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Topic B: Thermal Physics

In this section, we examine how changes in temperature or state of matter are related to
internal energy and heat. The kinetic model of matter is used to explain and predict the
physical properties and changes of matter at the microscopic molecular interactions
level.

8 Kinetic Model of Matter

8.1 States of Matter

Three states of matter: Solid, Liquid and Gas.

Properties of solids, liquids and gases:

Solid Liquid Gas

Properties 1. fixed shape and 1. fixed volume but not 1. no fixed shape and no
fixed volume fixed shape fixed volume
2. not compressible 2. not easily compressible 2. highly compressible
3. does not flow easily 3. flow easily 3. flows easily
Arrangement 1. closely packed 1. Closely packed in 1. Atoms or molecules
of atoms / together clusters of atoms or are very far apart and
molecules 2. orderly molecules occupy any given
arrangement 2. Atoms / molecules space
3. Held together by slightly further apart 2. Negligible forces of
large force compared to particles in attraction between
solids atoms /molecules
3. Held together by
attractive forces
between atoms /
molecules
Density High (usually) High Low
Movement of Can only vibrate Free to move about within Move in constant
atoms / about fixed position. the confines of the random manner at high
molecules container. speed, not confined to
any shape or volume.

8.2 Kinetic Model

Thermal energy of a body is the total kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules
in the body. The kinetic theory of matter states that all matter is made up of a
large number of tiny atoms or molecules which are in continuous motion.
Existence of particles in continuous motion is demonstrated by Brownian
motion and diffusion.

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Brownian Motion
Brownian motion refers to the random or irregular motion of tiny particles such as
smoke or pollen grains in a fluid (gas or liquid). It provides the evidence of the kinetic
theory of matter.
Experiment observations (using microscope): Smoke particles in a sealed glass cell
move about randomly and irregularly, because of bombardment by air molecules in the
cell.

Smoke
particle

Smoke particles moving randomly

Motion of Molecules with Temperature

1. When temperature rises, the increase in thermal energy results in higher kinetic
energy of the water molecules
2. The water molecules will move faster and result in more frequent and harder
collisions

Motion of Molecules with Pressure

1. When pressure increased, the inter-molecular distance between molecules is
reduced.
2. The molecules will have lesser space to move and result in more frequent and
harder collisions

Motion of Molecules with Volume

1. When volume is reduced, the inter-molecular distance between molecules is
reduced
2. The molecules will have lesser space to move and result in more frequent and
harder collisions

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8.3 Gas Law

Boyle’s Law
Describes the relationship between the product pressure and volume within a closed
system as constant when temperature remains constant.
(P inversely proportional to V)

P (Pa)
P (Pa)

P1 =1 atm P2 =2 atm P3 =3 atm

or
0 0
V (m3) 1/V (m-3)

Charles’ Law
States that if the pressure of a gas is constant, the volume increases and decreases are
directly proportion to changes in absolute temperature (K).
F
F V (m3)

150 K 300 K

or cool heat
0 273 T (K)
Gay-Lussac’s Law
States that if the volume of a gas is constant, the pressure increases and decreases are
directly proportion to changes in absolute temperature (K).

P (Pa)
1 atm 2 atm

150 K 300 K

or cool heat
0 273 T (K)
Combined Gas Law
The combined gas law is a gas law which combines Charles's law, Boyle's law, and
Gay-Lussac's law.
“The ratio of the product of Pressure and Volume to the Temperature of an ideal gas
system remains constant “

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Exercise:
A sample of gas is contained in a cylinder enclosed by a piston with no change of
applied force F is shown in figure below. At 50 oC, the volume of gas is 30 cm3.
Determine the volume of gas, when temperature is raised to 80 oC. (32.79 cm3)
F

50 oC

heat

Ans:

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9 Transfer of Thermal Energy

When a hot object is placed next to a cold object, there is a transfer of thermal
energy from the object of higher temperature to the object of lower temperature.
Thermal energy is transferred in three different ways: conduction, convection and
radiation.

convection

9.1 Conduction
1. Direct contact with medium necessary.
2. Metals are the best solid conductors (because of free electrons).
3. Liquids and gases are poor conductors because their molecules are not
closely packed together in fixed position like solids.
4. Application: Use metals to make cooking utensils.

9.2 Convection
1. Molecules / atoms must be free to move.
2. Convection current: Fluid closer to heat source expand, thus density
decreases and surrounding denser fluid displaces it.
3. Application: Air conditioner is placed near ceiling – Cold air being denser will
sink to displace the warm air.

9.3 Radiation
1. Factors affecting radiation:
(a) Colour (b) Roughness (c) Area exposed
2. Good radiator / good absorber of radiation: black, dull surface, with a huge
amount of surface area exposed.
3. Poor radiator / poor absorber of radiation: bright shiny and polished surface.
4. Application: Greenhouses for growing plants.

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Vacuum Flasks
1.Reduces heat transfer in or out through conduction, convention and radiation.
2. Can store and maintain temperature of contents (either hot or cold).

Type of heat transfer Means of reduction

Conduction Vacuum between double glass walls.
Insulated cover and stopper.
Convection Vacuum between double glass walls.
Radiation Shiny silvered inner surface of glass walls.

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10 Thermal Properties of Matter

10.1 Temperature
1. A measure of the degree of ‘hotness’ or ‘coldness’ of a body.
2. SI unit: kelvin [K]
3. Commonly used unit is degree Celsius [oC]: θ[K] = θ[oC] + 273.15

Measurement of temperature
1. Material for temperature measurement: Substance / material which possesses
temperature-dependent property and thus can change continuously with
temperature variations.
2. Temperature-dependent (Thermometric) Properties:

Thermometric Property Thermometer Range

Volume of a fixed mass of Mercury / alcohol / Mercury: -10 oC to 110 oC
liquid clinical Alcohol: -60 oC to 60 oC
(e.q. mercury or alcohol) thermometer Clinical: 35 oC to 42 oC
Electromotive force (emf) (mV) Thermocouple -200 oC to 1200 oC
(between hot and cold Common ones
junctions of 2 different metals
joined together)
Resistance of metal (Ω) Resistance thermometer Platinum: -200 oC to 1200 oC
Pressure of a fixed mass of Constant-volume gas Estimated
gas at constant volume thermometer -258 oC to 1027 oC

Temperature Scale
1. Temperature is measured with reference to 2 fixed points:
(a) Lower Fixed Point or Ice point (0 oC):
Temperature of pure melting ice at standard atmospheric pressure.
(b) Upper Fixed Point or Steam point (100 oC):
Temperature of pure boiling water at standard atmospheric pressure.
2. The length between the 2 fixed points is divided into 100 equal intervals of 1 oC.
3. Apply the following general formula to calculate temperature of a material:

X (unit)

X100
a
Where: Xθ
b
Θ is temperature of material X0
XΘ is thermometric property at Θ c
X100 is thermometric property at steam point d θ (oC)
X0 is thermometric property at ice point 0 θ 100

i.e. For clinical thermometer, X is the length of mercury thread at temperature θ.

For thermocouple, it is the voltmeter reading.

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Thermocouple Thermometer

The figure shows a simple thermocouple thermometer.

Copper wire Millivoltmeter (mV)

Constantan
wire Hot
junction

Cold Ice
Hot Water
junctio
n
Water at
ice point

- The thermocouple thermometer consists of a copper wire and a constantan wire

joined together at the ends. A millivoltmeter is connected to the copper wire.
- One end of the thermocouple thermometer known as the cold junction is placed in
melting ice at 0 oC (ice point). The other end, known as the hot junction, is placed in
the object whose temperature is to be measured, example hot water.
- The thermometric property used in the thermocouple thermometer is the variation of
the voltage generated between the cold and hot junctions of the thermocouple as the
temperature difference between the two junction increases.
- A millivoltmeter is used to measure the voltage (mV) generated. The scale of the
millivoltmeter is calibrated in oC so that the temperature can be read directly.

Advantages of the thermocouple thermometer

• It is able to measure temperature over a wide range with suitable metals, from
-200 oC to 1200 oC.
• It can withstand high temperature for measuring high temperature.
• It is very sensitive – able to detect small changes in temperature and able to
response fast.
• Junctions used are sharp and pointed and therefore can be used to measure
accurately temperature at a point.

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Example
A thermocouple thermometer obtained measurements from 2 settings are shown in
table.
Setting Cold Junction Hot junction Millivoltmeter
A Ice water (0 oC) Ice water (0 oC) 0V
o o
B Ice water (0 C) Boiling water (100 C) 5.0 mV

If the cold junction at the ice point and the hot junction in a liquid, the voltage generated
is 3.6 mV. What is the temperature of the liquid?
Solution: X (unit)

X100

Xθ
X0
θ (oC)
0 θ 100

Exercise:
A piece of metal wire has a resistance of 780 Ω at the ice point and 805 Ω at the steam
point. Calculate the temperature of wire if the resistance of the wire is 790 Ω.
(40 0C)

Ans:
R (Ω)

R100
θ = [(Rθ – R0) / (R100 – R0)] x100
θ = [(790 – 780) / (805 – 780)] x100 Rθ
θ = 40 0C R0
θ (oC)
0 θ 100

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10.2 Terminology

1. Temperature
A measure of internal energy of the substance’s atoms / molecules.

2. Increase in temperature
Caused by supply of heat which increases internal energy.

3. Internal energy
Sum of kinetic and potential energies of the atoms / molecules.

4. Types of internal energies:

State of substance Type of internal energy

Solid vibrational kinetic energy plus potential energy
Liquid translational kinetic energy plus potential energy
Gas mainly translational kinetic energy

10.3 Melting, Boiling and Evaporation

Changes of states
1. Two main changes occur when heat is applied to a substance
(a) Increase in temperature
(b) Change of state (i.e. solid to liquid)

2. The following processes are the changes of state occur without temperature
change
(a) Melting: solid to liquid (+ Thermal Energy)
(b) Boiling: liquid to gas (+ Thermal Energy)
(c) Freezing: liquid to solid (- Thermal Energy)
(d) Condensation: gas to liquid (- Thermal Energy)

3. Other processes
(a) Evaporation: liquid to gas
(b) Sublimation solid to gas
4. Differences between boiling and evaporation:

Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at a fixed temperature Occurs at any temperature
Occur throughout the liquid Occurs on the surface of substance
Bubbles are visible Bubbles are not visible
Fast process Slow process
Heat is supplied to substance Heat is absorbed by substance from
by an energy source. the surroundings.

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5. Factors affecting melting and boiling point of water:

(a) Increase Pressure: lower melting point, higher boiling point.
(b) Add Impurities: lower melting point, higher boiling point.

Factor Affecting the Rate of Evaporation

• Higher temperature increases the rate of evaporation
• Greater area of exposed surface increases the rate of evaporation
• Lower humidity of surrounding air increases the rate of evaporation
• Motion the surrounding air (wind/breeze) increases the rate of evaporation
• Lower external pressure increases the rate of evaporation
• The more volatile the liquid, the lower the boiling point of the liquid, the higher
the rate of evaporation

Cooling Effect by Evaporation

• Evaporation occurs when molecules gained energy from the environment and
escape from the surface of liquid.
• Average energy of molecules remaining in liquid decreases.
• Therefore temperature of liquid falls.
• This is why sponging a patient with high fever will help in lowering the
temperature.
• Likewise, perspiration has the same cooling effect on the skin.

Heating Curve of Water

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Cooling Curve of Benzene

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10.4 Thermal Energy

Heat Capacity
• A measurable physical quantity that specifies the amount of heat required to
change the temperature of an object or body by a given amount.
• Specific Heat Capacity is the amount of heat required to cause a unit of
mass to change its temperature by 1 unit.
• SI Unit: Joules / (kilogram x Kelvin) [J/kgK]

Measuring Heat
The relationship between the thermal energy gained (or lost) by a material and the
temperature change can be given by:

Q = Pt [J = (W)(s)]

Q = C θ [J = (J/K)(K)]
Q = m c θ [J = (kg)(J/kgK)(K)]

where Q: Thermal energy [J]

P: power [W]
t: time [s]
m: mass [kg]
C: heat capacity of material [J/K]
c: Specific heat capacity of material [J/kgK]
θ: (2 - 1) [K]
Example
What quantity of heat is required to raise the temperature of 450 grams of water from
15°C to 85°C?
The specific heat capacity of water is 4180 J/kg°C.

Solution:
Q = m c θ
= (0.45) (4180) (85-15)
= 131.7 kJ

Exercise:
A 12.9 gram sample of an unknown metal at 26.5°C is placed in a Styrofoam cup
containing 50.0 grams of water at 88.6°C.
The water cools down and the metal warms up until thermal equilibrium is achieved at
87.1°C.
Assuming all the heat lost by the water is gained by the metal and that the cup is
perfectly insulated, determine the specific heat capacity of the unknown metal.
The specific heat capacity of water is 4180 J/kg°C. (400.9 J/kg°C)

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Ans:
Heat Lost by Water
Qw = mw cw θ
= (0.05) (4180)(88.6 - 87.1)
= 313.4 J

Heat gained by metal

Qmetal = 313.4 J
313.4 = mmetal cmetal θ
= (0.0129) cmetal (87.1- 26.5)
cmetal = 400.9 J/kgoC

Latent Heat
Latent heat is the energy released or absorbed during change of state.

Latent Heat of fusion (Lf)

Thermal energy [J] required changing it from solid to liquid state, or vice versa, without
any change in temperature.

Specific Latent Heat of fusion (lf)

Thermal energy [J/kg] required changing 1 kg of the solid to liquid without any change in
temperature.

L f = m lf [J = (kg)(J/kg)]
Latent Heat of vaporisation (LV)
Thermal energy [J] required changing it from liquid to vapour state, or vice versa,
without any change in temperature.

Specific Latent Heat of vaporisation (lV)

Thermal energy [J/kg] required changing 1 kg of the liquid to vapour without any change
in temperature.

L V = m lV [J = (kg)(J/kg)]

Example
A jet of steam at 100oC is directed for a short time at a large block of ice at 0 oC. Some of
the steam condenses to form water and some ice is melted. The condensed steam
forms 0.40 kg of water at 0oC. Calculate
(a) The thermal energy given out by this mass of steam in changing to at 100 oC.
(b) The thermal energy given out by this water as it cools to the temperature of the
ice.
(Take specific latent heat of vaporisation of water = 2200 kJ/kg and specific heat
capacity of water = 4.2 kJ/kgK)

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Solution:

(a) Thermal energy given out is equal to the latent heat of 0.40 kg of ice.
LV = m lV = 0.4 x 2200 = 880 kJ

(b) Thermal energy given out for steam cools from 100 oC to 0oC,
Q = m c θ = 0.40 x 4.2 (100 – 0)
=168 kJ

Exercise:
What is the amount of heat required to convert 50.0 grams of ice at 0 oC to 50.0 grams
of water at 26.5oC
The specific heat capacity of liquid water is 4180 J/kg°C
The specific heat of fusion of ice is 334 J/g. (22,238.5 J)

Ans: Thermal energy to convert 50 g of ice to water,

Lf = m lf = 50 x 334 = 16700 J

To increase temperature of 50 g of water from 0°C to 26.5°C

Qh = m c θ = 0.050 x 4180 x 26.5 = 5538.5 J

Total amount of heat = Qh + Lf

= 5538.5 + 16700
= 22238.5 J

Summary

L V = m lV
Lf = m lf

Q = C θ
Q = m c θ

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Exercise:
The graph shows the rise in temperature of a 6 kg substance, which is originally a solid.
The power of the heating element is 12 kW. Calculate
the thermal energy of the substance when it is a solid at 2 s. (24,000 J)
(ii) the specific heat capacity of solid. (1,000 J/kg0C)
(iii) the specific latent heat of fusion of the substance. (8,000 J/kg)
(iv) the starting time, when the substance has become liquid. (6 s)

Temperature / 0C

Time / s
0 2 4 6 8 10

Ans:

(i) Solid, QS = P t, QS = 12,000(W) x 2(s) = 24,000 J

(ii) Solid, QS = m cS θ, 24,000 = 6 x cS x 4

cS = 1,000 J/kg0C

(iii) Melting, QL = m lf 12,000 x 4 = 6 x lf

lf = 8,000 J/kg
(iv) Liquid, 6s

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