in compression.
Changes to procedures for designing fracture resistant details have assisted in managing failures.
“Almost two decades of experience with [AASHTO Guide Specifications for Fracture Critical
Non-Redundant Steel Bridge Members] have proved that they are successful in significantly
reducing the number of fatigue cracks and brittle fractures.” (Dexter, 1997)
Another detail that has an increased chance of cracking is the stud connector for composite deck
slabs as seen in Figure 3.1. When shear connectors are used in negative moment regions, tension
cracks may appear on the underside of the top girder flange (FHWA 1986).
48
Figure 3.1 Composite section cracks from studs (FHWA 1986)
3.3 Case Studies

Besides recognizing that certain welds would increase stress concentration in various situations,
the same details described in the fatigue section apply to fracture. Cover plates at Yellow Mill
Pond Bridge showed only a small length of unstable fracture. Otherwise, the crack was
generally completely fatigue. Web connection plates of the Lafayette Street Bridge exhibited
brittle cracking after a fatigue crack propagated into the web from the gusset plate-stiffener weld.
Besides a small section of fatigue in the girder web, the entire bottom flange and web were
cleavage type fractures, probably occurring on a -22ºF day. (Fisher 1984)
Transverse groove weld cracking occurred in the Aquasabon River Bridge, Quinnipiac River
Bridge, and U.S. 51, but varied significantly. The Aquasabon River Bridge cracked at the end of
a horizontal stiffener, but did not show any fracture. Cracking of the Quinnipiac River Bridge
began as a preconstruction groove weld crack, and fractured through the horizontal stiffener. At
the same time, the crack fatigued into the web, where it fractured in a brittle manner through the
web and into the bottom flange. Subsequently, it fatigued through the flange. Lastly, a groove-
weld cracking of a cover plate on the U.S. 51 Bridge showed only fatigue cracking. (Fisher
1984)
Web penetrations of the Dan Ryan Rapid Transit structure show that cracking was largely due to
fracture, with all cracks initiating from fatigue. Continuous longitudinal welds along the corners
of the box sections on the Gulf Outlet Bridge occurred most likely during welding and exhibited
little fatigue and no unstable fracture growth. (Fisher 1984)
Of the cracked details described in the fatigue section that were distortion induced, none showed
signs of fracture surfaces or unstable crack growth propagation. All of the cracks were
49
discovered before they had an opportunity to propagate into areas where rapid unzipping was
likely. Attention must still be paid of to these details; if left unattended fatigue could easily lead
to uncontrolled fracture. (Fisher 1984)
3.3.1 Plug-welded Misplaced Hole

The Illinois I-57 overpass at Farina had misplaced holes in two beam webs that were plug
welded and redrilled. The holes were for bolted diagram connections. Brittle cracks propagated
from these holes, cracking through the bottom flange and along the web of the girder. The
longest of these cracks was fifteen feet along the girder web. (Fisher 1984)
Mislocated
Holes
Figure 3.2 Cracking at mislocated bolt holes of Highway 28 Bridge over I-57 (Fisher 1984)
At best guess, brittle fracture occurred during extremely cold temperatures. The bridge had no
heavy traffic loading and only light farm equipment and small vehicles. Stress range was
estimated at only about 3 ksi with a maximum at 3.46 ksi from strain gauge readings, far below
AASHTO allowable stress for these members. The estimated number of cycles was 130,000 to
260,000. Other tests were conducted to check ASTM-A36 specifications and Charpy V-notch
toughness; the beam was well within limits. The only conclusion was that “fatigue sharpened the
natural cracks, and brittle fracture resulted from the presence of plug-welded holes.” This detail,
therefore is considered almost completely fracture susceptible. (Fisher 1984)
3.3.2 Eyebar and Pin Plate

Eyebars and pin plates usually involve heat treatment and forge welding, which create a
weakness that eases cracking. The details are fracture critical since cracking is sudden and can
lead to destruction of the entire bridge, as was seen by the Point Pleasant (Silver) Bridge. They
are almost always replaced when found
50
The failure Point Pleasant Bridge is one of the most famous. It opened in 1926, and on
December 15, 1967 all three spans collapsed and 46 lives were lost (Figure 3.3). The
temperature was 30ºF. The failure is attributed to either overextension, or brittle fracture of
corrosion cracks on one of the eyebars near the pinhole (Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.3 Collapse of Point Pleasant (Silver Bridge) (Fisher 1984)
Figure 3.4 Eyebar fracture from Point Pleasant (Silver) Bridge failure (Fisher 1984)
The reason for the catastrophic collapse was the lack of redundancy in the structure, making the
eyebars fracture critical. It was determined that the fatigue resistance of the setup was significant
enough to prevent collapse. The prospect of traffic being more than allowed by design is still a
possibility. Certainly though, corrosion and a high hardness were the main causes of cracking.
This detail is certainly one that is volatile in its ability to crack catastrophically.
51
Another example of fracture resulting from corrosion issues is Illinois Route 157 over St. Clair
Avenue. In this situation, water and salt were able to accumulate on the pin hanger expansion
joint, causing the joint to freeze. The combination of thermal stresses, because the joint was
frozen, and maximum truck traffic caused the girders to exceed their yield stress. There were
fractures in multiple girders, causing a drop of one-half to three-quarters of an inch.
52
CHAPTER 4 – VARIATIONS OF COMMON DETAILS
In general, details about cracking flagged elements are not well known. However, a few failures
are common enough to separate them in to gross categories. To do this, additional information
must be collected from published sources that have investigated the crack probability, or the
number of cracks per number of details of a certain type. There is simply not enough history to
allow for separation of detail variations.
Of the details flagged from this study, the most cracks occur in: web gaps, copes, partial length
welded cover plates, shelf plates welded to girder webs, and welded horizontal longitudinal
stiffeners. These five details may indeed be common enough to separate into different sub-
categories; nevertheless, lack of past research makes it difficult to do so. Furthermore, sub-
classification of these details may be finer than the ranking system used and any fine-tuning may
be lost in the gross ranking.
Although the recording of variations among similar details may seem futile, the information
collected in the database will enable future classification to a finer degree. At a minimum, this
process will allow details to be classified according to their correct AASHTO S-N category,
which may prove useful if stresses can be calculated in the future. The other benefit to sorting
elements is that the database will display the worst one, which will allow inspectors to be aware
of the most severe case.
In the following sections, equations and classifications are presented based upon either past code
restrictions or research-backed formulas.
4.1 Transverse Stiffener Web Gap

Research at the University of Minnesota has allowed for comprehensive formulas for estimating
stresses. Regrettably, the information needed for the analysis of a bridge includes items which
are not always available (e.g., actual length of the web gap, g) in order to use the most precise of
the formulas. Simplifications to the formula by Berglund allow for a somewhat less precise
estimation of stress for an HS-20 truck:
⎛ t ⎞ A L2 + A2 L + A3
σ WebGap = 2.5 E ⎜⎜ w ⎟⎟ ⋅ 1 where A1, A2, A3 are from Table 2.19, which relates
⎝g⎠ L
to the skew of the bridge. Additionally, (t w g ) can be approximated as (0.4091 - 0.0000726L),
where L is span length in inches, if tw and g are unknown.
The factors for cross braces and sidewalks are considered too precise for this study. Using a
general truck count given in the database (ADTT), the length of the spans, the thickness of the
web, the web gap distance, and bridge skew, the formula may be used to estimate the number of
cycles before cracking. Conservatively, “anything bigger than a pickup is considered a truck,”
(Pierce, July 2006) as determined by Figure 4.1. Since no other detail is able to give an accurate
53
stress level, it will not be calculated for this one; therefore, traffic levels are not used in the
current study.
Figure 4.1 Mn/DOT vehicle classification scheme (Pierce, July 2006)
54
4.2 Insufficient Cope Radius
The AISC Manual of Steel Construction in 1986 recommended a cope radius of 0.5 inches
(12.7mm) for all purposes (including buildings) for coped beams. Coped flanges made by flame
cutting cause high residual tensile stresses. Gouges, overcuts, and small radii make the area
highly susceptible to fatigue.
The current Mn/DOT procedure requires a re-entrant radius of 1 inch (Minnesota Department of
Highways 1964) and a radius of 2 inches for copes used at hinged joints (Dahlberg, July 2006)
One study showed that the theoretical stress concentration factor, SCF, as a function of cope
radius, R, could be determined by Equation 4.1 (Yam, 1990).
Equation 0.1 log(SCF ) = 0.937 − 0.285 log( R)
Figure 4.2 Stress concentration factors for various cope radii (Yam, 1990)
To relate this method to the S-N fatigue categories, simply multiply the nominal stress range by
the SCF and use this stress on the category B curve (Yam, 1990). As seen by Figure 4.2, once
the cope radius is less than one inch (25mm) the stress concentration factor grows at a significant
rate. For this reason, separating copes with smaller radii is important. Simply distinguishing
between filleted and square-cut corners is insufficient. Furthermore, recording the cope with the
smallest radius may have a significant effect on ranking of the bridge.
4.3 Partial Length Cover Plate

Much of the classification of cover plates comes from information gathered by researchers at
Lehigh University in the mid 1970s. The first publication of any classification was in Fisher’s
Detection and Repair of Fatigue Damage in Welded Highway Bridges (Fisher, 1981), where the
thickness of cover plates came into effect. From his research, Fisher determined that for plates
55
narrower than the flange or wider than the flange with welds across the ends and the thickness of
the flange was greater than 0.8 inches, the stress category was E. Otherwise it was E'.
This finding was translated to the AASHTO code in 1983, in section 10.13.2: “Partial length
welded cover plates shall not be used on flanges more than 0.8 inches thick for non-redundant
load path structures subjected to repetitive loadings that produce tension or reversal of stress in
the member.” No distinction is made in the AASHTO code for tapering of either thickness or
width of cover plates.
The location of welded cover plate termination could also be an important factor in cracking. In
the past, the AASHTO code required that plates be terminated a certain distance past where they
were required. No AASHTO code change provided a limit for termination of welded cover
plates near the inflection point. There is also no evidence that Mn/DOT actually terminated any
plates deliberately at inflection points and no conclusions can be drawn that cracking was less
severe. For further information, see section 0 on Mn/DOT history.
4.4 Shelf Plate Welded to Girder Web

Shelf plates are considered an attachment in the direction of the applied stress and when they are
longer than 4 inches AASHTO stress category E should be used (Fisher, 1981). Cracks initiate
most often at intersecting welds where lateral plates are attached to girder and transverse
stiffeners. The intersecting welds in the corner allow for cracks to propagate into the girder
web, leading to brittle fracture of the girder (Fisher, 1981 & 1984).
If the shelf plate is groove welded to the girder web then the 1989 AASHTO Code classifies the
plate depending on its length, thickness, and transition radius:
For lengths greater than 12tp or 4": if t p < 1" then E; else if t p ≥ 1" then E'
For transitioned ends with welds ground smooth, and radius R:
If R ≥ 24" , then B; else if 24" > R ≥ 6" , then C;
else if 6" > R ≥ 2" , then D; else if 2" > R ≥ 0" then E
If there is a transition, without the ends ground smooth, then category E applies.
A slightly different version of this was used in the 1983 AASHTO specification as can be seen in
the timeline chapter of this report.
The termination point for stiffener welds can be seen in Figure 4.3, which shows the standard
stiffener detail Mn/DOT currently uses. This clip would apply at the shelf plate detail as well, as
noted by Dave Dahlberg (2006) and any stiffener corner clip size less than that shown in the
diagrams is ranked as higher danger.
56
Figure 4.3 Standard weld termination distances for stiffeners (Mn/DOT, 2002)
57
4.5 Welded Horizontal Stiffener
According to Fisher, the critical point for longitudinal stiffeners is at the end of the longitudinal
weld; he assigns that location as fatigue category E (Fisher, 1981). Any intermittent welding of
longitudinal stiffeners should be considered more susceptible than continuously welded ones.
Groove welds made in the 1940s and 1950s rarely had adequate nondestructive testing, since
secondary elements were not paid the respect they should have. “. . . connected parts were
thought to have only architectural significance.” Commonly, longitudinal stiffeners were added
in tension regions to create an unbroken line. Horizontal stiffeners in tension regions are of
special concern (Fisher, 1981).
Other problem areas include welds connecting the ends of horizontal stiffeners when they are
joined and when A514 steel was used, due to its difficulty in welding (Fisher, 1981).
The NCHRP Report 206, published in 1979 classified the ends of horizontal stiffeners as E and
their middle as B. The AASHTO 1989 code adopted the following classification for fillet welds
on horizontal stiffeners:
For no transition, if t p < 1" , then E; else if t p ≥ 1" , then E'
For transitioned ends with welds ground smooth, and radius R:
If R ≥ 2" , then D; else if 2" > R ≥ 0" , then E
If there is a transition without the ends ground smooth, then category E applies.
58
CHAPTER 5 – DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION HISTORY
5.1 General
Besides ranking bridges in terms of fracture danger, ranking in relation to probability of initial
cracking is helpful. To achieve this, information from many state DOTs, especially Mn/DOT,
pertaining to the number and type of cracks they experience must be collected. Then, by
compiling the cracking histories the details which are most susceptible to fatigue can be
determined.
This collection of data is not without problems, however; a coordinated effort by DOTs to
compile their information is nearly nonexistent. Instead, code changes and research are
evaluated on a case-by-case basis when individual DOTs feel addressing a detail is imperative.
To better understand how a larger collection of bridges is performing, cooperation among
various groups should be increased.
The background for Minnesota’s history is derived from in-person interviews conducted in 2006
by the first author with staff from the Mn/DOT Office of Bridges and Structures, including
David Dahlberg, Pete Wilson, and James Pierce, during which the specifics of details found to
cause fatigue and fracture cracking were discussed. The cooperation of other DOTs sparked by
this report involves a survey intended to gain an understanding of the general order of
susceptible details. The term “order” refers to a numbering of details listed in the survey
(Section 0) by the DOTs. The order is a numbering from 1 to 11 which arranges details in order
of frequency of cracking, with 1 representing the most frequent, and 11 the least. Not all
numbers must be used, and only the details that have had cracks are numbered.
5.2 Mn/DOT Detail History
Transverse stiffener web gap

Before 1985, gaps were left between transverse stiffeners and girder flanges in an attempt to
avoid welding to the tension flange and transferring torsion inform the lateral bracing systems.
Geometric factors affecting stress levels are identified for this detail in section 0. Web gaps in
Minnesota usually varied between tight fit and two inches, with fewer problems occurring on the
bottom flange than the top (Wilson, May 2006). Many small cracks have even been found in the
base metal of girders containing these details. Small plates parallel to girder flanges were
sometimes added as a retrofit, filling the gap; however, these were commonly welded to
stiffeners and only tack welded to the girder flange. They too developed cracks as seen in Figure
5.1 and 5.2.
59
Figure 5.1 Tack welded web gap filler plate - Bridge #55803 (Wilson, October 2006)
Figure 5.2 Tack welded filler plate - Bridge #55804 (Wilson, October 2006)
60
Insufficient cope radius
Cracking of copes has occurred in Minnesota and is usually the effect of a design flaw.
Problems occur when the cope radius is too small or is flame-cut. There are quite a few overcut
copes as well, which mostly occur on floor beams. Problems are common where top and bottom
flanges are cut from the beams so that they can be fit to connection plates (Wilson, May 2006).
After 1964, radius size and flame cutting requirements were adopted by the Standard
Specifications for Highway Construction, with a current requirement of one inch radius
(Mn/DOT, 2005).
Partial length cover plate

Welded cover plates have been used by Minnesota for many years to increase local flange
thickness. They usually terminate in “Area A,” the negative moment region for dead loading.
One case was found where a crack propagated entirely through the top flange after initiating
from a cover plate. Although this was the only case found where cracking was in the base metal,
a handful of cracks have been found in cover plate welds that would have eventually lead to
similar outcomes.
Dave Dahlberg examined a sample set of continuous steel bridges on the trunk highway system
between 1950 and 1989 and found that only one case from twenty-six examined had cover plates
ending at the inflection points. “On that bridge, the cover plates ran to the field splice, which is
the approximate location of the inflection points. For the rest of the bridges, it looks like they
stopped the cover plates as specified by the code.” (Dahlberg, August 2006)
Further investigation on another set of five Minnesota bridges with construction dates ranging
from 1960’s to 1981 revealed that only one bridge, Mn/DOT #02803, had plate terminations
close to inflection points. In addition, the bridge from 1981 did not have terminations near
inflection points. From this, it can be deduced that coverplates were not terminated at inflection
points intentionally until at least after common use ended in the early 1980’s. Minnesota bridges
known to have examples of cover plates include: #9779, #9780, #19843, #82801, #02803, and
#27015.
One factor that could possibly affect the cracking of the cover plate detail is the geometry of the
cover plate tip. In Minnesota, tapering is usually done by decreasing the width of the cover plate
near the end, as opposed to thickness which is common among other DOTs (Peterson, May
2006). The overall cover plate and flange thicknesses are certainly possible factors affecting
cracking, congruent with the AASHTO Code.
Shelf plate welded to girder web

Most of these welded details have already been examined and are flagged in the Mn/DOT
database and no bolted shelf plates have been found. Commonly, shelf plates intersect vertical
stiffeners which create intersecting welds, considered to be stress-raisers. To prohibit fatigue
issues the shelf plate should be welded to the stiffener with copes around the stiffener welds.
When cracking has occurred, it was usually attributed to a bad cope detail (Wilson, May 2006).
Some factors that may increase susceptibility of this detail are longer plates, intersecting welds,
61
and stiffener to plate welds terminating too close to the girder web, in violation of the current
detail standard, Figure 4.3 (Peterson, May 2006). Bridge # 9320 has an example of this detail.
Stringer or truss floor-beam bracket

Floor beams connected with riveted angles are very common and have developed cracks
(Peterson, May 2006). There has only been one case of complete failure of the angle, probably
due to excessive truck traffic. These are typically on fracture critical bridges and frequently fail
due to corrosion. Floor beam to floor beam connection plates are not as much a concern as floor
beam to truss connections. The only cracks from this kind of detail were due to lateral forces not
linked to fatigue (Wilson, May 2006). Both of these details are most likely affected by average
daily traffic (ADT) (Peterson, May 2006).
Welded horizontal stiffener

Horizontal stiffeners are common in large bridges and bridges with haunch plates. A couple of
cracks have been discovered where intersecting welds occur. Minnesota has yet to see crack
propagation into the base metal (Wilson, May 2006). There is not a written policy in Minnesota,
but in general, if a horizontal stiffener ends in a tensile zone a minimum radius of six inches with
fillet welds would be used (Category D). If the engineer feels fatigue is a concern in the area of
stiffener termination, a groove weld might be used with a larger radius to change the AASHTO
S-N category to C or B. For older designs, it is thought that a similar design process was used
(Dahlberg, May 2006). Factors affecting cracking in Minnesota may include: intersecting
stiffeners, either with or without intersecting welds, and field welding (Peterson, May 2006).
Bridge # 9800 has an example of a welded horizontal stiffener.
Haunch insert
Very few haunch inserts are present in the Minnesota bridge inventory. Where they do occur,
cracking may be present at their ends. An example of this was the cracking that occurred on the
Lexington Avenue Bridge (35E over Mississippi River) (Wilson, May 2006). However, this
cracking is most likely a result of distortional stresses and not in-plane stresses (See Figure 5.3
and Figure 5.4).
62
Figure 5.3 Haunch insert cracking - Lexington Avenue Bridge (Wilson, October 2006)
Figure 5.4 Haunch insert cracking (close-up) - Lexington Avenue Bridge (Wilson, October 2006)
63
Web penetration
Web penetrations in Minnesota bridges commonly occur in pier caps, where box girders intersect
piers. Cracks have been found on both the inside and outside of box girders, at the welds
connecting the web penetration (Figure 5.5 and Figure 5.6). Most of these cracks originate
where backing bars are still in place.
Figure 5.5 Cracking at sealed web penetration - Bridge #69831 (Wilson, October 2006)
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Figure 5.6 Cracking at coped web penetration - Bridge #69831 (Wilson, October 2006)
Plug–welded misplaced hole

Many Minnesota bridges contain plug welds in various locations, but they are difficult to identify
on bridge plans. The best approach to quantify them is to record instances when they have been
discovered by inspection. Although there have been noted cases of plug welds with flaws in
them, there have been no cracks associated with this detail in Minnesota (Wilson, May 2006).
Field-welded splice
Cracks have been found in field welded splices of floor beams as seen in Figure 5.7.
Occasionally, when a small bridge was widened, local bridge owners (e.g., municipalities and
counties) welded the floor beams on-site with little care. Plans are unlikely to show these
poorly-welded splices. About 50-60 bridges have this detail, the task is to identify those bridges
having this detail.
65
Figure 5.7 Field welded splice – Bridge #90856 (Wilson, October 2006)
Eyebar and pin plate

About twenty Minnesota bridges contain eyebars or pin plates. They are all truss bridges
generally built between 1880 and 1920 (Wilson, May 2006). A newer version of a pin and
hanger connection was continued to be used until the early 1980’s and cracks have appeared in
these, usually due to corrosion.
Lateral bracing to girder bottom flange

Only one known case in Minnesota exists where braces are connected to the girder bottom flange
instead of the web and no cracking has been discovered yet (Wilson, May 2006).
Cantilever floor-beam bracket

Only a handful of bridges in the Minnesota database have cantilever floor beam brackets. A
couple of examples include the University of Minnesota Washington Avenue Bridge pedestrian
walkway and the Wakota Bridge (#9360). Usually the detail is on a fracture critical bridge with
a more intensive inspection schedule.
Backing bar
Backing bars were sometimes left in place until the 1978 Standards for Highway Construction
Mn/DOT forced them to be eliminated. A fair number of cases have occurred with cracking
initiating at backing bars; examples include shelf plates and pier cap interiors (Wilson, May
2006).
66
Intermittent weld
Bridges with intermittent welds are rare and have never shown any signs of cracking. The only
known location of this type of weld in Minnesota is on bridge #6566 (Wilson, May 2006).
Tack weld
Tack welds are cause for many of the crack initiations classified under other details. Although
they are rarely seen on bridge plans, they can be added to the database as they are found in the
field. The degree of importance, due to the increased probability of cracking, must be considered
in classifying this detail. For example, tack welds on tension members have a higher likelihood
of cracking than on most other members.
Continuous longitudinal weld: box girder corner

Other than at pier caps, few Minnesota bridges have box girders with a possibility for corner
cracking (Wilson, May 2006). Minnesota Bridges with welded box girders include: #27788,
#27789, and #27791.
Cantilever: lamellar tear

There are no steel cantilevers in the Minnesota database believed to be able to produce lamellar
tearing (Wilson, May 2006).
5.3 National Department of Transportation Survey

A survey was performed in this study in an effort to expand the scope of bridges from which
cracks are enumerated and to identify problems that are not found in published sources. The
information procured was used to identify additional details not contained in the survey as well
as to estimate frequency of cracking. This survey was sent to bridge engineers from all fifty state
DOTs, four bridge and toll authorities, the federal transportation authorities, and the Canadian
provinces. The goal of the survey was to receive responses from ten DOTs and combine their
replies for a more comprehensive background of problematic details. The results were better
than expected, with sixteen responses and a wealth of new details that could be studied
thoroughly in future research.
5.3.1 Survey Document

The following is the document which was sent to all 63 authorities. The first version of the
survey was sent as an attachment with pictures included from those in section 0. However, the
attachment size was too large and was rejected by 75% of the recipients, so the following in-
email document was sent:
This email contains no attachments or pictures, to reduce the file size for those unable to open
the previous survey. If you were able to open the attachment in the previous email, delete this
message. Thank you to all of the DOTs who have already submitted their input into this study.
Results should be turned in preferably by the end of July.
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PLEASE FORWARD THIS MESSAGE TO THE INTENDED PARTY
Attn: Director of Inspections, Department of Transportation
Regarding: Steel Fatigue Details Research
Adam Lindberg
M.S. Bridge Fatigue Researcher
Civil Engineering Department
Research is being performed at the University of Minnesota with the sponsorship of the
Minnesota Department of Transportation (Mn/DOT) to assist in enumerating and ranking
fatigue-susceptible details that may affect the performance of steel bridges. The goal of this
research is to rank details with a history of cracking, so as to alert inspectors and facilitate budget
estimations. By collecting a comprehensive list of details prone to fracture, a more precise
evaluation will result, thus safety is not compromised for the sake of economy.
If you are willing to assist the collection of these fatigue-susceptible steel bridge details, please
fill out the following survey. Your time is very much appreciated. If you would prefer to
provide information in a different format, please contact me at 763-607-6760 or
lind0990@umn.edu (preferred).
Thank you,
Adam Lindberg
Part 1: Below are details that are known to have caused cracking. Please rank them by the order
of occurrence experienced in your state or area, where 1 is the most common, up to the least
common. If you have never experienced cracking (failure) of a certain detail, use 0.
Part 2: This section is more important than the first. Please provide any other details that have
led to (premature) fracture and which are not included in this list. Please provide any such
details even if they are no longer allowed by code or have been eliminated from your bridge
inventory. Indicate the approximate number of cases of fracture as well as the factors that you
believe affected the failure of this detail (Examples: tapering of ends, position on bridge, weld
geometry). Do not include corrosion failures.
BEGIN NUMBERING NOW

(Non-picture version – for any further explanations, please contact Mr. Lindberg at lind0990@umn.edu)
_____Transverse Stiffener Web Gaps – Diaphragms or cross-braces between girders are

connected to plates which are welded to the girders. Prior to 1985 these plates were not welded
to both flanges of the girders; instead a gap was left anywhere from 0” (bearing) to 2” or more.
68
Cracking can occur in any number of elements in this area, including the welds, the girder
flange, the girder web, or the plate.
_____Cover plated beams and flange gussets –Cover plates are plates attached to the underside
of girder flanges to increase the moment of inertia of girders locally. Cracks usually form at the
ends of the cover plates, either in the cover plate, the weld, or the girder flange.
_____Stringer to floor beam (truss) brackets – Cracking occurs in the angles connecting floor
beams to other elements. Cracks can occur anywhere within the angle connector, especially
around bolts or rivets.
_____Cantilever floor-beam brackets – These plates are laid horizontally and usually bolted or
riveted to the girders. They protrude out to the sides of the bridge and are connected to the top of
short beams that extend out from the bridge to increase bridge width. Cracking can occur around
tack welds, bolts, rivets, or across the plate parallel to girders.
_____Web Connection Plates – Horizontal plates welded to the girder web used for diaphragms
or other attachments. Cracks usually occur when the plate intersects a transverse stiffener.
_____Transverse Groove Welds – Groove welds on girder webs. Usually these occur at the end
of horizontal stiffeners, or welds connecting long sections of horizontal stiffeners together, or the
end of haunch inserts (The bottom flange is cut out of the girder and replaced with a groove-
welded, higher-depth section to increase moment of inertia around supports).
_____Web penetrations – When a member passes through the web of another. Cracking is more
common when backing bars are left in place. These details are common in pier caps or box
girders.
_____Coped members – Cracks initiating from the fillet of the two re-entrant cuts. Cracking
usually is caused by too small of a radius or no radius.
_____Tied arch floor beams – Floor beams can exhibit separation of beam web and flange due to
rotation of the beams under distortional fatigue.
_____Continuous longitudinal welds – Commonly, these long welds connect plates or other
shapes along their length, to form some sort of built-up-section. Cracking occurs parallel to the
longitudinal welds. Cracking is usually caused by improper welding or too large of welds.
_____Lamellar Tearing – Separation of layers of metal within a solid piece. Cracking is usually
found in highly restrained members or in cantilevers.
Thank you very much for your assistance. Your input will help advance the overall
understanding of fatigue susceptible details.
-Adam Lindberg
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5.3.2 Survey Results
All who responded to the survey provided frequency results through their ordering of the given
details and a few supplied extra details for Part 2 of the survey. Appendix C contains the actual
response emails. Table 5.1 shows the results of those who responded, with the numbers inverted;
i.e. if only numbers 1-5 were used, 1 was changed to 5, 2 to 4, 3 remained 3, 4 to 2, and 5 to 1.
The reason for not using the preferred order in the survey request is the ease for the responding
authorities to order details in a sequence from the most common to the least common, rather than
the other way around. By inverting the order such that the highest numbers represent the most
common failures makes the combination of survey results more straightforward.
To obtain an overall ordering, the “reversed” numbers found in Table 5.1 are added in each
column to create a sum at the bottom of the table. These sums form the overall order of the
details, but the values are meaningful only in relative sense. No additional point system is
enacted to try to denote the incidence of individual details. In this way, details are ensured their
order by scoring one more point than the next-most-frequent detail.
The symbol assigned to each detail corresponds to one of the 11 detail descriptions that were
described in the survey letter:
α = transverse stiffener web gap

β = insufficient cope radius
γ = partial length cover plate
δ = shelf plate welded to girder web
ε = stringer to floor-beam truss bracket
ζ = transverse groove weld (welded horizontal stiffener & haunch insert)
η = web penetration
θ = cantilever floor-beam bracket
κ = continuous longitudinal weld: box girder corner
λ = tied arch floor-beam
μ = cantilever: lamellar tear
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Table 5.1 Survey Results Table*
Detail Symbol**
Responding Authorities α β γ δ ε ζ η θ κ λ μ
Arkansas 7 5 3 4 6 0 1 2 0 0 0
California 5 2 3 4 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Delaware 2 3 4 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Georgia 3 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Illinois 5 6 3 2 4 0 1 0 0 0 0
Indiana** 6 5 4 3 1 2 0 0 0 0 0
Minnesota 9 6 8 5 7 4 3 2 0 1 0
Mississippi 4 3 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Missouri 8 4 2 5 7 6 3 0 0 0 1
Montana 5 1 9 8 7 4 0 3 6 0 2
New Jersey 2 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0
Tennessee 4 1 2 5 0 0 0 3 0 0 0
Texas 4 2 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 0
Washington 4 7 1 6 2 0 0 0 5 3 0
Wyoming 5 4 3 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1
Army Corps-New England 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TOTALS 73 52 43 44 39 20 11 10 12 4 4
*Numbers represent ordering by individual authorities, with largest number representing most
frequent cracking
**implied by use of words, not numbers (i.e. few, some, many)
5.3.3 Additional Survey Comments

In response to Part 2 of the survey, which asks for any additional details not mentioned, quite a
few states added comments. These ranged from more thorough descriptions of the ordered
details to additional details. These, for the most part were not added to the classification table,
Table 7.1, because they were either variations of those already included or almost no cases exist
in Minnesota. Below are all of the responses in quotations.
Georgia had no further details to add. They did, however, supply the “approximate number of
known bridges with the type of cracks over the last twenty years is as follows: Transverse
stiffener web gaps – ten, coped members – two, stringer to floor beams – one.”
Indiana supplied very thorough answers to each of the questions and did not provide extra
details for considering adding to this report.
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Transverse stiffener web gaps: “INDOT has had +/- 15 bridges, over the last 20-years, (mostly in
the early 1990’s), that developed cracks similar to detail (a). Generally these cracks developed
when the Stiffener had an X-Bracing attached, and the X-bracings were staggered due to skew,
thus causing out-of plane bending cracking to develop. On advanced cracking, we would also
get a horizontal crack along the toe of the weld between the web and the flange.”
Cover plates: “The great majority of the welded coverplates on bridges in Indiana are tapered.
We have only had a few small cracks in the welds at the toes of the terminal ends of the welds.
Purdue University conducted quite a bit of research on these coverplates for us in the 1990’s, and
convinced us that the welds on these tapered coverplates will grow very slowly, thus giving our
inspectors plenty of time to see and find them. They also developed a bolted retro-fit that we are
using extensively on INDOT Bridges.”
Stringer to floor beam (truss) brackets: “We have had very few of these types of cracks on
INDOT bridges. Most occurred in the 1980’s or earlier. These types of cracks are still found on
some of our Local Bridges.”
Cantilever floor beam brackets: “We have not had this type of problem on any of our INDOT
Bridges, and I have not heard of any on our Local Bridges.”
Web Connection Plates: “INDOT has had four of these types of cracks over the last 23-years,
(1983{I-70}, 1985 {I-65}, 1994 {I-64}, and May 2006 {I-70}). I believe that the 1983 crack
was 48" long, the 1985 crack was 21" long, the 1994 crack was 70" long, and the 2006 crack was
9.5" long. The first three cracks began around the Web/Transverse Stiffener/Connection Plate
intersecting weld area. The 2006 crack began around the end of the weld of the Horizontal
Connection Plate – away from the stiffener. All of these locations had X-Bracings and Lateral
Bracings attached.”
Transverse groove welds: “INDOT has had three bridges with multiple cracks in Horizontal Web
Stiffeners, all in the late 1990’s. All of these cracks developed in poor quality splice welds in the
stiffener plates, and NOT in the welds to the girder webs.”
Web penetrations: “INDOT has not had this type of cracking, and we only have a few bridges
with this type of detail.”
Coped members: “INDOT has had many of these types of cracks, but mainly in the 1980’s and
1990’s. We have not had much of this lately, on INDOT Bridges, but are probably still having
this problem on our Local Bridges. Most of our cracking resulted from significant section loss
to the web, above or below the connection plate.”
Tied arch floor beams: “INDOT has not had this type of cracking on our Tied Arch bridges. We
have had a number of crack indications in our Tie-Chords on one bridge, mainly due to welds
flaws and shrinkage during fabrication. Only a few of these have resulted in actual cracks.”
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Continuous longitudinal welds: “INDOT has not had this type of cracking on the “Box
Members” that make up the Tie-Chords of our Tied Arch bridges. We have had a number of
crack indications in these welds, mainly due to welds flaws and shrinkage during fabrication, but
no actual cracks.”
Lamellar tearing: “NONE -- INDOT does not have many of these types of details.”
“Nevada’s experience with fatigue damage has related mostly to out-of-plane bending due to
perpendicular cross-frames in skewed bridges or interior “Z-bracing” in tub girders.” There are
only a couple of steel box girder bridges in Minnesota, thus this detail would be too rare to
classify (Peterson, September 2006). “Horizontal wind-bracing has been the next most prevalent
cause of fatigue cracking, particularly where the horizontal connection plate has been welded
particularly close to vertical web bracing and/or cross-frame connection plates. The remaining
causes ranked [in the table] have had minimal occurrences and could virtually be ignored as
significant causes of fatigue fractures.”
Illinois added a couple of comments that are covered already under longitudinal stiffeners,
“Another detail which has experienced cracking is where the fillet weld connecting a
longitudinal stiffener to girder web terminates at or near the fillet weld connecting a transverse
(vertical) stiffener to the web.”
“In recent years, since the failure of the Hoan Bridge, this is thought to have been a brittle
fracture that is the result of tri-axial constraint rather than the result of fatigue. However, I
understand that there may still be some discussion as to whether this brittle fracture may occur,
at least in some cases, when there is a pre-existing flaw in the weld or web material or when
there is a very small fatigue crack present. I know this survey relates to fatigue, but for these
reasons I mention this crack type here.” This information may be useful for future research on a
more specific project.
“We have had webs crack where web connection plates, typically for lateral wind bracing
connections, terminate at or are notched around transverse (vertical) web stiffeners. I have
ranked this type of connection as #5 above. The cases we have experienced we believe to be
brittle fracture similar to that of the Hoan Bridge rather than fatigue related; however, for the
reasons stated above in our Part 2 response I have included it in our response.” This type of
cracking is included in the web connection plate detail of the survey.
Washington supplied a lengthy list of details that it felt were not included:
A. “Modular expansion joints. We have experienced a number of failures in the center bar to
support bar connection welds of some of these units. In the cases I have seen, the welds
create fixity between these members and the relatively high flexibility of the system then
causes significant connection moments to develop until the weld cracks and the rotational
73
restraint goes away. Occasionally, failures in center bar groove weld splices have also
occurred.” Mn/DOT is aware of this issue and it is outside the scope of this project. If
necessary, these details can be tracked already with Pontis element numbers (Peterson,
September 2006).
B. “Open-metal grid decks. The welds connecting the intersecting bars of several designs
have failed often. Weld quality in these usually secondary connections is sometimes an
issue. But, it is thought that failure is largely due to the overall flexibility of the units
coupled with significant impact loading leading to relatively high fatigue stress ranges in
the under-designed and often poorly constructed welds.” Although there are a couple
examples of filled grid decks, their number does not justify tracking them (Peterson,
September 2006).
C. “Fracture of component (channel) in a built-up riveted truss tension chord. (One

occurrence.) Fracture most likely initiated at a punched rivet hole. Other cases were
found before members fully fractured.” This type of detail is rare, and not worth the
trouble.
D. “Secondary truss members. Welded gusset plate connections are subjected to low stress,
high cycle vibration. Such members have very little damping.” Gary Peterson added a
comment about this specific detail, saying, “I assume this would be a detail similar to
having wind or X bracing angles welded to a horizontal shelf plate that is bolted or
welded to a beam web. I don’t think we have as much interest in secondary member
connections, but we are interested in the shelf plate to web connection” which is included
in a section of this report (Peterson, September 2006).
E. “Toe of welds where web stiffeners are welded to box girder bottom flanges. The
relatively thin plates may be flexing out-of-plane under traffic.” As mentioned before,
there are very few box girder bridges.
F. “Riveted stringer-to-floorbeam brackets. We have several bridges where rivet heads have
sheared off.” This detail is beyond the scope of this research (Peterson, September 2006).
Montana
“We have had some very serious cracks occur in welded plate girders, which initiated at the
intersection of or near intersection of fillet welds connecting longitudinal stiffeners and
transverse stiffeners. The cracks were sudden and explosive starting near the weld intersections
and heading up to very near the top flange and down and through a good portion (two-thirds) of
the bottom flange.” This detail is already covered under the longitudinal stiffener section of this
report. “See a report entitled “Evaluation and Retrofit of Highway Bridges to Prevent
Constraint-Induced Fracture From Web Attachments” by William J. Wright , Turner-Fairbanks
Highway Research Center, and John W. Fisher, Robert Conner, Lehigh University ATLSS
Center, to get a good description of what we feel happened.”
74
“Wyoming has experienced fatigue failures with two details not included in the survey. The
attached structural drawings include these details.”
1) “The first is the bracket detail at columns E and E' as shown in the middle of the lower half of
drawing RG870-D. This bracket supports a floor beam above a steel arch. It is attached to the
steel arch by an angle section with a single row of bolts. Tension in the bracket due to movement
of the floor beam created a prying action on the angle-to-arch connection which ultimately
caused the angle to fracture through the single line of bolts.”
There are probably none of these details in Minnesota; if there is a similar circumstance, it is rare
(Peterson, September 2006).
Figure 5.8 Wyoming DOT bracket detail – RG870-D (Fredrick, 2006)
Figure 5.9 Wyoming DOT bracket detail member sizes – RG870-D (Fredrick, 2006)
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2) “The second is a dog-bone-shaped hanger as pictured in the suspended span details of
Drawing Number 2156. After some years in service, two of these hangers fractured across the
width of the member where the round portion transitions to the straight sided shaft. It is believed
that the geometrical transition of this member was abrupt enough to cause a stress concentration
sufficient to fail the hanger. These hangers were replaced with units having straight sides for full
length thereby eliminating the stress riser. The new hangers performed as required until the
bridge was replaced many years later.”
These types of details are already classified under the eyebar and pin plate section.
Figure 5.10 Wyoming DOT eyebar detail – 2156 (Fredrick, 2006)
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CHAPTER 6 – CODE CHANGE TIMELINE
For the ease of compilation of susceptible details in the inventory, it is helpful to discern which
bridges may have problems. Besides simply restricting the subset of bridges to those on the
trunk highway system for traffic volume reasons, bridge construction date can further narrow the
group. By determining dates that certain details were eliminated or restricted by design code, the
compiler can ascertain which bridges to examine.
Over the years, the “Standard Specification for Highway Bridges” (1981) code was developed
and refined by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO). New editions of the code are developed anywhere from every three to six years.
Interim specifications are updated between these, on an almost annual basis. A fatigue section of
the code contains pertinent provisions. Investigation of this section as time progressed shows
development as new problems were discovered.
6.1 General Code Timeline

The pertinent editions of the AASHTO standard specification that were examined for fatigue
developments were: 1969 (10th Ed.), 1973 (11th Ed.), 1977 (12th Ed.), 1983 (13th Ed.), 1989 (14th
Ed.), 1992 (15th Ed.), 1996 (16th Ed.), 2002 (17th Ed.). Interim specifications are created too
often to track minor changes; furthermore, using only full edition specifications gives a good
enough approximation for determining which bridges to examine. Only the interim
specifications from 1974 and 1985 were scrutinized to better pinpoint the time of important
changes.
The fatigue code in the AASHTO specification (Fatigue Code) for the most part had only slight
modifications year to year, with the exception of two years of large modification. The largest
change came in 1974, with the creation of the A-E fatigue stress categories and identification of
fatigue life for new fatigue S-N curves, similar to those in Figure 2.1. Before then, the allowable
fatigue stress, Fr was found by a less specific formula and different stress curves. The number of
stress cycles for bridges were assumed at 2,000,000, 500,000, or 100,000 depending on bridge
location. Each of these three cyclic levels, with separate levels of loading, had its own curve.
Although the 1974 interim specification was the first to outline the new format, not until 1977
was the first, comprehensive, non-interim specification released. With the development of A-E
categories, fatigue calculations were simplified and details were more specifically categorized.
The second big change took place in the 1989 AASHTO Specifications. That specification
adopted many of the S-N categories and reclassified details to better match results that
researchers were obtaining. The specific changes are outlined later in this chapter.
Other codes are important for tracking changes, especially those from which bridge design was
actually guided. The first of these is the American Welding Society’s (AWS) Structural Welding
Committee code originating in 1963. In 1988, AWS and AASHTO combined to form the
“Bridge Welding Code” which outlines specific weld requirements and other detail welding
77
information. Also, The Minnesota Department of Transportation developed its own procedures
in 1929 and published them as the “Minnesota Standard Specifications for Construction,” which
is updated anywhere from 4 to 11 years, plus interim specifications.
Because many bridges are designed or under construction while new versions of the code are
released, there is a certain time necessary for actual bridges to reflect the changes. Dave
Dahlberg of the Mn/DOT Bridge Office states, “You can assume about a 2 year lag time between
any specification change and when the changes actually showed up in bridges being constructed
(Dahlberg, May 2006).”
Only after 1977 were clear, modern classifications for fatigue evaluation used. Therefore,
bridges built before 1979 (1977 code + 2 year lag) should be examined for all flagged details in
this study.
6.2 Specific Code Timeline

Each of the following sections breaks down the precise changes to the wording for the AASHTO
Code’s fatigue sections. Figure 6.1 is taken from the 1977 Fatigue Code, expressing the entire
fatigue provisions. Later sections describe changes made to these pages.
78
Figure 6.1 1977 AASHTO fatigue code (AASHTO, 1977)
79
Figure 6.1 (Continued)
80
81
B
82
83
84
85
6.2.1 Fatigue Code Changes 1977 to 1983

In 1983 category E' was added to describe a certain classification of coverplates which were
slightly more susceptible to fatigue than category E. The following table and notes describe that
change.
Allowable Fatigue Stress – Redundant Load Path Structures

Cycles 100,000 500,000 2,000,000 >2,000,000
E' 16 ksi 9.4 ksi 5.8 ksi 2.6 ksi
The note, “Partial length welded cover plates shall not be used on flanges more than 0.8 inches
thick for nonredundant load path structures.” was also added to the table.
The detail classification table (DCT) added to the cover plate section:
• (a) Flange thickness < 0.8 in = E
• (b) Flange thickness > 0.8 in = E'
Other changes that were made to the DCT include:
86
• Parts (a) through (d) for fillet weld transitions were condensed to only: (a) when provided
with transition radius equal to or greater than 2 inches and weld ground smooth = D, or
(b) less than 2 inches = E.
• A table note was added, stating, “Gusset plates attached to girder flanges with only
transverse fillet welds is not recommended.”

In 1989 many changes were made to the AASHTO Bridge Code due to new research that was
conducted mostly by Fisher (1984). This led to creation of a sub-classification of the B category,
B' which is slightly more susceptible to fatigue. This new category was used to identify B details
with backing bars left on and also more brittle material.

Cycles 100,000 500,000 2,000,000 >2,000,000
B' 39 ksi 23 ksi 14.5 ksi 12 ksi
Allowable Fatigue Stress – Nonredundant Load Path Structures

Cycles 100,000 500,000 2,000,000 >2,000,000
B' 31 ksi 18 ksi 11 ksi 11 ksi
E' 12 ksi 7 ksi 4 ksi 1.3 ksi
Changes to the DCT include:

• The built-up members section distinguished between backing bars left on = B’ and
backing bars removed = B.
• The width of cover plates becomes important with, “Base metal at ends of partial length
welded coverplates wider than the flange without welds across the ends” = E'
• An addition was made to the Groove Welded Connection section: “Base metal and weld
metal in or adjacent to full penetration groove weld splices with 2 ft. radius transitions in
width, when welds are ground flush with grinding in the direction of applied stress and
weld soundness established by nondestructive inspection.” = B.
• If A514/A517 base metal has a transition width or thickness, B' is used.
New in the DCT was a separation of the groove weld section into: groove welded connections,
groove welded attachments (longitudinally loaded), and groove welded attachments (transversely
loaded).
Longitudinally loaded groove welds:

• Added, “Base metal adjacent to details attached by full or partial penetration groove
welds when the detail length, L, in the direction of stress, is less than 2 in.” = C.
• E' is designated for detail thickness greater or equal to 1.0 in. for the longest of the detail
lengths.
87
Transversely loaded groove welds:
• If reinforcement is not removed, the B category given for the 24 in. transition radius is
not an option.
• If the plate thicknesses are unequal, both B and C categories are not applicable
• If reinforcement is not removed and thicknesses are unequal, only E applies.
Fillet welded connections:

Like the groove welds, fillet welds were separated into the same three categories.
Longitudinally loaded fillet welds:

• E' is designated if tdetail ≥ 1.0 in. for the group with the longest of the detail length.
Transversely loaded fillet welds:

For welds perpendicular to the direction of stress:
• (a) Detail thickness ≤ 0.5 in. = C
• (b) Detail thickness > 0.5 in. = (Note*)
Note* Allowable fatigue stress range on throat of fillet welds transversely loaded in a
⎛ 0.06 − 0.79 H t p ⎞
function of the effective throat and plate thickness. S r = S Cr ⋅⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1 .1t
1 6 ⎟
⎝ p ⎠
C
Where S r is equal to the allowable stress range for Category C.
Table notes:
• Transversely loaded partial penetration groove welds are prohibited.
• Gusset plates attached to girder flange surfaces with only transverse fillet welds are
prohibited.
To amend the issue with distortional fatigue of the web gap, Section 10.20.1 on diaphragms and
cross frames added the sentence, “Vertical connection plates such as transverse stiffeners which
connect diaphragms or cross frames to the beam or girder shall be rigidly connected to both top
and bottom flanges.”

In 1992 the following paragraph was added: “For unpainted weathering steel, A709, all grades,
the values of allowable fatigue stress range, Table 10.3.1A, as modified by footnote d, are valid
only when the design and details are in accordance with the FHWA Technical Advisory on
Uncoated Weathering Steel in Structures, dated October 3, 1989.” The stress range tables
included alternate strengths for category A:

Cycles 100,000 500,000 2,000,000 >2,000,000
A (49) ksi (29) ksi (18) ksi (16) ksi
88
Allowable Fatigue Stress – Nonredundant Load Path Structures
Cycles 100,000 500,000 2,000,000 >2,000,000
A (39) ksi (23) ksi (16) ksi (16) ksi
Groove welded connections:

• A514/A517 base metal set for the B' stress curve was changed to AASHTO M270 Grades
100/100W (ASTM A709).
Up until the 1992 code, re-entrant corners were designed with a ¾ inch filleted radius before
cutting. In the 1992 code, no provision restricted cope radius.

Built-up members:
• Base metal at ends of partial length welded coverplates with high-strength bolted slip-
critical end connections. = B.
Eyebar or Pin Plates section (added):

• Base metal at the net section of eyebar head, or pin plate T E
• Base metal in the shank of eyebars, or through the gross section of pin plates with:
(a) rolled or smoothly ground surfaces T A
(b) flame-cut edges T B

Composite action was addressed in 2002: “For members with shear connectors provided
throughout their entire length that also satisfy the provisions of Article 10.38.4.3, the range of
stress may be computed using the composite section assuming the concrete deck to be fully
effective for both positive and negative moment.”
A limit of the fatigue live load to HS 20 loading was added, so as to minimize error with fatigue
curves that are not calibrated for larger loading. No changes were made to the fatigue
classification table.
6.3 Changes to the “Minnesota Standard Specifications for Highway Construction”

The “Minnesota Standard Specifications for Highway Construction, 1964” published by the
Minnesota Department of Highways, provides specific guidelines for construction procedures. It
generally lags years behind the AASHTO code and sometimes even lag behind bridge design
practice. Currently, this Department of Transportation “code” is much more consistent and up-
to-date. This section outlines a few slight changes that are of interest to this study.
The 1964 specifications included a clause for the size and shape of re-entrant corners: “All
interior and re-entrant corners shall be filleted whether shown in the Plans or not. A minimum
radius of one inch shall be used unless a shorter radius is indicated in the Plans. Where fillets are
made by the “flame cutting” method, all evidence of notching and edge hardening shall be
89
removed. . . . . Fillets less than one inch in radius shall be formed by drilling the fillet corner and
sheeting or “flame cutting” the balance of the re-entrant.” (Minnesota Department of Highways,
1964) Since this wordage was adopted, no changes have been made to the specifications.
Removal of backing bars was left vague in the timeline of the AASHTO code. Changing the
Curve from B to B’ may have discouraged some use of remaining backing bars, but the B'
category may have still been considered acceptable in many states. In Minnesota, practice
actually preceded the AASHTO Code in this circumstance, as seen in the 1978 construction
code:
“Butt welds made with the use of backing bars shall have the weld metal thoroughly fused with
the backing when such backing is led in place to become part of the structure. Such backing is
made as one continuous strip when possible. Where more than a single length is required such
lengths shall be joined by completer penetration butt welds before fitting into place. Those
welds shall be examined by radiographic testing prior to their use and shall be free of all defects .
. . . Backing strips on weldments to be galvanized shall be seal welded. Backing strips to be
removed shall be chipped or air-arc gouged without damage to the base material or the weld.
Excess strip material remaining shall be completely removed by grinding. All surface roughness
shall be ground smooth; all minor defects shall be faired-in; and all necessary welded repairs
shall be ground flush with the base material.”
6.4 Multiple Code Quick-reference Timeline

By combining all of the code changes from the current chapter, a general timeline can be
formulated to efficiently identify what changes were made each year. The timeline is Table 6.1,
and references various sources:
AASHTO – AASHTO Specifications for Highway Bridges
AASHTO Interim – Interim specifications for Highway Bridges
Dave Dahlberg – Information gathered from Dave Dahlberg at the Mn/DOT
Bridge Office through interviews
Minnesota Construction Code – Minnesota Standard Specifications for Highway
Construction
90
Table 6.1 Quick-Reference Timeline
1" radius required for re-entrant corners. 1964

Outlining of new A-F classification system.
(Minnesota Construction Code) Vague list of details with their classification
1974
letter. Diagrams showing fatigue details
are included. (AASHTO Interim)
More complete A-F classification with more

specific details listed. This code developed 1977
the basic fatigue calculation procedure used
today. (AASHTO) 1978 Backing bars must be removed.
(Minnesota Construction Code)
Category E' for cover plates on redundant

flanges thicker than 0.8". Banned on thick
flanges when nonredundant. Categories B
and C for transitioned fillet welds were 1983
eliminated. Gusset to flange with
transverse fillets not recommended.
(AASHTO) Welds required between diaphragm
1985 connection plates and girder flanges.
Cover plates stopped being used by (AASHTO Interim)
Mn/DOT. (Dave Dahlberg - Mn/DOT Bridge 1986
Office)
Cover plates wider than flange without
welds across ends - E'. B' added for
1989
backing bars left on. Groove welded
splices with large transitions - B.
A514/A517 metal used with transitions - B'.
An alternate stress category A was added
Groove and fillet welded connections
for unpainted weathering steel. Base metal
organized by direction of stress.
corresponding to B' was changed to
Longitudinal groove welds < 2" - C.
AASHTO M270 Grades 100/100W. Re- 1992
Categories with longest groove or fillet
entrant corners with fillets <3/4" were
welded detail length & thicker than 1" - E'.
eliminated. (AASHTO)
B eliminated when reinforcement is left for
transverse loaded groove welds. For
Welded cover plates with slip-critical end unequal plate thicknesses B & C were
connections given B classification. Added: eliminated. Unequal & reinforcement left -
net section of eye bar head and pin plates = B, C & D were eliminated. Transverse
1996
E, metal in smooth eye bar shanks = A, fillets & plate thickness> 0.5" stress is a
flame-cut shanks = B. (AASHTO) function of thickness. Transverse loaded
partial penetration groove welds are
Composite action of deck can be considered prohibited. Filleted gusset to flange is
in calculations. A limit of HS20 truck must 2002 prohibited. (AASHTO)
be used for stress calculations. (AASHTO)
91
CHAPTER 7 – DETAIL CLASSIFICATION
By using the information gathered in Chapters 2 – 6, a finalized classification scheme can be

developed. This classification involves the fatigue and fracture backgrounds presented in 0 and
0 by both discovering which details should be flagged and providing the basis for risk of
catastrophic failure. 0 provides further insight into the effect of geometric variations on risk
level and frequency of cracking. 0 uses historical data to organize details based on their rate of
occurrence. Lastly, 0 illustrates the time in which cracking occurred; in doing so, it restricts the
number of bridges which need to be considered for classification.
7.1 Ranking Number

Ranking is the last piece required to complete the classification. The ranks of details are
developed in the current chapter and the method is described herein. The details described
previously will be ranked in order from 1 to 4, with 1 representing the least potential for
performance problems or failure, and 4 representing the most. Details ranked 0 are the
recommended design, showing no previous fatigue of fracture issues. The gross categorization
levels are as follows:
0 – No issues, recommended use

1 – Low consequence of cracking, low frequency of occurrence
2 – Low consequence of cracking, high frequency of occurrence
3 – Medium consequence of cracking
4 – High consequence of cracking
The reason for ranking by these categories is the application for which the numbers will be used.
Details ranked with a 4 will be closely watched to guard against unpredictable failures. Those in
rank 3 or higher may be replaced when bridge retrofit is performed. Rank 2 or higher details can
be avoided in new construction and will be monitored for propagation and inspected during
routine inspections. The least problematic, rank 1, has been known to create cracking with little
effect on the structure. These details are noted for quick reference if more serious problems
occur for a specific detail type. It also allows bridges that have numerous types of rank 1 details
to be compared to ones that have fewer.
Rank numbers are assigned qualitatively, with no numerical frequency of occurrence, or fatigue
cycles before failure. However, the ranking is built upon a plethora of sources, providing a
many-faceted background for its categorization.
For a detail to earn the most severe of the rankings an unpredictable nature must have been
exhibited in past instances. Most of these details are contained in the fracture section of this
report, but a few fatigue examples have created cracks large enough to significantly impair the
strength of the bridges. When large cracks are found it usually implies rapid growth, since the
previous inspection likely noted few or no flaws. Besides the rapidity of cracking, detail
placement plays a role. Although recording specific placement of every detail is too laborious
92
for this study, future work could be done to pinpoint location effects. All in all, historical
examples create the basis for identifying rank 4 details.
Rank 3, or medium danger is the most ambiguous of the groups and its scope defines the limits
for ranks 4 and 2. The group acts as more of a transition region between details with serious
problems and those which would likely not lead to catastrophic failure, regardless of time. In
almost every circumstance, cracks are discovered and repaired before they have the opportunity
to cause serious problems. Thus, a judgement must be made as to the likelihood of dangerous
failure.
Like the most severe details, those with a ranking of 3 are classified based on history. If
cracking was discovered in a detail that “may” have propagated over time to be dangerous to a
structure, it is given rank 3. As seen in the classification table (Table 7.1), rank 3 is commonly
the most severe rank in details which are further broken down based on geometry. The worst
combination of geometry yields higher ranking than details combining all problematic features.
Details that cause minor cracks are more common than severe cracks; therefore, separating the
minor ones by frequency of occurrence is appropriate. Ranking levels 2 and 1 represent more
and less frequent cracking, respectively. Again a line must be drawn between the two ranks; it
separates common and independent identification of problems. 0, containing the Minnesota
Department of Transportation history and a survey of other DOTs, describes an ordering of
details that occur on a common basis. Details that many DOTs recognized are considered
“common” and given a rank of 2.
Details ranked 2 comprise the majority of geometrically sub-classified details because their high
frequency allowed for further classification. One of the most complicated separations between
frequent and rare cracking was the web gap. Using Equation 2.11, the web gap stress was
computed for various combinations of web thickness, web gap length, span length, and skew.
The separation was drawn as seen in Table 7.1, to accommodate any bridges with “more
susceptible than average” geometries into rank 2. More susceptible geometries include a high
web thickness or skew angle, or a small gap or span length. It turned out, using an arbitrary
coefficient of 2.5 as explained in Section 0, the separation between rank 1 and 2 occurred
between stresses of 12.9 and 14.5 ksi. A list of calculations can be seen in APPENDIX B.
Rank 1 depicts details that are neither dangerous enough, nor common enough to be classified in
other categories. The reason for classifying them at all is that they do exhibit cracking. In many
instances these details will crack in combination with secondary effects, such as corrosion or
initial flaws. Also, since the separations between this rank and either 2 or 3 is somewhat
ambiguous, it is important to still identify rank 1 details rather then ignore them. Furthermore,
future circumstances could lead to the changing of rank numbers.
7.2 Classification Table

The following classification table is a list of details for application into the Minnesota
Department of Transportation database. Each picture included in the table is a general picture of
93
the detail and different geometries occur. The date of prohibition is the date in which either a
code or the standard method for Mn/DOT construction was altered to exclude the specific detail.
Years with an “r” designation represent restrictions, which may have discouraged a detail,
noticed a problem with a detail, or changed the AASHTO fatigue category to decrease use. For
more specific timeline information, including what restrictions were added, see 0.
The following designations represent the source from which the change took place:
AASHTO – American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials:
Specifications for Highway Bridges
MN – Minnesota Department of Highways: Standard Specifications for Highway
Construction
Fisher – Research by John Fisher, see Section 0 for details
P – Pierce, James: Mn/DOT specific practices email correspondence
W – Pete Wilson (last known case in a Minnesota bridge)
r – Use restricted due to realization of problem, change in S-N category, or recommended
procedure; not complete prohibition of detail.
xxxx – Still in use, no code restrictions
Definitions for variables used in the classification table are as follows:

tw = thickness of girder web
L = span length
skew = angle of bridge relative to supports
Mn/DOT Std = Minnesota stiffener welding standard (see Figure 4.3)
Lp = length of welded side of plate
tp = thickness of plate
R = transition radius
PJP = partial joint penetration weld
To find a rank number from the table, read each geometric constraint for a certain detail, starting
with the top and working down. The first category to satisfy all geometry is the correct one.
Constraints separated by commas must all be satisfied.
94
Table 7.1 Overall Classification Table
Detail Date of code Rank
Description Picture Geometric Partitions
Name prohibition #
1989 top flange, tw>0.50", web gap<2", L<80' 2
Gap usually from
Web Gap 1989 top flange, tw>0.25", web gap<1", L<80' 2
tight fit to 2"
on
between vertical
Diaphragm top flange, tw>0.50", web gap<2",
stiffener and 1989 2
Transverse L<160', skew > 40º
bottom or top
Stiffener top flange, tw>0.25", web gap<1",
flange of girder 1989 2
(excluding L<160', skew > 40º
where no welded
intermittent
or bolted 1989 bottom flange (positive moment region) 1
stiffener)
connection exists
1989 Otherwise 1
Re-entrant cope 1964 MN Over-cut or square-cut 2

Insufficient radius is
Cope nonexistent, too 1964 MN Transition radius < 1" 1
Radius small, or not
ground smooth. xxxx Transition radius ≥ 1" 0
1983r
Flange thickness > 0.8" 3
AASHTO
Plates welded to
No end taper, wider than flange, no
Partial top or bottom 1986 MN 3
weld across end
Length girder flange to
Cover Plate increase moment 1986 MN No end taper, other cases 2
capacity locally.
1986 MN End taper 1
95
Name prohibition #
Intersecting plate, cope and weld not
2002 MN 4
Horizontal plate compliant with Mn/DOT Std
welded to inside Intersecting plate, cope and weld
face of girder 1989r
compliant with Mn/DOT Std, 3
Shelf web used for AASHTO
(Lp>12tp or 4") or R<6"
Plate floor beam or Intersecting plate, cope and weld
Welded to lateral bracing xxxx compliant with Mn/DOT Std, 2
Girder connections. (Lp≤12tp & 4") and R≥6"
Web Intersecting plate
1989r No intersecting plate, (Lp>12tp or 4")
is either coped 2
AASHTO or R<6"
around or welded
to shelf plate. No intersecting plate, (Lp≤12tp and 4")
xxxx 1
and R≥6"
Stringer or Angle bracket xxxx Floor beam to truss 3

Truss connecting
Floor- stringers to floor
beam beams or floor
Bracket beam to truss. xxxx Stringer to floor beam 1
1960r Fisher Continuation through tension zone 4

Multiple plates welded end-to-end or
1960r Fisher vertical stiffener interrupts horizontal 3
Horizontal plates stiffener
Welded
welded
Horizontal 1989r
continuously to R=0, tp>1" 3
Stiffener AASHTO
girder webs.
1989r
R<2" 2
AASHTO
xxxx R≥2" 1
Table 7.1 (Continued)
96
Name prohibition #
Bottom girder
flange and part 1989
Transverse PJP groove welds 3
of web removed AASHTO
Haunch and section
Insert added to
increase girder xxxx No transverse PJP groove welds 2
depth locally.
Welded.
A hole cut Hole cut in box girder except at pier
xxxx 3
through the web cap
Web of member to
xxxx Intersecting girders at pier cap 2
Penetration allow another
plate or member
to pass through. xxxx Hole cut in open girder 1
Misplaced holes
Plug-
filled by plug
Welded
welding, xxxx 4
Misplaced
regardless of
Hole
location.
Splice between
girders, beams
Field-
or girder to beam
Welded xxxx 4
which was done
Splice
by local bridge
owners.
97
Name prohibition #
Pin and
Eyebar Eyebars or pin
Truss and plates used as
1989 P 4
Pin and tension
Hanger members.
Assembly
Lateral bracing
such as cross-
Lateral
braces or
Bracing to
diaphragms 1983r 1989
Girder 3
welded to the AASHTO
Bottom
bottom flange of
Flange
girders and not
the web.
Plate lain
horizontally over
Cantilever beam top flange
Floor- cantilevered to
1986 W 3
beam side. Bolted or
Bracket welded to top
flange of each
member.
98
Name prohibition #
Bars or plates
left on bridges
Backing used for
1978 MN 3
Bar supporting back
of welds, not
ground smooth.
Welding along a
section such as
Intermittent
vertical stiffener xxxx 3
Weld
that is not
continuous.
Bolts, plates or
any other
members that
were tack-
Tack Weld 1970 P 2
welded into place
without removing
welds
afterwards.
Floor-beam
Tied Arch
shear connection
Floor- xxxx 1
to tied arch
beam
girder web
A514 Steel Low fracture 1989r

3
(T1 steel) toughness steel AASHTO
99
CHAPTER 8 – RANKING PROGRAM
8.1 Overview
To utilize the classification table from 0 a program was developed using Microsoft EXCEL,
which incorporates the various geometric properties to determine appropriate rank numbers.
This program also computes a composite rank number for the bridge, which enables bridge
owners to list bridges which may be considered for repair or retrofit. The output from the
program shows all of the information that was entered. This allows anyone examining the
database to find the most severe detail of each type immediately by examining the data string for
each bridge. Ultimately, the program is a tool which applies research to literally and directly
accomplish the bridge ranking.
The composite (bridge) rank number is a sum of the rank numbers for the most severe of each
detail type. The maximum possible bridge rank number is 54, representing the worst detail for
each of the 18 types present in one bridge. The lowest possible bridge rank number is 0, for a
bridge having none of the 18 types of susceptible details. The majority of bridges are expected
to rank below 12, with new bridges having lower rank numbers.
For ease of use, a blank copy of the program interface can be printed and used as a questionnaire
in which geometric constraints from each detail can be written. This allows anyone examining
bridge plans or performing a field inspection to provide data that is easily entered into the
ranking program.
8.2 Program Operation

Simple macros are developed using “If” and “Else” statements in Microsoft EXCEL to properly
categorize each detail. “N/A” output is explained in the following paragraph. The input
variables, i.e. 1A, 1E, etc. are shown in Figure 8.1, the input interface.
If 1=Y:
If 1A=bot ………………………………………………………………………… 1
Else If 1E>0.5 And 1D<2 And 1C<80 ……………………………………....... 2
Else If 1E>0.25 And 1D<1 And 1C<80 ………………………………. 2
Else If 1E>0.5 And 1D<2 And 1C<160 And 1B>40 ………..... 2
Else If 1E>0.25 And 1D<1 And 1C<160 And 1B>40 ... 2
Else ……………………………………………….. 1
If 2=Y:
If 2A=N …………………………………………………………………………... 2
Else If 2B<1……………………………………………………………………. 1
Else ……………………………………………………………………….. 0
If 3=Y:
If 3A>0.8 ………………………………………………………………………… 3
Else If 3C=Y …………………………………………………………………... 1
100
Else If 3D>3B And 3E=N …………………………………………….. 3
Else ………………………………………………………………. 2
If 4=Y:
If 4B=Y If 4A=N ……………………………………………………………….... 4
Else If 4C>12*4D ……………………………………………………... 3
Else If 4C>4 …………………………………………………… 3
Else If 4E<6 …………………………………………… 3
Else ………………………………………………. 2
Else If 4C>12*4D ……………………………………………………………... 2
Else If 4C>4 …………………………………………………………… 2
Else If 4E<6 …………………………………………………… 2
Else ……………………………………………………….. 1
If 5=Y:
If 5B=Y …………………………………………………………………………... 3
Else If 5A=Y …………………………………………………………………… 1
Else ……………………………………………………………………….. N/A
If 6=Y:
If 6A=Y ………………………………………………………………………….... 4
Else If 6B=Y ………………………………………………………………….... 3
Else If 6D<0.1 And 6C>1 …………………………………………….... 3
Else If 6D<2 ……………………………………………………. 2
Else ………………………………………………………... 1
If 7=Y:
If 7A=Y …………………………………………………………………………… 3
Else ……………………………………………………………………………….. 2
If 8=Y:
If 8A=Y …………………………………………………………………………… 3
Else If 8C=Y …………………………………………………………………… 2
Else If 8B=Y …………………………………………………………... 1
Else ……………………………………………………………….. N/A
IF 9=Y: ………………………………………………………………………….... 4
IF 10=Y: …………………………………………………………………………... 4
IF 11=Y: …………………………………………………………………………... 4
IF 12=Y: …………………………………………………………………………... 3
IF 13=Y: …………………………………………………………………………... 3
IF 14=Y: …………………………………………………………………………... 3
IF 15=Y: …………………………………………………………………………... 3
IF 16=Y: …………………………………………………………………………... 2
IF 17=Y: …………………………………………………………………………... 1
IF 18=Y: …………………………………………………………………………... 3
101
BRIDGE NUMBER __________
INPUT WORST RANK
DETAIL NAME INPUT
TYPE CASE NO.
Transverse Stiffener Web Gap 1 (Y/blank) Y 0
Gap flange 1A (top/bot) top
Bridge span skew 1B (deg) ↑
Span length containing web gap 1C (ft) ↓
Web gap height 1D (in) ↓
Girder web thickness 1E (in) ↑
Insufficient Cope Radius 2 (Y/blank) Y 0
Is there a cope radius 2A (Y/N) N
Cope radius (0 if none) 2B (in) ↓
Partial Length Cover Plate 3 (Y/blank) Y 0
Girder flange thickness 3A (in) ↑
Girder flange width 3B (in) ↓
Is the end tapered 3C (Y/N) N
Cover plate width 3D (in) ↑
Is there a weld across end of cover plate 3E (Y/N) N
Shelf Plate Welded to Girder Web 4 (Y/blank) Y 0
Weld termination and cope distances
within Detail B41 allowable dim. 4A (Y/N) N
Is any plate intersected or coped around shelf plate 4B (Y/N) Y
Length of shelf plate 4C (in) ↑
Thickness of shelf plate 4D (in) ↓
Shelf plate transition radius 4E (in) ↓
Stringer or Truss Floor-beam Bracket 5 (Y/blank) Y 0
Floor beam connected to stringer 5A (Y/N) Y
Floor beam connected to truss 5B (Y/N) Y
Welded Horizontal Stiffener 6 (Y/blank) Y 0
Horizontal stiffener continues through tension zone 6A (Y/N) Y
Multiple plates welded end-to-end
or interrupted by vertical stiffener 6B (Y/N) Y
Thickness of horizontal stiffener 6C (in) ↑
Horizontal stiffener transition radius 6D (in) ↓
Haunch Insert 7 (Y/blank) Y 0
Connected using transverse PJP groove welds 7A (Y/N) Y
Web Penetration 8 (Y/blank) Y 0
Hole in box girder except at pier cap 8A (Y/N) Y
Hole in open girder 8B (Y/N) Y
Intersecting girders at pier cap 8C (Y/N) Y
Plug-Welded Misplaced Hole 9 (Y/blank) Y 0
Field Welded Splice 10 (Y/blank) Y 0
Pin and Eyebar Truss or Pin and Hanger Assembly 11 (Y/blank) Y 0
102
Lateral Bracing to Girder Bottom Flange 12 (Y/blank) Y 0
Cantilever Floor-Beam Bracket 13 (Y/blank) Y 0
Backing Bar 14 (Y/blank) Y 0
Intermittent Weld 15 (Y/blank) Y 0
Tack Weld 16 (Y/blank) Y 0
Tied Arch Floor-Beam 17 (Y/blank) Y 0
A514 Steel (T1 Steel) 18 (Y/blank) Y 0
, Bridge Rank 0
Figure 8.1 Program Input Variables
The units or Y/N symbols defined in parenthesis show what parameters to fill in each blank in
the “INPUT” column. Once the user notes the detail exists (places a Y next to the detail), all the
other blanks must be filled in for that detail. It is important to keep all cells other than the
INPUT column locked, so that the formulas cannot be altered. If any “N/A” terms show up in
the output or the bridge rank number is not computed, then either the detail should not be
classified as a fracture or fatigue susceptible detail, or an input was not in the correct units, i.e. a
“Y” was placed in a slot where a length was required.
The program allows someone to input the data directly or collected from a paper copy into a
single column. Then the rank number for each detail as well as the entire bridge is shown. The
reason for filling in all data for each of the present details is so the program will run properly.
Furthermore, the most severe geometry for each of the 18 details should be used, resulting in the
highest rank number. The most severe situations are found in the column “WORST CASE.” If
it so happens that a detail has a geometric constraint worse than a second of the same type, and
the second has a different geometric constraint worse than the first, then judgment must be made
using the classification table to determine which one will result in the highest rank number.
The output of the program is a single, comma-delineated line of information which can be easily
transferred to databases as a text file. The format for the output line is as follows: Bridge rank #,
Detail 1 rank #, Detail 2 rank #, . . . , Detail 18 rank #, Input 1 (Transverse Stiffener Web Gap),
Input 2 (Gap flange), . . . , Input 45 (A514 Steel). If no data is input, the corresponding “Input”
places will be blank, i.e. commas will be directly next to each other. If no data is input, the line
will still give a rank number of 0, indicating that there are no noted cracking issues for that
detail. The program follows with an example in Figure 8.24.
103
INPUT WORST RANK
DETAIL NAME INPUT
TYPE CASE NO.
Transverse Stiffener Web Gap (Y/blank) Y 0
Gap flange (top/bot) top
Bridge span skew (deg) ↑
Span length containing web gap (ft) ↓
Web gap height (in) ↓
Girder web thickness (in) ↑
Insufficient Cope Radius (Y/blank) Y 0
Is there a cope radius (Y/N) N
Cope radius (0 if none) (in) ↓
Partial Length Cover Plate (Y/blank) Y 0
Girder flange thickness (in) ↑
Girder flange width (in) ↓
Is the end tapered (Y/N) N
Cover plate width (in) ↑
Is there a weld across end of cover plate (Y/N) N
Shelf Plate Welded to Girder Web (Y/blank) Y 0
within Detail B41 allowable dim. (Y/N) N
Is any plate intersected or coped around shelf plate (Y/N) Y
Length of shelf plate (in) ↑
Thickness of shelf plate (in) ↓
Shelf plate transition radius (in) ↓
Stringer or Truss Floor-beam Bracket (Y/blank) Y 0
Floor beam connected to stringer (Y/N) Y
Floor beam connected to truss (Y/N) Y
Welded Horizontal Stiffener (Y/blank) Y 0
Horizontal stiffener continues through tension zone (Y/N) Y
or interrupted by vertical stiffener (Y/N) Y
Thickness of horizontal stiffener (in) ↑
Horizontal stiffener transition radius (in) ↓
Haunch Insert (Y/blank) Y 0
Connected using transverse PJP groove welds (Y/N) Y
Web Penetration (Y/blank) Y 0
Hole in box girder except at pier cap (Y/N) Y
Hole in open girder (Y/N) Y
Intersecting girders at pier cap (Y/N) Y
Plug-Welded Misplaced Hole (Y/blank) Y 0
Field Welded Splice (Y/blank) Y 0
Pin and Eyebar Truss or Pin and Hanger Assembly (Y/blank) Y 0
Lateral Bracing to Girder Bottom Flange (Y/blank) Y 0
104
Cantilever Floor-Beam Bracket (Y/blank) Y 0
Backing Bar (Y/blank) Y 0
Intermittent Weld (Y/blank) Y 0
Tack Weld (Y/blank) Y 0
Tied Arch Floor-Beam (Y/blank) Y 0
A514 Steel (T1 Steel) (Y/blank) Y 0
, Bridge Rank 0
0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Figure 8.2 Blank program input sheet
105
8.3 Examples
Following are examples for details that were taken from Mn/DOT bridge plans or photographs
when plans do not show details. All of the necessary information is gathered from these
documents and read into a program example. A single document (Figure 8.24) holds all the
details, although in practice only the details on each individual bridge would be inputted at one
time; the rest left blank. The resulting bridge number shows how the sum would be computed if
all of these details had been on the same bridge.
106
Transverse Stiffener Web Gap (Bridge # 9330)
Figure 8.3 Transverse stiffener web gap (Bridge # 9330)
107
Figure 8.4 Transverse stiffener web gap – girders (Bridge # 9330)
108
Figure 8.5 Transverse stiffener web gap – framing plan (Bridge # 9330)
109
Insufficient Cope Radius (Bridge # 9320) – Bridge plans do not usually show cope radii.
Figure 8.6 Insufficient cope radius (Bridge # 9320)
110
Partial Length Cover Plate (Bridge # 02803)
Figure 8.7 Partial length cover plate (Bridge # 02803)
111
Shelf Plate Welded to Girder Web (Bridge # 9320)
Figure 8.8 Shelf plate welded to girder web (Bridge # 9320)
Figure 8.9 Shelf plate welded to girder web – plan view (Bridge # 9320)
112
Figure 8.10 Shelf plate welded to girder web – welding detail (Bridge # 9320)
Floor-beam Bracket (Bridge # 5947)
Figure 8.11 Floor-beam bracket (Bridge # 5947)
Welded Horizontal Stiffener (Bridge # 9800)
Figure 8.12 Welded horizontal stiffener (Bridge #9800)
113
Haunch Insert (Bridge # 9779)
Figure 8.13 Haunch insert (Bridge # 9779)
Web Penetration (Bridge # 27788)
Figure 8.14 Web penetration (Bridge # 27788)
114
Plug-Welded Misplaced Hole (Bridge # 27552)
Figure 8.15 Plug-welded misplaced hole (Bridge # 27552)
Field Welded Splice (Bridge # 90856)
Figure 8.16 Field welded splice (Bridge # 90856)
115
Pin and Eyebar Truss or Pin and Hanger Assembly (Bridge # 9320)
Figure 8.17 Pin and eyebar truss or pin and hanger assembly (Bridge # 9320)
Lateral Bracing to Girder Bottom Flange – No example found. However there is at least one
case in the bridge inventory (Wilson, March 2007).
116
Cantilever Floor-Beam Bracket (Bridge # 5993)
Figure 8.18 Cantilever floor-beam bracket (Bridge # 5993)
117
Backing Bar (Bridge # 27636)
Figure 8.19 Backing bar (Bridge # 27636)
Intermittent Weld (Bridge # 6566)
Figure 8.20 Intermittent weld (Bridge # 6566)
118
Tack Weld (Bridge # 55804)
Figure 8.21 Tack weld (Bridge # 55804)
119
Tied Arch Floor-Beam (Bridge # 9600S)
Figure 8.22 Tied arch bridge (Bridge # 9600N)
Figure 8.23 Tied arch floor beam (Bridge # 9600S)
A514 Steel (T1 Steel) (Bridge # 9360) – The Washington Avenue Bridge contains this type of
fracture sensitive steel.
120
INPUT WORST RANK
DETAIL NAME INPUT
TYPE CASE NO.
Transverse Stiffener Web Gap Y (Y/blank) Y 1
Gap flange top (top/bot) Top
Bridge span skew 0 (deg) ↑
Span length containing web gap 167 (ft) ↓
Web gap height 1.5 (in) ↓
Girder web thickness 0.625 (in) ↑
Insufficient Cope Radius Y (Y/blank) Y 2
Is there a cope radius N (Y/N) N
Cope radius (0 if none) 0 (in) ↓
Partial Length Cover Plate Y (Y/blank) Y 3
Girder flange thickness 0.850 (in) ↑
Girder flange width 10.5 (in) ↓
Is the end tapered Y (Y/N) N
Cover plate width 9 (in) ↑
Is there a weld across end of cover plate N (Y/N) N
Shelf Plate Welded to Girder Web Y (Y/blank) Y 3
within Detail B41 allowable dim. Y (Y/N) N
Is any plate intersected or coped around shelf plate Y (Y/N) Y
Length of shelf plate 18 (in) ↑
Thickness of shelf plate 0.625 (in) ↓
Shelf plate transition radius 0 (in) ↓
Stringer or Truss Floor-beam Bracket Y (Y/blank) Y 1
Floor beam connected to stringer Y (Y/N) Y
Floor beam connected to truss N (Y/N) Y
Welded Horizontal Stiffener Y (Y/blank) Y 3
Horizontal stiffener continues through tension zone N (Y/N) Y
or interrupted by vertical stiffener Y (Y/N) Y
Thickness of horizontal stiffener 0.5 (in) ↑
Horizontal stiffener transition radius 0 (in) ↓
Haunch Insert Y (Y/blank) Y 2
Connected using transverse PJP groove welds N (Y/N) Y
Web Penetration Y (Y/blank) Y 2
Hole in box girder except at pier cap N (Y/N) Y
Hole in open girder N (Y/N) Y
Intersecting girders at pier cap Y (Y/N) Y
Plug-Welded Misplaced Hole Y (Y/blank) Y 4
Field Welded Splice Y (Y/blank) Y 4
Pin and Eyebar Truss or Pin and Hanger Assembly Y (Y/blank) Y 4
Lateral Bracing to Girder Bottom Flange Y (Y/blank) Y 3
121
Cantilever Floor-Beam Bracket Y (Y/blank) Y 3
Backing Bar Y (Y/blank) Y 3
Intermittent Weld Y (Y/blank) Y 3
Tack Weld Y (Y/blank) Y 2
Tied Arch Floor-Beam Y (Y/blank) Y 1
A514 Steel (T1 Steel) Y (Y/blank) Y 3
, Bridge Rank 47
47,1,2,3,3,1,3,2,2,4,4,4,3,3,3,3,2,1,3,Y,top,0,167,1.5,0.625,Y,N,0,Y,0.85,10.5,Y,9,N,Y,Y,Y,
18,0.625,0,Y,Y,N,Y,N,Y,0.5,0,Y,N,Y,N,N,Y,Y,Y,Y,Y,Y,Y,Y,Y,Y,Y
Figure 8.24 Example program operation
122
CHAPTER 9 – CONCLUSIONS
Fracture and fatigue susceptible details are still present in bridges across the country; namely
those constructed before the 1990’s. Cracking of these details may occur, requiring repair or
retrofit. An estimation of the number of susceptible details as well as the frequency of
occurrence is crucial in order to budget for future rehabilitation. Because cracking of certain
details can be catastrophic, leading to the partial or total collapse of a bridge, an index of
cracking severity assists in identifying bridges that require careful monitoring, at a minimum.
9.1 Summary
The research performed achieves the stated goals by providing a list of details that have an
identified potential for cracking. Furthermore, rank numbers are assigned to each of these details
on the basis of frequency of cracking and consequence of occurrence. A finer breakdown of the
details is constructed, utilizing geometric properties of the individual detail as well as properties
of the bridge itself. This enabled the ranking numbers, zero through four, to correspond with the
expected conditions of specific details.
Literature review of many sources provided the overall ranking given in Table 7.1. First, fatigue
in steel bridges was analyzed by examining the AASHTO S-N categories used to approximate
fatigue life. Next, an evaluation of distortional fatigue was conducted, which accounts for about
one-half of all cracking cases. Past research by the University of Minnesota quantified stresses
in some of these details (Jajich et al. 2000, Berglund and Schultz 2002, Severtson et al. 2004, Li
and Schultz 2005). Then, case studies involving both fracture and fatigue from a well-known
book by Fisher (1984) were considered. A method for quantifying fatigue life from stresses is
developed in NCHRP 299 (Moses et al. 1987), but was not used in this study.
After gathering background information, a list was compiled of details that are considered to be
prone to cracking problems. A further breakdown of more common details, according to
geometric properties, was done using information from codes, case studies, and prior experience.
After that, the experiences of several state departments of transportation were collected; initially
by looking at bridge plans and inspection reports from Mn/DOT, and then by conducting a
nationwide survey. The survey asked agencies to order the flagged details depending on their
frequency of cracking and also provide any extra details that were not already being considered
in the study. The last sources that were examined were the multiple codes which involved
construction and engineering design specifications for the details under consideration during the
period in question. Rather than simply scrutinizing the current code, examination of all codes
since 1973 allowed tracking of code changes, enabling estimation of years in which bridges
might contain certain problematic details.
By putting together the information gathered, the classification table (Table 7.1), lists all of the
flagged details. Each is supplied with a description and picture for easy identification. A year is
given which can be used to approximate the end of use for each detail, along with its cited
source. Following this are geometric constraints with appropriate rank number next to them.
123
There are eighteen details in total, including many that can be found on bridge plans and some
that can only be identified in the field.
In the application stage of this study, a procedure is developed which allows bridge owners to
arrange their bridges by composite rank number through use of data collection and a computer
program. The Microsoft EXCEL-based program enables either inspectors or engineers
examining bridge plans to input geometric data for flagged details. Once the worst detail of each
type is entered into the spreadsheet, the program computes rank numbers for each detail and a
composite rank for the bridge. This information can be used in bridge management databases to
estimate budgeting for repairs and retrofits.
9.2 Conclusions
Cracking in steel bridges with inadequate details is an issue that will be overcome with time. As
bridges are designed with larger girders to avoid using many of the local-strength-increasing
details from the past, fracture and fatigue vulnerability is all but eliminated. This progression, in
fact, can be followed by codes, which eliminate problem areas after research has been performed
to describe the problem. Details that are seeing cracking today are those that are approaching
their fatigue life after many decades of service. Thus, the evolution of design lags behind the
identification and resolution of problems unless research testing is performed.
The number of details experiencing cracking with immediate risk of bridge failure is only a
handful in each state. The number of details experiencing cracking with some risk of partial
bridge collapse if not repaired is only slightly higher. However, the number of details that have
possibility for cracking is large; and the cost of retrofit if small cracks are allowed to progress is
substantial. Risk is reduced by inspecting and eliminating flagged details present in this study.
From examination of the classification table, the highest rank number for the eighteen flagged
details result in five 4’s, nine 3’s, three 2’s, and one 1. Although code provisions may have
allowed these problematic details in the past, engineering judgment eliminated many of the
worst-case scenarios. Therefore, although the distribution of the eighteen details among the
categories seems fairly even, more 2’s will be found than any other rank number. This occurs
because most details fall into the less severe categories 1 and 2, and the rank 2 is the only one
associated with high frequency of occurrence.
9.3 Recommendations
The research performed in the current study is for assisting in evaluating bridges for their
fracture and fatigue susceptibility. Used with sound engineering judgment, the information
contained herein will assist in identifying many, but not all, details with fracture and fatigue
issues. Other fracture of fatigue susceptible details not listed in this report may require careful
attention as well. The ranking system is based on qualitative judgment and can be used for
assessing what issues exist in the bridge inventory but should not be substituted for inspections
or other measures currently in place.
124
That being said, with proper application, this research may contribute to knowledge of the extent
and distribution of susceptible details that exist in a bridge inventory and how frequently they
crack. Incorporation of the program in 0 can enable databases to become much more
comprehensive by noting the existence and geometry for a uniform set of problematic details. It
is recommended that personnel in state departments of transportation, with the help of an
engineer and/or inspector, examine bridge plans, gather problematic details, and enter them into
a program for incorporation into bridge management databases. Also, because many of the
details cannot be found on bridge plans, i.e. field-welded splices, inspectors should take printed
copies of the program spreadsheet, to be used as a questionnaire, to fill in any details they
encounter in the field.
The program file can be adapted to include extra information such as more details or member
sizes. However, it is noted that addition of ranked details to the program will require that
previously ranked bridges be ranked again, because bridge rank number is a composite score and
more details may account for larger composite rank numbers. This means that, unless they are
ranked again, any bridges that were previously ranked, before the addition of new details to the
program, would be ranked on a different scale. It is also recommended that cells in the
spreadsheet program, other than those that receive input data, remain locked so that they cannot
be changed. Otherwise, adjustments to rank numbers could be made by the user based on their
judgment, and this may skew the results.
Incorporation of the classification table’s “date of code prohibition” column to eliminate looking
for details should not be done. The column is for purposes of showing what to expect certain
bridges to have. Since adoption of code requirements into actual bridge construction practice
takes many years and varies by application, it is difficult to estimate the true time that the
prohibition of a detail becomes effective. Furthermore, in some cases details continued to be
used well after their common use was no longer allowed by code. An example of this is the
incorporation of pin and hanger assemblies into the 1980’s.
The national survey was an effort to bring together many state departments of transportation for
the purpose of cooperation in identifying problematic details. Because the current research is
based heavily upon history of actual cracking cases, the largest set of bridges possible should be
examined. The help from the agencies that replied to the survey allowed for this. Aggregation
of information from all state departments of transportation in the United States would be ideal
for the most complete collection of data.
Some DOTs replied to the survey with other details that were not included in the classification
table. These were all taken into account, but most of them were not present in Minnesota and not
enough information was known about them. Further research should be done to quantify all the
details with which other DOTs are having problems and to investigate their causes. The end
result could be a national ranking system that is applicable to all states and can be incorporated
into code.
The rank numbers are based upon qualitative conclusions concerning cracking history. The most
thorough knowledge was gathered from the many studies conducted on the web gap detail. For
125
this detail, enough information is known to be able to estimate the expected stress levels under
traffic loading. This enables a more complete ranking than the current study does. If more
details were researched as methodically as the web gap, a better ranking could be conducted
allowing for fatigue stresses to be calculated. However, to be able to calculate stresses and
account for traffic loading, a large computational effort would be required.
The ranking system developed in this report offers useful information in a simple format.
However, for certain bridges alternative ranking scales may be necessary depending on the
planned use for the rank. The composite bridge rank developed in Chapter 7 is most useful for
the purpose of identifying those bridges with multiple problematic details. Calculation by
summation of the individual ranks is most effective for identifying these bridges; in a sense, a
high composite rank would indicate multiple problems, most likely both severe and mild.
However, for bridges that do not rank as highly, it may be important to understand whether the
rank comes from a multitude of different mild-severity details, or a single, severe detail.
If the bridge owner wants to examine details with higher risk, then a bridge with a single rank-4
detail would carry more importance than one with four different rank-1 details. To determine
how to spend repair funds in a cost-effective manner, it may be more beneficial to repair a bridge
with one type of severe detail rather than a bridge with many different details that have a lower
likelihood of cracking. Thus, an alternative rank may be needed here which offers an indication
of detail severity rather than an aggregation of all detail types. For example, a new rank, G, may
be defined on the basis of the total number of problematic details in the bridge, that is
G = ∑i=1 ni ri N , where ni is the number of details of rank ri, and N = ∑i=1 ni .
4 4
Another bridge ranking may focus on the expected frequency of crack occurrence, where rank-2
details would hold more weight. This type of rank may be useful for evaluating and mitigating
propagation of cracks when combined with bridge age and traffic loading statistics. It may also
be important to understand whether or not details are more fracture prone or fatigue sensitive.
For the most part, a higher detail rank means it is more fracture sensitive. Separating different
rank numbers in this way could assist in evaluating maximum loading or considerations in
changing bridge load ratings.
Understanding the properties of traffic loading, such as traffic counts, vehicle weights, axle
distributions, and traffic patterns, is important to better understand the definition and significance
of different rank numbers. Load magnitudes and numbers of cycles are key components in
fatigue evaluation, and incorporating them can be done efficiently by using the traffic spectrum
concept which offers the relation between ESALs (equivalent single-axle loads) and the
corresponding expected ADT (or ADTT). By assuming that all bridges on the trunk highway
system (i.e., those considered in this study) carry the same traffic, the current ranking system
equates quantities that are not equal. For any particular fatigue detail, less traveled roads may
never reach their fatigue lives, where as busy bridges may reach it in only a couple of years. The
magnitude of vehicle loads is also important because bridges with small loads may be insensitive
to their problematic details if stresses are below the endurance limit (i.e., stress value for infinite
fatigue life). To more realistically rank details for fracture and fatigue, a ranking scheme that
incorporates that traffic spectrum concept may be necessary.
126
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131
APPENDIX A: Steel Designations and Years in Use
A-1
Steel Designation
American Association Years in
Steel Description American Society
of State Highway and Use
for Testing and Transportation Officials
Materials (ASTM) (AASHTO)
Structural Carbon Steel A7 M94 1900-1967
Structural Nickel Steel A8 M96 1912-1962
Structural Steel A36 M183 1960-Present
Structural Silicon Steel A94 M95 1925-1965
Structural Steel A140 1932-1933
Structural Rivet Steel A141 M97 1932-1966
High-Strength Structural Rivet A195 M98 1936-1966
High-Strength Low-Alloy Steel A242 M161 1941-Present
Low and Intermediate A283/A284 1946-Present
Tensile Strength Carbon
Steel Plates
Steel Sheet Piling A328 M202 1950-Present
Structural Steel for Welding A373 M165 1954-1965
High-Strength Structural Steel A440 M187 1959-1979
High-Strength Low-Alloy A441 M188 1954-1989
Structural Manganese
Vanadium Steel
High-Yield-Strength, A514 M244 1964-Present
A709
Quenched and Tempered Alloy M270 Grade 100/100W l974-Present
Grade100/100W
Steel Plate (Suitable for Welding)
Hi Strength Low-Alloy A572 M223 1966-Present
( 1974-
Columbium-Vanadium Steel (A709 Grade 50) (M270 Grade 50)
Present)
of Structural Quality
Hi-Strength Low-Alloy A588 M222 1968-Present
(197 4-
Structural Steel with 50 ksi (A709 Grade 50W) (M270 Grade 50W)
Present)
Minimum Yield Point to 4” thick
High-Strength Low-Alloy A690 1974-Present
Steel H-Piles and Sheet Piling
Quenched and Tempered A852 M313 1985-Present
Low-Alloy Structural Steel (A709 Grade 70W) (M270 Grade 70W) (1985-Present)
Plate with 70 ksi Minimum
Yield Strength to 4” thick
A-1
APPENDIX B: Calculations for Web Gap Stresses
A-0A-0
⎛ tw ⎞⎛ A1 ⋅ L2 + A2 ⋅ L + A3 ⎞
Equation 2.11: σ wg = 2.5 E ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝g ⎠⎝ L ⎠
“A” constants from Table 2.19:
(L in inches)
Deg. A1 A2 A3
20 -3.3700E-07 0.001486 -0.3399
40 -3.1150E-07 0.001522 -0.4065
60 -4.3520E-07 0.002185 -0.9156
E L tw g skew σwg
(ksi) (in.) (in.) (in.) (˚) (ksi)
29,000 960 0.5 2 20 14.7
29,000 960 0.5 2 40 14.5
29,000 960 0.5 2 60 14.7
29,000 960 0.25 1 20 14.7
29,000 960 0.25 1 40 14.5
29,000 960 0.25 1 60 14.7
29,000 1920 0.5 2 20 12.0
29,000 1920 0.5 2 40 12.9
29,000 1920 0.5 2 60 15.8
29,000 1920 0.25 1 20 12.0
29,000 1920 0.25 1 40 12.9
29,000 1920 0.25 1 60 15.8
B-1
APPENDIX C: Survey Replies
A0-0A-0
Nevada
Adam,
Nevada's experience with fatigue damage has related mostly to out-of-plane bending due to
perpendicular cross-frames in skewed bridges or interior "Z-bracing" in tub girders. Horizontal
wind-bracing has been the next most prevalent cause of fatigue cracking, particularly where the
horizontal connection plate has been welded particularly close to vertical web bracing and/or
cross-frame connection plates. The remaining causes ranked below have had minimal
occurrences and could virtually be ignored as significant causes of fatigue fractures.
If you have any further questions regarding these responses, feel free to contact me through any
of the means listed below.
Marc Grunert
Asst. Chief Bridge Engineer
NDOT - Bridge Division
1263 S. Stewart St.
Carson City, NV 89712
775-888-7545 Phone
775-888-7405 Fax
mgrunert@dot.state.nv.us
__1___Transverse Stiffener Web Gaps - Diaphragms or cross-braces between girders are

to both flanges of the girders; instead a gap was left anywhere from 0" (bearing) to 2" or more.
__3___Cover plated beams and flange gussets -Cover plates are plates attached to the underside
__0___Stringer to floor beam (truss) brackets - Cracking occurs in the angles connecting floor
__0___Cantilever floor-beam brackets - These plates are laid horizontally and usually bolted or
__2___Web Connection Plates - Horizontal plates welded to the girder web used for diaphragms
C-1A1-1A-1
__0___Transverse Groove Welds - Groove welds on girder webs. Usually these occur at the end
__0___Web penetrations - When a member passes through the web of another. Cracking is more
girders.
__4___Coped members - Cracks initiating from the fillet of the two re-entrant cuts. Cracking
__0___Tied arch floor beams - Floor beams can exhibit separation of beam web and flange due
to rotation of the beams under distortional fatigue.
__5___Continuous longitudinal welds - Commonly, these long welds connect plates or other
__0___Lamellar Tearing - Separation of layers of metal within a solid piece. Cracking is usually
C-2
Georgia
Comments for the Georgia DOT are listed below.
Please call or e-mail me if you have any questions on the comments.
Thanks.
Paul V. Liles, Jr., P.E.

State Bridge Engineer
(404) 656-5280

__0__Cantilever floor-beam brackets - These plates are laid horizontally and usually bolted or
end of haunch inserts. (The bottom flange is cut out of the girder and replaced with a groove-
girders.
C-3
understanding of fatigue susceptible details. -Adam Lindberg
Part 2.
No further examples. Approximate number of known bridges with the type cracks over the last
twenty years is as follows:
Transverse stiffener web gaps - ten

Coped members - two
Stringer to floor beams - one
Most have been repaired.
C-4
Indiana
Mr. Lindberg
I have answered the question on your survey. My answers are in red type.
Bill Dittrich
INDOT Bridge Inspection Engineer
(317) 232-5474
INDOT has had +- 15 bridges, over the last 20-years, (mostly in the early 1990’s), that
developed cracks similar to detail (a). Generally these cracks developed when the Stiffener had
an X-Bracing attached, and the X-bracings were staggered due to skew, thus causing out-of plane
bending cracking to develop. On advanced cracking, we would also get a horizontal crack along
the toe of the weld between the web and the flange.____Transverse Stiffener Web Gaps –
Diaphragms or cross-braces between girders are connected to plates which are welded to the
girders. Prior to 1985 these plates were not welded to both flanges of the girders; instead a gap
was left anywhere from 0” (bearing) to 2” or more. Cracking can occur in any number of
elements in this area.
The great majority of the welded coverplates on bridges in Indiana are tapered. We have only
had a few small cracks in the welds at the toes of the terminal ends of the welds. Purdue
University conducted quite a bit of research on these coverplates for us in the 1990’s, and
convinced us that the welds on these tapered coverplates will grow very slowly, thus giving our
inspectors plenty of time to see and find them. They also developed a bolted retro-fit that we are
using extensively on INDOT Bridges. _____Cover plated beams and flange gussets – cracks
usually form at the ends of the cover plates, either in the cover plate, the weld, or the girder
flange.
We have had very few of these types of cracks on INDOT bridges. Most occurred in the 1980’s
or earlier. These types of cracks are still found on some of our Local Bridges._____Stringer to
floor beam (truss) brackets – Cracking occurs in the angles connecting floor beams to other
elements. Cracks can occur anywhere within the angle connector.
_We have not had this type of problem on any of our INDOT Bridges, and I have not heard of
any on our Local Bridges.____Cantilever floor-beam brackets – These plates are laid
horizontally and usually bolted or riveted to the girders. They are also connected to the top of
tack welds, bolts, rivets, or across the plate as shown.
INDOT has had four of these types of cracks over the last 23-years, (1983{I-70}, 1985 {I-65},
1994 {I-64}, and May 2006 {I-70}). I believe that the 1983 crack was 48” long, the 1985 crack
was 21” long, the 1994 crack was 70” long, and the 2006 crack was 9.5” long. The first three
cracks began around the Web/Transverse Stiffener/Connection Plate intersecting weld area. The
2006 crack began around the end of the weld of the Horizontal Connection Plate – away from the
Stiffener. All of these locations had X-Bracings and Lateral Bracings attached._____Web
C-5
Connection Plates – horizontal plates welded to the girder web. Cracks usually occur when plate
intersects a transverse stiffener.
_INDOT has had three bridges with multiple cracks in Horizontal Web Stiffeners, all in the late
1990’s. All of these cracks developed in poor quality splice welds in the stiffener plates, and
NOT in the welds to the girder webs.____Transverse Groove Welds – Groove welds to web of
girders. Usually occur at the end of horizontal stiffeners or the end of haunch inserts.
_INDOT has not had this type of cracking, and we only have a few bridges with this type of
detail.____Web penetrations – When a member passes through the web of another. Cracking is
more common when backing bars are left in place. These details are common in pier caps.
_INDOT has had many of these types of cracks, but mainly in the 1980’s and 1990’s. We have
not had much of this lately, on INDOT Bridges, but are probably still having this problem on our
Local Bridges. Most of our cracking resulted from significant section loss to the web, above or
below the connection plate.___Coped members – Cracks initiating from the fillet of the two re-
entrant cuts. Cracking usually caused by small radius or no radius.
INDOT has not had this type of cracking on our Tied Arch bridges. We have had a number of
crack indications in our Tie-Chords on one bridge, mainly due to welds flaws and shrinkage
during fabrication. Only a few of these have resulted in actual cracks._____Tied arch floor
beams – Separation of beam web and flange by rotation of beams.
_ INDOT has not had this type of cracking on the “Box Members” that make up the Tie-Chords
of our Tied Arch bridges. We have had a number of crack indications in these welds, mainly due
to welds flaws and shrinkage during fabrication, but no actual cracks._________Continuous
longitudinal welds – cracking occurs parallel to the longitudinal welds. Cracking is usually
caused by improper welding or too large of welds. Commonly, these welds connect plates or
other shapes along their length.
NONE -- INDOT does not have many of these types of details._____Lamellar Tearing –
Separation of layers of metal within a solid piece. Cracking is usually found in highly restrained
members or in cantilevers.
C-6
Mississippi
Please see the attached. We do not have other fatigue prone details that we plan to attach per
your Part II.
Mitchell K. Carr, P.E.

Bridge Engineer
Mississippi Department of Transportation
Phone (601) 359-7200
Fax (601) 359-7070
__1__Transverse Stiffener Web Gaps – Diaphragms or cross-braces between girders are

Cracking can occur in any number of elements in this area.
__0__Cover plated beams and flange gussets – cracks usually form at the ends of the cover
plates, either in the cover plate, the weld, or the girder flange.
__4__Stringer to floor beam (truss) brackets – Cracking occurs in the angles connecting floor
beams to other elements. Cracks can occur anywhere within the angle connector.
__0__Cantilever floor-beam brackets – These plates are laid horizontally and usually bolted or
riveted to the girders. They are also connected to the top of short beams that extend out from the
bridge to increase bridge width. Cracking can occur around tack welds, bolts, rivets, or across
the plate as shown.
__3__Web Connection Plates – horizontal plates welded to the girder web. Cracks usually occur
when plate intersects a transverse stiffener.
__0__Transverse Groove Welds – Groove welds to web of girders. Usually occur at the end of
horizontal stiffeners or the end of haunch inserts.
__0__Web penetrations – When a member passes through the web of another. Cracking is more
common when backing bars are left in place. These details are common in pier caps.
__2__Coped members – Cracks initiating from the fillet of the two re-entrant cuts. Cracking
usually caused by small radius or no radius.
__0__Tied arch floor beams – Separation of beam web and flange by rotation of beams.
__0__Continuous longitudinal welds – cracking occurs parallel to the longitudinal welds.

Cracking is usually caused by improper welding or too large of welds. Commonly, these welds
connect plates or other shapes along their length.
C-7
__0__Lamellar Tearing – Separation of layers of metal within a solid piece. Cracking is usually
C-8
Illinois
Mr. Lindberg,
Below is the completed survey response from the Illinois Department of Transportation. I hope
this information is useful.
Carl Puzey
Illinois Department of Transportation
Bureau of Bridges and Structures
Bridge Investigations and Repair Plans Unit
Phone: (217) 785-4511
fax: (217) 782-7960
e-mail: Carl.Puzey@illinois.gov

_____Cantilever floor-beam brackets - These plates are laid horizontally and usually bolted or
_____Transverse Groove Welds - Groove welds on girder webs. Usually these occur at the end
girders.
C-9
_____Tied arch floor beams - Floor beams can exhibit separation of beam web and flange due to
rotation of the beams under distortional fatigue.
_____Continuous longitudinal welds - Commonly, these long welds connect plates or other
_____Lamellar Tearing - Separation of layers of metal within a solid piece. Cracking is usually
Part 2 response:
Another detail which has experienced cracking is where the fillet weld connecting a longitudinal
stiffener to girder web terminates at or near the fillet weld connecting a transverse (vertical)
stiffener to the web. In recent years, since the failure of the Hoan Bridge, this is thought to have
been a brittle fracture that is the result of tri-axial constraint rather than the result of fatigue.
However, I understand that there may still be some discussion as to whether this brittle fracture
may occur, at least in some cases, when there is a pre-existing flaw in the weld or web material
or when there is a very small fatigue crack present. I know this survey relates to fatigue, but for
these reasons I mention this crack type here.
Additional comment:
We have had webs crack where web connection plates, typically for lateral wind bracing
connections, terminate at or are notched around transverse (vertical) web stiffeners. I have
ranked this type of connection as #5 above. The cases we have experienced we believe to be
brittle fracture similar to that of the Hoan Bridge rather than fatigue related; however, for the
reasons stated above in our Part 2 response I have included it in our response.
C-10
Washington
Attached is Washington State DOT's response to your survey. Please let me know if there are
any questions. Thank you.
Jugesh Kapur, PE, SE

State Bridge & Structures Engineer
360-705-7207
_4___Transverse Stiffener Web Gaps – Diaphragms or cross-braces between girders are

_7___Cover plated beams and flange gussets – Cover plates are plates attached to the underside
_6___Stringer to floor beam (truss) brackets – Cracking occurs in the angles connecting floor
_0___Cantilever floor-beam brackets – These plates are laid horizontally and usually bolted or
_2___Web Connection Plates – Horizontal plates welded to the girder web used for diaphragms
_0___Transverse Groove Welds – Groove welds on girder webs. Usually these occur at the end
_0___Web penetrations – When a member passes through the web of another. Cracking is more
girders.
_1___Coped members – Cracks initiating from the fillet of the two re-entrant cuts. Cracking
_5___Tied arch (or truss) floor beams – Floor beams can exhibit separation of beam web and
flange due to rotation of the beams under distortional fatigue.
C-11
_3___Continuous longitudinal welds – Commonly, these long welds connect plates or other
_0___Lamellar Tearing – Separation of layers of metal within a solid piece. Cracking is usually
**************************************************************
Part 2:
This section is more important than the first. Please provide any other details that have led to
(premature) fracture and which are not included in this list. Please provide any such details even
if they are no longer allowed by code or have been eliminated from your bridge inventory.
Indicate the approximate number of cases of fracture as well as the factors that you believe
affected the failure of this detail (Examples: tapering of ends, position on bridge, weld
Modular expansion joints. We have experienced a number of failures in the center bar to support
bar connection welds of some of these units. In the cases I have seen, the welds create fixity
between these members and the relatively high flexibility of the system then causes significant
connection moments to develop until the weld cracks and the rotational restraint goes away.
Occasionally, failures in center bar groove weld splices have also occurred.
Open-metal grid decks. The welds connecting the intersecting bars of several designs have
failed often. Weld quality in these usually secondary connections is sometimes an issue. But, it
is thought that failure is largely due to the overall flexibility of the units coupled with significant
impact loading leading to relatively high fatigue stress ranges in the under-designed and often
poorly constructed welds.
Fracture of component (channel) in a built-up riveted truss tension chord. (One occurrence.)
Fracture most likely initiated at a punched rivet hole. Other cases were found before members
fully fractured.
Secondary truss members. Welded gusset plate connections are subjected to low stress, high
cycle vibration. Such members have very little damping.
Toe of welds where web stiffeners are welded to box girder bottom flanges. The relatively thin
plates may be flexing out-of-plane under traffic.
Riveted stringer-to-floorbeam brackets. We have several bridges where rivet heads have sheared
off.
C-12
Tennessee
Ed Wasserman <Ed.Wasserman@STATE.TN.US
Attached is a completed survey. We have no additional details to provide in part 2.
_2____Transverse Stiffener Web Gaps * Diaphragms or cross-braces between girders are

_4____Cover plated beams and flange gussets *Cover plates are plates attached to the underside
_0____Stringer to floor beam (truss) brackets * Cracking occurs in the angles connecting floor
_3____Cantilever floor-beam brackets * These plates are laid horizontally and usually bolted or
_1____Web Connection Plates * Horizontal plates welded to the girder web used for diaphragms
_0____Transverse Groove Welds * Groove welds on girder webs. Usually these occur at the end
_0____Web penetrations * When a member passes through the web of another. Cracking is more
girders.
_5____Coped members * Cracks initiating from the fillet of the two re-entrant cuts. Cracking
_0____Tied arch floor beams * Floor beams can exhibit separation of beam web and flange due
_0____Continuous longitudinal welds * Commonly, these long welds connect plates or other
C-13
_0____Lamellar Tearing * Separation of layers of metal within a solid piece. Cracking is usually
C-14
Missouri
Paul & Mr. Lindberg
Here is the completed survey to the best of our knowledge.
Carl
Paul D Porter/SC/MODOT
06/19/2006 03:09 PM
To: Carlis J Callahan/SC/MODOT@MODOT, Kenneth R Foster/SC/MODOT@MODOT
cc: Ghanshyam D Gupta/SC/MODOT@MODOT, Paul W Kelly/SC/MODOT@MODOT
Subject: Fw: Steel Fatigue Details Enumeration Research
Carl, This was sent out to be forwarded to the "Director of Inspections," but it does look like
something Maintenance would have the most information on and be in the best position to
respond. The researcher is looking for state's experience in ranking the relative frequency of
different fatigue prone details on steel Bridges. We would appreciate a copy of any response for
our information as well. Thanks.
__1___Transverse Stiffener Web Gaps – Diaphragms or cross-braces between girders are

___7__Cover plated beams and flange gussets – cracks usually form at the ends of the cover
__2___Stringer to floor beam (truss) brackets – Cracking occurs in the angles connecting floor
__0___Cantilever floor-beam brackets – These plates are laid horizontally and usually bolted or
the plate as shown.
__4___Web Connection Plates – horizontal plates welded to the girder web. Cracks usually
occur when plate intersects a transverse stiffener.
__3___Transverse Groove Welds – Groove welds to web of girders. Usually occur at the end of
__6___Web penetrations – When a member passes through the web of another. Cracking is
C-15
___5__Coped members – Cracks initiating from the fillet of the two re-entrant cuts. Cracking
___0__Tied arch floor beams – Separation of beam web and flange by rotation of beams.
__0___Continuous longitudinal welds – cracking occurs parallel to the longitudinal welds.

__8___Lamellar Tearing – Separation of layers of metal within a solid piece. Cracking is

usually found in highly restrained members or in cantilevers.
C-16
New Jersey
Attached please find our response to your survey. Should you need further information, please
contact Richard Dunne, Manager of Structural Engineering, at Richard.Dunne@dot.state.nj.us or
(609) 530-2557.
Thank you.
X. Hannah Cheng, Ph.D., P.E.

Bureau of Structural Engineering,
New Jersey Department of Transportation
1035 Parkway Ave., Trenton, NJ 08625
Phone (609) 530-2464
Fax (609) 530-5777
Xiaohua.Cheng@dot.state.nj.us
BEGIN NUMBERING NOW
_#2 (Yes)__Transverse Stiffener Web Gaps – Diaphragms or cross-braces between girders are
_0 (No) – Not yet anyway_Cover plated beams and flange gussets – cracks usually form at the
_0 (No)_ Stringer to floor beam (truss) brackets – Cracking occurs in the angles connecting
floor beams to other elements. Cracks can occur anywhere within the angle connector.
_0 (No)__Cantilever floor-beam brackets – These plates are laid horizontally and usually bolted
or riveted to the girders. They are also connected to the top of short beams that extend out from
the bridge to increase bridge width. Cracking can occur around tack welds, bolts, rivets, or
across the plate as shown.
C-17
_0 (No)__Web Connection Plates – horizontal plates welded to the girder web. Cracks usually
occur when plate intersects a transverse stiffener.
_#1 (Yes) – Our cracks occur in horizontal stiffener groove welds between sections of stiffeners
due to poor welds (lack of fusion) Transverse Groove Welds – Groove welds to web of girders.
Usually occur at the end of horizontal stiffeners or the end of haunch inserts.
_0 (No)__Web penetrations – When a member passes through the web of another. Cracking is
_#3 (Yes)__Coped members – Cracks initiating from the fillet of the two re-entrant cuts.
Cracking usually caused by small radius or no radius.
_0 (No)__Tied arch floor beams – Separation of beam web and flange by rotation of beams.
_0 (No) - should cracking be transverse?_ Continuous longitudinal welds – cracking occurs

parallel to the longitudinal welds. Cracking is usually caused by improper welding or too large
of welds. Commonly, these welds connect plates or other shapes along their length.
_0 (No)__Lamellar Tearing – Separation of layers of metal within a solid piece. Cracking is

C-18
Delaware
Adam,
You will find the Delaware Department of Transportation's rankings incorporated into the text
below.
-Doug Robb
-----Original Message-----
From: Finney Doug (DelDOT)
Sent: Monday, July 10, 2006 3:58 PM
To: Robb Douglass (DelDOT)
Subject: RE: Steel Fatigue Details Enumeration Research - small file size
Doug,
I ranked the details below. I can't think of any that are not on the list.
Doug
From: Robb Douglass (DelDOT)
Sent: Wednesday, July 05, 2006 1:15 PM
To: Finney Doug (DelDOT)
Subject: FW: Steel Fatigue Details Enumeration Research - small file
size
Doug,
Can you or anyone in your group provide any information to assist with this survey?
-Doug
Subject: Steel Fatigue Details Enumeration Research - small file size
C-19
Adam Lindberg
fill out the following survey. Your time is very much appreciated. If you would prefer to provide
information in a different format, please contact me at xxx-xxx-xxxx or lind0990@umn.edu
(preferred).
Thank you,
Adam Lindberg
Part 2: This section is more important than the first. Please provide any other details that have led
to (premature) fracture and which are not included in this list. Please provide any such details
even if they are no longer allowed by code or have been eliminated from your bridge inventory.
BEGIN NUMBERING NOW (Non-picture version - for any further explanations, please contact
Mr. Lindberg at lind0990@umn.edu)

C-20
__0___Web penetrations - When a member passes through the web of another.

Cracking is more common when backing bars are left in place. These details
are common in pier caps or box girders.
C-21
Texas
Attached is the Texas Department of Transportation's reply to the fatigue detail research. Part 2
ask for any other details that we might see that are not in the list. We have not seen any other
type of details that cause fractures in Texas.
If you have any other questions, please contact me.
Alan Kowalik
Bridge Inspection Branch Manager
Texas Department of Transportation
Bridge Division
125 East 11th Street
Austin Texas, 78701
Work Phone (512) 416-2208

Fax (512) 416-2402
akowali@dot.state.tx.us
BEGIN NUMBERING NOW

__0___Cover plated beams and flange gussets – cracks usually form at the ends of the cover
__4__Stringer to floor beam (truss) brackets – Cracking occurs in the angles connecting floor
__0__Cantilever floor-beam brackets – These plates are laid horizontally and usually bolted or
C-22
the plate as shown.
__0__Web Connection Plates – horizontal plates welded to the girder web. Cracks usually occur
_ 0__Transverse Groove Welds – Groove welds to web of girders. Usually occur at the end of
__2__Web penetrations – When a member passes through the web of another. Cracking is more
__3__Coped members – Cracks initiating from the fillet of the two re-entrant cuts. Cracking
__0__Tied arch floor beams – Separation of beam web and flange by rotation of beams.
__0_Continuous longitudinal welds – cracking occurs parallel to the longitudinal welds.

__0__Lamellar Tearing – Separation of layers of metal within a solid piece. Cracking is usually
C-23
Montana
Adam,
I am sorry it took me so long to get this to you.
<<FW Steel Fatigue Details.txt>>
Mike Murphy, P.E.

Bridge Management Engineer
Montana Department of Transportation
PO Box 201001
2701 Prospect
Helena, MT 59620-1001
406-444-6264
Fax 406-444-6155
From: Barnes, Kent
Sent: Thursday, June 22, 2006 1:38 PM
To: Murphy, Mike
Subject: FW: Steel Fatigue Details Enumeration Research - small file size
Follow Up Flag: Follow up

Flag Status: Red
Mike, is this something you can help with?
Thanks,
Kent
From: lind0990@umn.edu [mailto:lind0990@umn.edu]
Sent: Thursday, June 22, 2006 10:55 AM
Adam Lindberg
C-24
(preferred).
Thank you,
Adam Lindberg
BEGIN NUMBERING NOW (Non-picture version – for any further explanations, please contact
Mr. Lindberg at lind0990@umn.edu)

__1___Cover plated beams and flange gussets –Cover plates are plates attached to the underside
C-25
__3___Stringer to floor beam (truss) brackets – Cracking occurs in the angles connecting floor
__7___Cantilever floor-beam brackets – These plates are laid horizontally and usually bolted or
__2___Web Connection Plates – Horizontal plates welded to the girder web used for diaphragms
__6___Transverse Groove Welds – Groove welds on girder webs. Usually these

occur at the end of horizontal stiffeners, or welds connecting long sections of
horizontal stiffeners together, or the end of haunch inserts (The bottom flange
is cut out of the girder and replaced with a groove-welded, higher-depth
section to increase moment of inertia around supports).
__0___Web penetrations – When a member passes through the web of another. Cracking is more
girders.
__9___Coped members – Cracks initiating from the fillet of the two re-entrant cuts. Cracking
__0___Tied arch floor beams – Floor beams can exhibit separation of beam web and flange due
__4___Continuous longitudinal welds – Commonly, these long welds connect plates or other
__8___Lamellar Tearing – Separation of layers of metal within a solid piece. Cracking is usually
Thank you very much for your assistance. Your input will help advance theoverall understanding
of fatigue susceptible details. -Adam Lindberg
Part 2:
We have had some very serious cracks occur in welded plate girders, which initiated at the
intersection of or near intersection of fillet welds connecting longitudinal stiffeners and
transverse stiffeners. The cracks were sudden and explosive starting near the weld intersections
C-26
and heading up to very near the top flange and down and through a good portion (2/3’s) of the
bottom flange.
See a report entitled “Evaluation and Retrofit of Highway Bridges to Prevent Constraint-Induced
Fracture From Web Attachments” by William J. Wright , Turner-Fairbanks Highway Research
Center, and John W. Fisher, Robert Conner, Lehigh University ATLSS Center, to get a good
description of what we feel happened.
C-27
US Army Corps of Engineers – New England Division
Mr. Lindberg:
Your message was forwarded to me from North Atlantic Division, US Army Corps of Engineers.
I've filled out the survey form below.
John Kedzierski, P.E.

Sr. Structural Engineer/
Bridge Inspction Program Manager
New England District
US Army Corps of Engineers
978-318-8521
Adam Lindberg
(preferred).
C-28
Thank you,
Adam Lindberg
BEGIN NUMBERING NOW (Non-picture version - for any further explanations,

please contact Mr. Lindberg at lind0990@umn.edu)

C-29
girders.
Sorry, please see the attached documents
Thank you for your interest in furthering this study,
Adam Lindberg
C-30
Wyoming
On Aug 9 2006, Gregg Fredrick wrote:
> Please see the attachments, as a response from the Wyoming Department of
> Transportation.
>
> Let me know if you have any questions.
>
>
>
> Gregg C. Fredrick, P.E.
> State Bridge Engineer
> Wyoming Department of Transportation
>
>
>>>> <lind0990@umn.edu> 6/19/2006 12:53 PM >>>
> PLEASE FORWARD THIS MESSAGE TO THE INTENDED PARTY
>
> Attn: Director of Inspections, Department of Transportation
>
> Regarding: Steel Fatigue Details Research
>
> Adam Lindberg
> M.S. Bridge Fatigue Researcher
> University of Minnesota
> Civil Engineering Department
>
> Research is being performed at the University of Minnesota with the
> sponsorship of the Minnesota Department of Transportation (Mn/DOT) to
> assist in enumerating and ranking fatigue-susceptible details that may

> affect the performance of steel bridges. The goal of this research is
> to rank details with a history of cracking, so as to alert inspectors and
> facilitate budget estimations. By collecting a comprehensive list of
> details prone to fracture, a more precise evaluation will result, thus
> safety is not compromised for the sake of economy.
>
> If you are willing to assist the collection of these fatigue-susceptible
> steel bridge details, please fill out the attached document. Your time
> is very much appreciated. If you would prefer to provide information in a
> different format, please contact me at xxx-xxx-xxxx or lind0990@umn.edu
> (preferred).
>
> Thank you,
>
C-31
>
> Adam Lindberg
>
BEGIN NUMBERING NOW
1 Transverse Stiffener Web Gaps – Diaphragms or cross-braces between girders are connected
to plates which are welded to the girders. Prior to 1985 these plates were not welded to both
flanges of the girders; instead a gap was left anywhere from 0” (bearing) to 2” or more.
3 Cover plated beams and flange gussets – cracks usually form at the ends of the cover plates,
either in the cover plate, the weld, or the girder flange.
4 Stringer to floor beam (truss) brackets – Cracking occurs in the angles connecting floor beams
to other elements. Cracks can occur anywhere within the angle connector.
0 Cantilever floor-beam brackets – These plates are laid horizontally and usually bolted or
the plate as shown.
0 Web Connection Plates – horizontal plates welded to the girder web. Cracks usually occur
0 Transverse Groove Welds – Groove welds to web of girders. Usually occur at the end of
0 Web penetrations – When a member passes through the web of another. Cracking is more
2 Coped members – Cracks initiating from the fillet of the two re-entrant cuts. Cracking usually
caused by small radius or no radius.
0 Tied arch floor beams – Separation of beam web and flange by rotation of beams.
C-32
0 Continuous longitudinal welds – cracking occurs parallel to the longitudinal welds. Cracking
is usually caused by improper welding or too large of welds. Commonly, these welds connect
plates or other shapes along their length.
5 Lamellar Tearing – Separation of layers of metal within a solid piece. Cracking is usually
understanding of fatigue susceptible details.
-Adam Lindberg
Part 2:
Wyoming has experienced fatigue failures with two details not included in the survey. The
attached structural drawings include these details.
1) The first is the bracket detail at columns E and E’ as shown in the middle of the lower half of
drawing RG870-D. This bracket supports a floor beam above a steel arch. It is attached to the
steel arch by an angle section with a single row of bolts. Tension in the bracket due to movement
of the floor beam created a prying action on the angle-to-arch connection which ultimately
caused the angle to fracture through the single line of bolts.
2) The second is a dog-bone-shaped hanger as pictured in the suspended span details of Drawing
Number 2156. After some years in service, two of these hangers fractured across the width of the
member where the round portion transitions to the straight sided shaft. It is believed that the
geometrical transition of this member was abrupt enough to cause a stress concentration
sufficient to fail the hanger. These hangers were replaced with units having straight sides for full
length thereby eliminating the stress riser. The new hangers performed as required until the
bridge was replaced many years later.
C-33
C-34
California
My name is Rosme Aguilar and I am the Supervisor of the California Department of
Transportation (Caltrans) Fracture Critical Inspection Team. We are willing to assist with the
collection of data for your research and more importantly on getting a copy of you results. I
believe that the presentation of the information in the format shown in your survey is very useful
for the training of new inspectors and anybody associated with Fracture Critical Inspections. I
have seen a similar format on a report of a researched performed by The Welding Institute under
NCHRP project 12-27. I have a partial copy of this report (It is missing the first pages) and I
notice that some of your pictures are similar to the one presented in this report. Unfortunately,
we do not have statistics on the number of times we have found specific crack details. That is
one of the project I have in my to do list. I have been thinking about that for some time but have
not have the manpower to do it. If it is of any use to you, we can provide you with a list the
cracked fatigue-susceptible details we have found but I cannot give you exact numbers. Please
let me know if this is OK and when do you need it. Thanks.
Barton Newton
To: michael.b.johnson@dot.ca.gov@DOT, Rosme Aguilar/HQ/Caltrans/CAGov@DOT

06/19/2006 12:19 cc: PM
Subject: Fw: Steel Fatigue Details Enumeration Research
Forwarded by Barton Newton/HQ/Caltrans/CAGov on 06/19/2006 12:18 PM
Mr. Lindberg,
Sorry for taking so long. Attached is our response to your survey.
(See attached file: Steel Fatigue Details Research.doc)
Rosme Aguilar
(916) 227-0719 Office
(916) 799-2954 Cell
C-35
BEGIN NUMBERING NOW
__Most common_ Transverse Stiffener Web Gaps – Diaphragms or cross-braces between girders
are connected to plates which are welded to the girders. Prior to 1985 these plates were not
welded to both flanges of the girders; instead a gap was left anywhere from 0” (bearing) to 2” or
more. Cracking can occur in any number of elements in this area.
_Some cases___ Cover plated beams and flange gussets – cracks usually form at the ends of the
cover plates, either in the cover plate, the weld, or the girder flange.
__Some cases___ Stringer to floor beam (truss) brackets – Cracking occurs in the angles
connecting floor beams to other elements. Cracks can occur anywhere within the angle
connector.
_Few cases____ Cantilever floor-beam brackets – These plates are laid horizontally and usually
bolted or riveted to the girders. They are also connected to the top of short beams that extend out
from the bridge to increase bridge width. Cracking can occur around tack welds, bolts, rivets, or
across the plate as shown.
__Few cases___ Web Connection Plates – horizontal plates welded to the girder web. Cracks
usually occur when plate intersects a transverse stiffener.
___No__ Transverse Groove Welds – Groove welds to web of girders. Usually occur at the end
of horizontal stiffeners or the end of haunch inserts.
Have had cracking from flame cut holes (Very common) Web penetrations – When a member
passes through the web of another. Cracking is more common when backing bars are left in
place. These details are common in pier caps.
__Some cases___ Coped members – Cracks initiating from the fillet of the two re-entrant cuts.
Cracking usually caused by small radius or no radius.
__Some cases___Tied arch floor beams – Separation of beam web and flange by rotation of
beams.
__No___ Continuous longitudinal welds – cracking occurs parallel to the longitudinal welds.
_No____ Lamellar Tearing – Separation of layers of metal within a solid piece. Cracking is
C-36
Arkansas
C-37
C-38
C-39
C-40
C-41
C-42

MinDOT Fatigue Detail Classification of Steel Bridges

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MinDOT Fatigue Detail Classification of Steel Bridges

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2007-22

Incorporation of Fatigue Detail Classification

7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.

17. Document Analysis/Descriptors 18. Availability Statement

Department of Civil Engineering

CHAPTER 1– INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................1

CHAPTER 2 – FATIGUE BACKGROUND ..............................................................................5

CHAPTER 3 – FRACTURE BACKGROUND ........................................................................47

CHAPTER 4 – VARIATIONS OF COMMON DETAILS......................................................53

CHAPTER 5 – DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION HISTORY................................59

CHAPTER 6 – CODE CHANGE TIMELINE .........................................................................77

CHAPTER 7 – DETAIL CLASSIFICATION ..........................................................................92

CHAPTER 8 – RANKING PROGRAM .................................................................................100

APPENDIX A: Steel Designations and Years in Use

APPENDIX B: Calculations for Web Gap Stresses

APPENDIX C: Survey Replies

Table 2.1 AASHTO S-N categories for common details................................................................ 9

1. Identification of details with susceptibility to fracture and fatigue

1.2 Chapter Summaries

Geometric restrictions proposed in this research enabled subsequent bridges to be constructed

2.1 Identification of Details

2.1.1 AASHTO S-N Categories

Determination of which details to examine and which to ignore is an imperative portion of

2.1.2 Distortional Fatigue Introduction

2.1.3 Case Studies

2.1.3.1 Transverse Stiffener Web Gap

2.1.3.3 Partial Length Cover Plate

2.1.3.4 Shelf Plate Welded to Girder Web

2.1.3.5 Stringer or Truss Floor-beam Bracket

2.1.3.6 Welded Horizontal Stiffener

2.1.3.7 Haunch Insert

2.1.3.8 Web Penetration

Box Girder Web

Box Girder Flange

2.1.3.9 Cantilever Floor-beam Bracket

2.1.3.10 Tied Arch Floor-beam

2.1.3.11 Continuous Longitudinal Weld: Box Girder Corner

2.1.3.12 Cantilever: Lamellar Tear

2.2 NCHRP Report 299 – Fatigue Life Evaluation Procedure

Total moment range, ΔM

For straight longitudinal beams, girders, or stringers: ΔM new = ΔM ⋅ DF

More than 2 members

Remaining fatigue life, Yf

Detail Detail Limiting Stress

Cycles per truck passage, C

Lifetime Average Daily Truck Volume

Table 2.14 FL Values (Moses et al., 1987)

Y f = remaining fatigue life in years

Double time period approximation method

Y p = present age in years

2.3 University of Minnesota Distortional Stress Estimation Procedure

Figure 2.24 Distortional fatigue geometry (Jajich, 2000)

3Et w ⎡ 3Et w ⎤ ⎡ hΔgirders ⎤

Table 2.15 Skew constants (Berglund, 2002)

Equation 2.8 Rd = 0.0013 ⋅ L + 0.7378

3.1 Standard Fracture Practice Reevaluation

3.2 Welding Fracture Problems

3.3 Case Studies

3.3.1 Plug-welded Misplaced Hole

3.3.2 Eyebar and Pin Plate