ETB 4473 Building Services and management

Chapter 4: Drainage above ground- disposal installation pipework

1. Introduction to “Above ground- disposal installation pipework”

• Above ground discharge systems (AGDS) are essential to ensure that the ability to keep indoor
environments clean and hygienic.
• This includes,
 Sanitary systems and appliances
 Sanitary pipework and fittings, and the various appliances on the market, and how to
install them
 How to test and maintain systems
 Rain water drainage – that is guttering and fall pipe systems
 De-commissioning systems

2. Sanitary Systems and Appliances

• WCs and cisterns styles are:
 Close coupled
 Wall-mounted
 Back to the wall
 Low-level
 High-level

2.1. WCs and cisterns, WC pan classifications:

 Washdown Water Closets
− Economic, simple and efficient
− Rarely becomes blocked and can be used in
all types of buildings with color variations
to suit internal decor

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 − Outlet may be horizontal, `p', `S', left- or right-handed (horizontal outlet pans are now
standard, with push-fit adaptors to convert
the pan to whatever configuration is
required).

 Siphonic Water Closets

− Quieter in operation than washdown WCs and they require less flush action to effect
an efficient discharge.
− Unsuitable for schools, factories and public buildings as they are more readily
blocked if not used carefully.
− Double-trap type may be found in house and hotel bathrooms.
− Single trap variant is simpler and has limited application to domestic bathrooms.

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2.2. Water WC Traps:
1. Washdown
• The wash down pan uses the force of the water from the
cistern to clear the bowl.

2. Siphonic Single Trap

• The principle of the siphonic pan is to create a negative pressure
below the trap seal.
• With the single trap pan, this is done by restricting the flow from
the cistern and is achieved by the design of the pan.

3. Siphonic Double Trap (Closed coupled)

• The double trap close coupled pan uses a pressure reducing
device between the cistern and the pan.
• As the water is released into the second trap, it has the effect
of drawing air from the void between the two traps, and
siphons the contents from the bowl.

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2.3. Flushing Cisterns
Bell type
 This form of flushing cistern is now virtually
obsolete, although some reproductions are
available for use in keeping with the
refurbishment of historic premises.
 Still be found in use in old factories, schools
and similar established buildings.
 Activated by the chain being pulled which also
lifts the bell.
 As the chain is released the bell falls to displace
water down the stand pipe, effecting a siphon
which empties the cistern.
 The whole process is relatively noisy.
Disc type
 Manufactured in a variety of materials including plastics and ceramics for application to all
categories of building.
 Depressing the lever raises the piston and water is displaced over the siphon.
 A siphonic action is created to empty the cistern.
 Some cisterns incorporate an economy or
dual-flush siphon.
 When the lever is depressed and released
promptly, air passing through the vent pipe
breaks the siphonic action to give a 4.5-litre
flush. When the lever is held down a 7.5-litre
flush is obtained.
 Since 2001 the maximum permitted single
flush to a WC pan is 6 litres.

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Automatic Flushing Cisterns
Roger field's flushing cistern
 Has application to children's lavatories and
other situations where the users are unable to
operate a manual flush device.
 As the cistern fills, air in the stand pipe is
gradually compressed.
 When the head of water `h' is slightly above
the head of water `h', water in the trap is
forced out.
 Siphonic action is established and the cistern
flushes the WC until air enters under the
dome to break the siphon.

Smaller urinal flush cistern

 Water rises inside the cistern until it reaches
an air hole.
 Air inside the dome is trapped and
compressed as the water rises.
 When water rises above the dome,
compressed air forces water out of the `U'
tube.
 This lowers the air pressure in the stand pipe,
creating a siphon to empty the cistern.
 Water in the reserve chamber is siphoned
through the siphon tube to the lower well.

2.4. Flushing Valves

• More compact alternative to flushing cisterns, often used in marine applications, but may only
be used in buildings with approval of the local water authority.
• The device is a large equilibrium valve that can be flushed at any time without delay, provided
there is a constant source of water from a storage cistern.
• When the flushing handle is operated, the release valve is tilted and water is displaced from
the upper chamber.
• The greater force of water under piston `a' lifts valve `B' from its seating and water flows
through the outlet.

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 • Water flows through the bypass and refills the upper chamber to cancel out the upward force
acting under piston `a'. Valve `B' closes under its own weight.

2.5. Showers

• More economical to use than a bath as it takes less hot water (about 1⁄3), it is arguably more
hygienic and it takes up less space.
• A minimum 1 m head of water should be allowed above the shower outlet. If this is impractical,
a pumped delivery could be considered.
• The shower outlet (rose) should also be at least 2 m above the floor of the shower tray.

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2.6. Urinals
• These are used in virtually all buildings and public lavatories containing common facilities for
male conveniences.
• They reduce the need for a large number of WCs.
Stall Type
Contains curved stalls, dividing pieces and low-level channel.
Bowl Type
Secured to the wall and provided with division pieces where more than one is installed.
Slab Type
Fixed against the wall with projecting return end slabs and a low-level channel.

• Urinals are washed at intervals of 20 minutes by means of an automatic flushing cistern

discharging 4„5 litres of water per bowl of 610 mm of slab/stall width.
• The water supply to the cistern should be isolated by a motorised valve on a time control, to
shut off when the building is not occupied.
• A hydraulically operated inlet valve to the automatic flushing cistern can be fitted. this closes
when the building is unoccupied and other fittings not used.
• Urinals usually have automatically operated flushing mechanisms.
• However, manual operation is also acceptable by use of:
 flushing cistern.
 flushing valve.
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  wash basin tap and hydraulic valve (combination of manual and automatic).

Function of the Hydraulic Valve:

• Under normal static supply conditions, the hydraulic valve contains an equilibrium of water
pressure and remains stable in a closed position.
• The equilibrium is disturbed when a basin tap connected to the same water supply is opened.
• A WC flush will also have the same effect where similarly connected.
• The pressure impulse causes a diaphragm within the valve to fluctuate.
• This moves a valve from its seating to allow a regulated flow of water to discharge into an
automatic flushing cistern.
• After several repeated uses of a basin tap and/or WC, sufficient water will have discharged for
the automatic flushing cistern to function.

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2.7. Baths
• Baths are manufactured in acrylic sheet, reinforced glass fibre, enamelled pressed steel and
enamelled cast iron.
• The acrylic sheet bath has the advantage of light weight to ease installation, it is comparatively
inexpensive and is available in a wide range of colors.
• A Sitz bath is stepped to form a seat. It has particular application to nursing homes and hospitals
for use with the elderly and infirm.

2.8. Sinks
• Sinks are designed for culinary and other domestic uses.
• They may be made from glazed fireclay, enamelled cast iron or steel, stainless steel or from
glass fibre-reinforced polyester.

Stainless Steel Sinks:

− Stainless steel sinks may have single or double bowls, with left- or right-hand drainers or
double drainers.

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 − These can be built into a work surface or be provided as a sink unit with cupboards under.
Belfast Sinks:
− Belfast sink has an integral weir overflow and water may pass through this to the waste pipe
via a slotted waste fitting.
− It may have a hardwood or dense plastic draining board fitted at one end only or a draining
board fitted at each end.
− Alternatively, the sink may be provided with a fluted drainer of fireclay.
London Sinks:
− The london sink has similar features to Belfast sinks, but it does not have an integral
overflow.
− In recent years sinks of this type have lost favour to surface built-in metal and plastic
materials, but there is now something of a resurgence of interest in these traditional fittings.

2.9. Wash Basins

• There are various types of basin, ranging in size and function from hand rinsing to surgical
use.
• A standard basin for domestic application to bathrooms and cloakrooms consists of a bowl,
soap tray, weir overflow and holes for taps and outlet.

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2.10. Washing Troughs
• Washing troughs are manufactured
circular or rectangular on plan in ceramic
materials or stainless steel.
• They are an economical and space-
saving alternative to a range of basins,
for use in factory, school and public
lavatories.

3. Design criterion for above ground discharge systems

• The capacity of the appliances served by the installation and the frequency with which they are
used are of paramount importance. Certain appliances cause a large discharge and this tends
to be reflected in the diameter of disposal pipe to which they are connected.
• Thus, the diameter of the common pipes (stacks) is of particular concern to the designer as
allowance must be made for the cumulative effect of all the discharges to be carried.
• To aid the selection of the correct stack diameter, a theoretical weighting of Discharge Unit
Values has been developed. This weighting system reflects the appliance discharge capacity
and the likely frequency of use.

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4. Pipe Classification in Sanitary Appliances
• Waste pipes- conveying water-bound discharges from sinks, baths, showers, washbasins and
bidets
• Soil pipes - conveying human discharges from WCs or urinals

5. Flow Pattern and Air Pressure Fluctuations

• The way of discharges move in these pipes, the pattern of flow may be readily visualised in
near horizontal pipes, but, the flow pattern within vertical pipes is considerably different.
• At a certain capacity of flow, both pipes of course could be filled and, in such a situation,
compression of the air in front of the flow would be the result.
• Even below full capacity, the bore of the pipe may be momentarily filled by the creation of
either a 'jump' or a 'plug' formation.

6. Traps
• Foul air from the drain and sewer is prevented from penetrating buildings by applying a water
trap to all sanitary appliances.
• A water seal trap is an integral part of gullies and WCs, being moulded in during manufacture.
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• Smaller fittings (i.e. sinks, basins, etc.), must be fitted with a trap.
Depth of water seal
WCs and gullies 50 mm (less than smaller fittings as these are unlikely to lose
their seal due to the volume of water retained).
Sanitary appliances other than 75 mm, where the branch pipe connects directly to a discharge
WCs with waste pipes of 50 stack. However, because of the slow run-off, seal depth may be
mm nominal diameter or less reduced to 50 mm for baths and shower trays.
Sinks, baths and showers 38 mm, where appliance waste pipes discharge over a trapped
gully.

Tubular swivel traps

• Often used on sinks with multiple bowls because of their multi-positions,
which provide a number of options when connecting to pipework.
• Also particularly useful on appliance replacement jobs as they give more
options when connecting to an existing waste pipe without using extra
fittings or altering the pipework.

Bottle traps
• Often used because of their neat appearance.
• Easier to install in small areas such as behind a wash basin.
• Should be avoided on sink as they are prone to cause food blockage.

“P”- traps
• Often used where the waste pipe is installed directly through a wall
from the appliance and into a drain or directly into a stack.
“S”- traps
• Used where the pipe has to go vertically from the trap through a floor or
into another horizontal waste pipe from another appliance.
• ‘P’ traps (and bottle traps) can be converted to ‘S’ traps using swivel
elbows.
Hepworth discharge pipe valve
• Works on the simple principle of using an internal
plastic membrane.

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 • The membrane allows water to flow through it when the water is released, then closes to
prevent foul air from entering the building.
• It is ideal for fitting behind pedestals and under baths and showers, and is supplied with a range
of adaptors, so it can be used in various situations.

Low-level bath traps, bath traps and shower

• Can fit in tight spaces under baths and shower trays.

Straight through or wash basin trap

• Used as an alternative to an ‘S’ trap where space is limited.
• They are also easier to hide behind pedestal basins.
• The main problem with this design is the two tight bends which slow
down the flow of water.

Running traps
• Used in public toilets or schools where one running trap is used for
a range of untrapped wash basins.
• On domestic installations it could be used in cases where a ‘P’ or
‘S’ strap arrangement is not possible or is difficult to achieve due
to limitation of space or an obstruction.
• Running traps are sometimes used with a washing machine waste outlet or dishwashers,
although specialist traps are also available for these appliances.
Resealing and anti-siphon traps
• If an above ground discharge system is designed and installed
correctly, the loss of trap seal should be prevented.
• However, these traps are designed to prevent seal loss due to the effects
of siphonage.
• These types of traps could be specified or fitted in situations where
normal installation requirements cannot be met.
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7. Loss of Trap Water Seal
• The most obvious cause of water seal loss is leakage due to defective fittings or poor
workmanship.
• Otherwise, it may be caused by poor system design and/or installation.
• The most obvious cause of water seal loss is leakage due to defective fittings or poor
workmanship.
• Otherwise, it may be caused by poor system design and/or installation.
• Main causes for the trap failures are,
 Self-siphonage
 Induced siphonage
 Back pressure
 Capillary action
 Waving out
Self-siphonage
• As the water discharges, a plug of water is formed.
• This creates a partial vacuum (negative pressure) in the
pipe between the water plug and the basin, which is
enough to siphon the water out of the trap.
• Prevention methods:
 by ensuring that the length of waste pipe is
within the regulations for single stack
installations, or
 whether the waste pipe is ventilated, or
 use of resealing traps
• Self-siphonage is most common in wash basins as its shape allows water to escape quickly.

Induced siphonage
• This is caused by the discharge of water from an appliance which is connected to the same waste
pipe as other appliances.
• As the water plug flows past the joints of the second
appliance, a negative pressure is created between the
pipe and appliance which siphons the water out of the
trap.
• This arrangement is not acceptable on a primary
ventilated stack, unless the final branch pipe is a size
bigger than the largest diameter waste pipe from the
appliance, e.g. basin into bath waste, the bath waste
would need to be 50 mm.

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Back pressure
• Compression occurs due to resistance to flow at the
base of a stack.
• The positive pressure displaces water in the lowest trap.
• Causes are a too small radius bottom bend, an
undersized stack or the lowest branch fitting too close
to the base of the stack.

Capillary action
• Water is drawn along the strands of the cloth due to capillary
action.

Waving out
• Gusts of wind blowing over the top of the stack can
cause a partial vacuum to disturb water seals.

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