Cartography:Introduction

Everyone is a map maker! We sketch maps on a piece of paper to show how to get to our
house, we download maps from the Web and annotate them, we sometimes take a pen or
pencil and make a more formal map of a route or a place. Artists make maps for books or
magazines and use maps symbolically in their work. It is a mark of the major changes in
the field that now almost anyone can make a professional-looking map on the computer.
We create maps of data from some spreadsheet pro-grams. Illustration programs allow for
more elegant maps to our house than the pencil sketch. Mapping programs and geographic
information systems are increasingly affordable and available to the general public. Of
course, there are also professionals who have been trained in mapmaking and make their
living creating maps.

Cartography, GIS, Visualization, and Mapmaking

Cartography has been defined by the International Cartographic Association as “the art,
science and technology of making maps, together with their study as scientific documents
and works of art.” It has also been defined as “the production—including design,
compilation, construction, projection, reproduction, use, and distribution—of maps”.

Geographic cartography is a distinct branch of cartography; the geographic cartographer

understands the spatial perspective of the physical environment and has the skills to
abstract and symbolize this environment. The cartographer also has understanding of areal
relationships and has a thorough knowledge of the importance of scale to the final
presentation of spatial data.

GIS stands for geographic information systems: A computer-based system for

collecting, managing, analyzing, modeling, and presenting geographic data for a wide
range of applications. Geo-graphic information science, then, is the discipline that studies
and uses a GIS as a tool. GIS is not simply creating maps with a computer. The technology
is a very powerful tool for analyzing spatial data; while maps can be and are produced with
GIS, their main power is analytical. GI scientists do not consider themselves primarily as
mapmakers. Although they may produce maps as an end product, their primary emphasis
is on analysis of the data.

Mapmaking is a generic term that refers to creating maps by any method whether
manually or by computer regardless of purpose or scale. It refers to all of the processes of
producing a map, whether the person is collecting data, performing the design of the map,
or preparing the map for distribution in hardcopy or for the Web.

Visualization or geovisualization can be defined as “the representation of data in a

viewable medium or format.” Commonly, definitions of visualization include reference to
computer technologies and interactive maps. One model that explains visualization and
communication is the “cartography cubed diagram,” that describes visualization as private,
interactive, and revealing unknowns, while communication is public, non-interactive, and
revealing knowns. Although these models are generally considered the best explanations of
visualization, presentations of animated maps and “flythroughs” are often described as
visualizations. In this course we will be concerned with both the private visualizations that
occur at the planning stage and the public communication or presentation that occurs when
the map is published or put online.

The “cartography cubed” model.

What Is a Map?

A map is a graphic representation of include all aspects of the cultural and physical
environment. Maps are either tangible (also called “real”) or virtual in nature. Printed
maps, such as maps in books, hard-copy atlas maps, the large maps at the front of many
class-rooms, or the map that you just printed, all have a physical reality and are tangible
maps. A virtual map is a map that is viewable but is without a physical or tangible reality,
such as a map that is displayed on a computer monitor display or as a projected graphic in
a lecturer’s Power Point presentation; virtual map has come to mean most impermanent,
non-print maps that appear on a display.

There are also mental maps, generally described as mental images that have spatial
attributes. Mental maps are developed in our minds over time by the accumulation of many
sensory inputs, including tangible or virtual maps.
Kinds of Maps
Since maps can represent anything that has a spatial component, there are hundreds of
possible map types; however, these can be grouped into a few categories. One
categorization is based on map function. These functional categories are general-purpose
maps, special-purpose maps, and thematic maps. As is common, there is not complete
agreement among cartographers about these terms or categories.

General-purpose maps, or reference maps, as the name suggests, do not emphasize one
type of feature over another. Such maps customarily display objects (both natural and man-
made) from the geographical environment. The emphasis is on location, and the purpose is
to show a variety of features of the world or a portion of it. They show a variety of
geographic phenomena (political boundaries, transportation lines, cities, rivers, etc.) and
present a general picture of an area. They are used for reference, planning, and location.
Commonly, the state or regional maps in an atlas are of this type, and topographic maps
are often placed in this category.

Special-purpose maps are created for a very specific type of user. Geologic, soil, and
cadastral maps are included here. Such maps are usually large scale (showing a small area
and much detail), and the user is usually familiar with the subject, if not the area.
Navigation maps, which include all types of maps created for route finding, such as
aeronautical charts, nautical charts, and road maps, are often included under the special-
purpose maps.

Thematic maps have been called a variety of names (special subject, statistical,
distribution, and data maps), but the term “thematic” is now generally accepted. Thematic
maps normally feature only a single distribution or relationship, and any other information
shown (base data) serves as a spatial background or framework to help locate the
distribution being mapped. Thematic maps may be either qualitative or quantitative. That
is, they show some characteristic or property, such as land use, or show numerical data,
such as temperatures, rainfall, or population.
Thematic maps may be subdivided into two groups, qualitative and quantitative. The
principal purpose of a qualitative thematic map is to show the spatial distribution or
location of single theme of nominal data. These types of thematic maps do not show any
quantities at all but rather purely qualitative information, and are usually rather generalized
in its record. Maps of geology, soil types, and land use/land cover maps are all common
types of qualitative maps
Quantitative thematic maps, on the other hand, display the spatial aspects of numerical
data. In most instances a single variable, such as corn, people, or income, is chosen and the
map focuses on the variation of the feature from place to place. Quantitative mapping
functions to show how much or to what degree something is present in the mapped area.

Common Quantitative Thematic Map Forms:

Quantitative thematic maps often take one of several common forms. The choropleth map
is a common map type for mapping data collected in enumeration units. Each unit, such as
a county, state, country, province, is shaded according to a variable or attribute, such as
population density

Dot maps attempt to show variations in spatial density. These maps have a relatively
simple rationale: that one dot represents so many units of some commodity, such as wheat
Proportional symbol maps have symbols (usually circles) that are scaled to values at
points. The point may be an actual point feature such as a city, or the point may also be
derived from an area unit, such as the center of a state
Isarithmic maps attempt to map 3-D continuous volumes, such as eleva-tion, temperature,
or precipitation. Isarithms (also isolines) connect points or places of equal value
In the Value-by Area Cartogram, the enumeration units’ area values are replaced by the
variable being represented, often creating a very striking appearance

Flow maps show linear movement between places. The lines’ thickness and/or color
indicate the magnitude of the flow or movement
Purpose of Thematic Maps
Thematic maps can be made to represent almost any phenomenon, visible or invisible.
They can show actual features on the earth, such as rivers, mountains, and roads;
conceptual features, such as the earth’s grid or county boundaries; and ideas and beliefs,
such as locational preference or political ideologies.

Whatever the topic, a thematic map is made for one of three broad purposes:
(1) to provide information on what and perhaps how much of something is present in
different places, that is, data storage; or
(2) to map the characteristics of a geographic phenomenon to reveal its spatial order and
organization, that is, visualization; or
(3) to present findings to an audience, that is, communication.

Data storage is a map function that has long been recognized, although the term is recent.
On early maps, the data stored were usually locational. Positions of islands, routes, or
records of boundaries for the tax collector are examples of this type of early data storage.
Maps still perform this function, but the kinds of data stored have expanded and sometimes
the method of storage has changed. For example, boundary lines may be recorded and
stored in digital form and printed on demand.
Maps are, by their very nature, spatial representations. That is, they show positions in
space. They are uniquely suited therefore to portray features of the earth’s surface (for
terrestrial maps) or to show the spatial relationships of features to one another. No other
device can do this as well as a map. Text, tables, and even graphs do not possess the spatial
component and do not allow readers to see distributional patterns.
Because of their ability to show spatial relationships, maps are used as analytical and
explanatory tools. Some geographic patterns cannot be recognized until they are presented
in map form; therefore, maps are often made to aid a researcher in identifying or
correlating distribution patterns, that is, visualizing data.
Finally, maps are used to present or communicate information to an audience, which
might be readers of a report, students studying a textbook, a shopper looking at a “you are
here” map of a mall, or a hiker checking a route at a trail head.
Limitations of Maps
In spite of their usefulness, maps have limitations. Many map readers are not aware of
these limits (and the appearance of some published maps shows that not even all
mapmakers are aware of these limitations). Part of the problem is that people often assume
that a map shows everything, like a photograph. A photograph taken from the air from
low-flying aircraft shows whatever is in view: houses, streets, cars, the family dog, and
even laundry drying in the backyard.
Maps are not photographs. This seems an obvious, even simplistic, statement, but the
distinction is important. Photographs are not selective except through the inherent selection
of resolution, that is, the size of objects large enough to be seen. This varies with the
height of the aircraft or satellite and the capabilities of its sensor. Maps are graphic
representations, which by their very nature are selective and symbolic, that is, generalized.
Maps do not show every bit of available information. To do so would clutter the map with
information that isn’t relevant to the theme or topic of the map. It would obscure the
message. Symbols substitute for images of objects.
While selection is vital, it also acts as a major limiting factor on maps. Although some
“missing” facts may be inferred from other information, normally one cannot read into a
map information that is not shown. For example, one cannot determine the exact nature of
terrain from a map that shows the pattern and amounts of rain-fall, although some educated
guesses can be made.
Selection also involves bias. The decision of what to include on a map depends on
many objective factors, but also on subjective factors, such as what the cartographer, the
mapping agency, or the client want to show and emphasize. All maps are biased to some
extent. This does not mean they are therefore evil or incorrect, but one should be aware of
this fact when using or making a map.

Aerial photographs are not selective.

 Maps are generalized and symbolic.

A second limitation is imposed by scale. In part, maps are selective because of scale
considerations. Maps are drawn smaller than reality, and in this process of scaling down,
some detail are necessarily lost. The greater the reduction from actual size, the more
generalized the information becomes.
A third limiting factor results from the inescapable fact that the earth is spherical and
maps are flat. It is not possible to transform the spherical shape of the earth onto a flat map
without some distortion somewhere on the map. However, it is possible to minimize
distortion or to confine it to a part of the map away from the area of primary interest. The
process of transforming the earth’s grid to a plane is called projection.
Finally, as we have seen, maps are limited to showing spatial relationships and
characteristics such as distance, direction, position, angle, and area. Maps cannot
effectively illustrate ideas and concepts that lack a spatial component. Sometimes a word is
worth a thousand pictures. The mapmaker must decide whether a map is the most
appropriate medium for communicating an idea.
The mapmaker has a responsibility to the map user to create a map that minimizes the
map’s limitation or uses them to enhance communication.
The cartographic process

Going from unmapped data to map form is sometimes referred to as the cartographic process;
the transformation of unmapped data into map form involving symbolization and map reading
activities where map users gain information

Cartographic process

Map reading tasks

CARTOGRAPHIC ABSTRACTION AND GENERALIZATION

Cartographic abstraction is that part of the mapping activity wherein the map author or
cartographer transforms unmapped data into map form and selects and organizes the
information necessary to develop the user’s understanding of the concepts.
Selection, classification, simplification, and symbolization are each part of cartographic
abstraction and are generalizing operations. Each results in a reduction of the amount of
specific detail carried on the map, yet the end result presents the map reader with enough
information to grasp the conceptual meaning of the map.
Generalization takes place in the context of designing a map to meet user needs. The
generalization processes lead to simple visual images, which are more apt to remain in the
map user’s memory. Unless simplicity is achieved, the map will likely be cluttered with
unnecessary detail. Appropriate generalization will result in a spatial message that is
efficiently structured for the reader. On the other hand, excessive generalization may cause
map images to contain so little useful information that there is no transfer of knowledge. A
balance must be struck by the cartographer.

Selection
The selection process in the generalization operation of cartographic design begins the
mapmaking activity. Selection involves early decisions regarding the geographic space to
be mapped, map scale, map projection and aspect, which data variables are appropriate for
the map’s purpose, and any data gathering or sampling methods that must be employed.
Selection is critical and may involve working very closely with the map author or map
client. The selection activity requires the cartographer to be familiar with the map’s
content, especially the nature of the data being used in the mapping process.

Classification
A process in which objects are placed in groups having identical or similar features. The
individuality and detail of each element is lost. Information is conveyed through
identification of the boundaries of the group. Classification reduces the complexity of the
map image, helps to organize the mapped information, and thus enhances communication.
In thematic mapping, classification can be carried out with qualitative or quantitative
information. Qualitative data might include the identification of geographical regions; for
example, the wheat belt or corn belt. It may be far simpler to communicate the concept of
region by one large area than to show individual elements. Quantitative classification is
normally in numerical data applications. Generally, an entire data array is divided into
numerical classes, and each value is placed in its proper class. Only class boundaries are
shown on the map. This process reduces overall information but usually results in a map
that is more meaningful.

Simplification
Selection and classification are examples of simplification, but simplification may take
other forms as well. An example might be the smoothing of natural or man-made lines on
the map to eliminate unnecessary detail. In the selection process, the cartographer may
choose to include in the map’s base material a road classed as all-weather. Simplification
would be the process in which its path is straightened between two points so that it no
longer retains exact planimetric location (even though this might be possible at the given
scale). It can be straightened because the purpose of this map is simply to show
connectivity between two points, not to illustrate the road’s precise locational features.
Symbolization
Perhaps the most complex of the mapping abstractions is symbolization. Developing a map
requires symbolization, because it is not possible to create a reduced image of the real
world without devising a set of marks (symbols) that stand for real-world things.
Two major classes of symbols are used for thematic maps: replicative and abstract.
Replicative symbols are those that are designed to look like their real-world counterparts;
they are used to stand only for tangible objects. Coastlines, trees, railroads, houses, and
cars are examples. Base-map symbols are usually replicative in nature, whereas thematic-
overlay symbols may be either replicative or abstract. Abstract symbols generally take the
form of geometric shapes, such as circles, squares, and triangles. They are traditionally
used to represent amounts that vary from place to place; they can represent anything and
require sophistication of the map user. A detailed legend is required.

By its very nature, the symbolization process is a generalizing activity shaped by the
influence of scale. At smaller scales, it is virtually impossible to represent geographical
features at true-to-scale likeness. Distortions are necessary. For example, rivers on base
maps are widened, and cities that have irregular boundaries in reality are represented by
squares or dots.

Ethics in Cartography
Ethical questions regarding mapmaking are of increasing concern to professional
cartographers. Several “codes of ethics” for the thematic cartographers, having been
proposed including;
 Always have a straightforward agenda, and have a de-fining purpose or goal for
each map.
 Always strive to know your audience (the map reader).
 Do not intentionally lie with data.
 Always show all relevant data whenever possible
 Data should not be discarded simply because they are contrary to the position
held by the cartographer.
 At a given scale, strive for an accurate portrayal of the data.
 The cartographer should avoid plagiarizing; report all data sources.
 Symbolization should not be selected to bias the interpretation of the map.
 The mapped result should be able to be repeated by other cartographers.
 Attention should be given to differing cultural values and principles.
The Mapping Process
The mapping process is not linear, but at times two or more processes are going on at once.
Creating a map can be compared to writing a paper, a thesis, or a book. The stages fall into
four categories: planning, analysis, presentation, and production/ reproduction.
In the planning phase, the cartographer must have a clear idea of the purpose and
topic of the map, where it will be presented, and for whom it is designed. This will govern
the type of data collected. Analysis involves collecting, synthesizing, and analyzing the
data. Data may be gathered in the field, from statistical sources, from other maps, from
imagery, or online. Any combination of these data sources may be used. The data are
analyzed and symbolized using statistical tools, which may be built into a GIS. For
presentation, the elements of title, legend, scale, orientation, text, and illustrations are
organized into a layout. At this stage, the mapmaker must know where and how the map
will be viewed or produced—computer monitor, printed paper map, Internet.
After the map is created, but before production/ reproduction, one should critique and
edit the map. Are there errors of fact or errors in spelling? Do the symbols, colors, and
lines work? Finally, the map is “published.” This could be as simple as printing from the
computer, or posting on the Web, or the map can be sent to a printer and publisher for
distribution in thousands of copies.

The mapping process.

What Is Map Design and Why Does It Matter?
Map design has two meanings: layout of design elements and planning the map. Layout
involves decisions such as “Where should I place the title, where should the legend and
scale go?”; in art, this is called composition. Design in the sense of planning begins before
a single line is drawn and includes deciding what information will be included and
choosing a projection, the scale, and the type of symbols. It is at the heart of the map
creation process.

Goals of Design
Clarity
A map that is not clear is worthless. Clarity involves examining the objectives of the map,
emphasizing the important points, and eliminating anything that does not enhance the map
message. E.g. putting the names of every river on a population map simply clutters the
map and makes the thematic information hard to read

A map with too much “clutter” is unclear. The rivers, freeways, and airport do not add to
the map topic, and, in fact, obscure it.

Order
Order refers to the logic of the map. Is there visual clutter or confusion? Are the various
elements placed logically? Is the reader’s eye led through the map appropriately? Since the
map is a synoptic, not a serial, communication, cartographers cannot assume that readers
will look first at the title, then at the legend, and so on.

Balance
Every element of the map has visual weight. These weights should be distributed evenly
about the optical center of the page, which is a point slightly above the actual center, or the
map will appear to be weighted to one side or unstable.
Visual weights vary as follows:
 Centrally located elements have less weight than those to one side.
 Objects in the upper half appear heavier than those in the lower half.
  Objects on the right side appear heavier than those on the left side.
 Weight appears to increase with increasing distance from the center.
 Isolated elements have more weight than grouped objects.
 Larger elements have greater visual weight.
 Red is heavier than blue.
 Bright colors are heavier than dark.
 Regular shapes seem heavier than irregular shapes.
 Compact shapes have more visual weight than unordered, diffuse shapes.
 Forms with a vertical orientation seem heavier than oblique forms.

The visual center of the page is slightly above the actual center.

Closely tied to balance is white space. White space is any area within the map frame
that is not taken by the map outline itself. A certain amount of white space is required to
set the map off and not crowd the page, but usually one should put the largest map possible
on the page while still leaving room for other required elements, such as title, legend, and
scale. (Figure Y)

Contrast

A large part of the clarity of the map derives from contrast. Contrast is the difference
between light and dark, thick and thin, heavy and light. A map created with only one line
weight, one font size, and one font lacks contrast, is boring to look at, and is hard to read
(Figure Y1)
The layout on the left is poorly balanced. On the right, the page has many elements, but the
subject area takes up too little of the available space

Figure Y: This is a better layout and use of the available space.

Unity

Unity refers to the interrelationships between map elements. Lettering is not chosen in
isolation; it must be legible over any background colors and shades, must not conflict with
chosen symbols, and must suit the topic of the map. Unity means that the map appears to
be a single unit, not a collection of unrelated bits and pieces.
(Figure Y2)
 Figure Y1: The figure on the left has no contrast and is bland; the figure on the right has
better contrast.

Figure Y2: All of the elements of a map are interdependent

Harmony
Do all of the elements work well together? Do the chosen colors clash? Are patterns jarring
to the eye? Do the text fonts complement one another? Does the overall map have a
pleasing appearance? While this might not be a problem for a map created for oneself to
analyze a geographic problem, if the map is to be presented to a larger audience, it can
mean the difference between acceptance of the map and its message or rejection.
Simplistically, audiences prefer a pleasing map.

Design as a Plan
Formulating the Plan
Design is a decision-making process; before beginning, there are a number of questions to
ask. The answers to these questions determine what projections, symbols, scale, colors,
type, and all other components will be chosen.
Is a Map the Best Solution to the Problem?
Is a map the best product? There are times when a table or graph might be more
appropriate. In general, if the subject has a spatial component, or if spatial relation-ships
are important, then a map is a suitable solution.

What Is the Purpose of the Map?

How will this map be used? Is the map designed to show research findings, to store
information, to teach concepts, or to illustrate relationships? The message will probably be
unclear unless the cartographer has a definite idea of the purpose of the map.

What Is the Subject or Theme of the Map?

A map for navigation has different requirements than a map that simply shows locations or
one that shows population density. The theme and location have a bearing on the choice of
projection, scale, and degree of generalization. Distribution maps require equal-area
projections; a map of wheat distribution does not need a detailed coastline, and mid
latitude areas are better represented on conic projections than on cylindricals, for example.

What Is the Intent of the Map?

Will it explain, will it tell a story, will it be used to persuade, or will it describe? Like
writing, maps can be expository, narrative, persuasive, or descriptive. Maps included with
research articles are normally used to explain; a map accompanying a story or history may
explain or tell a story; a map in a political journal, advertisement, or newspaper may be
used to persuade; and some maps simply describe, as in the sense of “you are here.” Each
of these intentions has somewhat different requirements. Again, these topics will be dealt
with in the chapters on color, generalization, and symbolization.

Who Is the Audience?

What are the audience characteristics? What is the age of the audience? How familiar with
the map subject are they? How map-literate are they? How is their eyesight? Maps for the
visually impaired have different requirements than maps for those with normal vision.
Maps for elementary school textbooks have different requirements than maps in scholarly
works
What are the user needs? How will the readers use the map? Where will they use the
map? What are the conditions for reading the map? Will the map be consulted while sitting
at a desk, while driving, while on a bicycle tour, or as a reference? These maps will have
different requirements because of the needs of the user. A map for a cab driver, which is
consulted “on the fly,” has different requirements than one intended for a tourist walking
along a nature trail.

What Is the Format?

Format refers to size and shape of the page or screen and whether color can be used. It ties
to where the map will be reproduced. When books are designed, the art editor determines
the page format. Maps for theses and dissertations have specific formats determined by the
university, newspaper maps must conform to column sizes, and maps in business reports
will conform to the page size of the printed report. Maps that will be viewed on a monitor
or that will be projected onto a screen have different requirements from printed maps. New
formats have become available, such as tiny monitors used on GPS screens, cell phones,
and MP3 devices; these have different requirements than wide-screen computer monitors.

How Will It Be Reproduced, Disseminated, or Viewed?

There are three main considerations here: Will the map be viewed on a monitor, projected
on a screen, or printed on paper? The map’s mode of presentation especially affects the
colors used, but also affects the layout and format. A map designed to be viewed on a
monitor usually cannot be printed on paper without some loss of color fidelity—the colors
look different.
For paper maps, one needs to know if the map will be printed by an inkjet printer, a
laser printer, offset lithography, or some other method. There are differences in costs and
time. If the map will be produced in large numbers, as with offset lithography, the
cartographer should consult with a printer early in the design process.