Section two Thermal Physics

CSEC Physics

THIS SECTION CONSISTS MAINLY OF:

1. Temperature
2. Kinetic theory
3. Gas laws
4. Thermal measurements
5. Transfer of heat

Nicholas Paul
ARETE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE
TEMPERATURE
This is defined as the degree of hotness of a substance. It is measure
in oC [degrees Celcius ] or more formally in this section, as K [Kelvin]
which is the unit for absolute temperature.

Converting degrees(θ oC) to Kelvin(K)

Θ + 273 converts degrees to Kelvin

Example : 77oC to K => ( 77 + 273 ) K = 350 K

Graphical representation of absolute temperature

Convert the following :

1. 23 0C to K
2. -35 0C to K
3. 173 K to 0C
4. 5 K to 0C

MEASURING TEMPERATURE
An instrument called the thermometer is used to measure
temperature by using a physical property of a thermometric
(temperature-measuring) substance which changes continuously
with temperature. Some examples are given in the table below :
 Physical property Thermometer
1. Volume of a fixed mass of Mercury-in-glass
liquid thermometer
Alcohol-in-glass thermometer
2. Electromotive force Thermocouple
3. Resistance of a piece of Resistance thermometer
metal

4. Pressure of a fixed mass Constant-volume gas

of gas at constant volume thermometer

Do a brief report on
the above
thermometers.
THERMAL EXPANSION
When thermal energy is applied to a substance, if noted carefully, it
would be seen that the substance has expanded to some about. For
example if we heat a piece of wire for a period of time, the wire
would become notably longer and upon cooling it would return to its
original length.

One important use of thermal expansion is in the bimetallic strip.

This is made up of two strips of metal of different thermal
conductivities [ie expand at different rates when heated]. If copper
and brass are joined together as shown below, the strip would bend
downwards since the brass would expand more than the copper.

brass REMEMBER THAN BRASS EXPANDS

MORE THAM COPPER AND IF WE
WANT THE STRIP TO BEND UPWARDS,
WE SIMPLY SWITCH THE COPPER AND
copper
BRASS

The bimetallic strip can be used to turn on or off a switch, e.g. in a

fire alarm or thermostat in a refrigerator.

Thermal expansion is not always useful. This maybe observed when

pouring a very hot liquid into a thick glass which may cause it to
crack. The inside of the glass gets hot and tries to expand, but since
glass does not conduct heat very well the outside of the glass stays
cold and stops the inside from expanding. Large forces are set up
causing the glass to crack. Also roads of concrete slabs would break
up if they were unable to expand when they become hot. One
common solution is to separate the slabs with the strips of wood
which originally formed the box the wet concrete was poured into;
the wood is soft enough to squash if necessary.

SOLVE THIS ????

A 1.0 m long water pipe made of steel will expand by 1.3 × 10−5 m for every degree Celsius rise
in temperature. Imagine a 10 km long water pipe undergoing a temperature change of 10 °C.
The change in the length of the pipe would amount to __________!

Explain how the bimetallic strip can be

used as a switch in a bell for a fire
alarm.

Explain how the bimetallic strip can be

used to close and open the circuit
shown

Kinetic Theory
of Matter
The Kinetic Theory explains the differences between the three states
of matter. It states that all matter is made up of moving particles
which are molecules or atoms. In solids, the particles are so tightly
bound to each another that they can only vibrate but not move to
another location.

In liquids, the particles have enough free space to move about, but
they still attract one another. In gases, the particles are far apart and
can move about freely since there is much free space. Solids change
into liquids, and liquids into gases, when the particles gain more
kinetic energy, like when being heated and are able to move apart
from one another. When the molecules vibrate more quickly upon
heating, some of it escapes from the matter. This is what the Kinetic
Theory is about.
 All matter is composed of small particles.

The particles of matter are in constant motion.

All collisions between the particles of matter are

perfectly elastic

Example :

An O2 molecule in the air travels about 443 m/s (about

1700 km/hour) at 25 oC. The diameter of an O2 is about
0.339 nanometers. Each molecule travels about 314 times its
own diameter between collisions. At this rate, each oxygen
molecule has over four and a half billion collisions per
second.

Pressure: the force of particles striking a surface.

The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal.

The Pascal is a derived SI unit equal to Newtons

/ m2.

1 N = (1 kg)(1 m) / s2

The average air pressure at sea level is 101.325

kilopascals (kPa).

Scientists agree to call this average "standard

atmospheric pressure".

Temperature: a measure of the average kinetic energy of the

particles of matter.

Kinetic energy is the energy an object possesses

because of its motion.

The SI units for energy are the joule.

The joule is a derived SI unit equal to

(kilograms)(meters) / s2.

KE = mv2 / 2
 The calorie is sometimes used to describe to
describe heat. This unit is defined as the amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water one
degree Celsius. A "food calorie" is 1000 calories, or one
Kilocalorie.

The kinetic theory can be used to describe

the physical states of matter:

Solid - a substance whose particles have a low kinetic

energy. The particles of a solid are held close together
by intermolecular forces of attraction. Because the
particles are so close together, they appear to vibrate
around a fixed point. When the temperature of a solid
is raised, the velocity of the particles increases. The
collisions between the particles occur with greater
force, causing the particles to more farther apart. The
ordered arrangement of the solid breaks down and a
change in physical state occurs.

Liquid - a substance whose particles have enough

kinetic energy to stretch the intermolecular forces of
attraction. Collisions between the particles a strong
enough to force the particles apart. The particles
appear to have a moving vibration because they are
still under the influence of the intermolecular forces
of attraction. As the temperature of a liquid is raised,
the velocity of the particles increases. The collisions
 eventually become so great that the particles break
all intermolecular forces, begin moving
independently between collisions, and a change in
physical state occurs.

Gas - a substance whose particles have enough kinetic

energy to break all intermolecular forces of
attraction. The particles of a gas move independently
of each other. The particles move at random because
they have overcome the intermolecular forces of
attraction. When a gas is raised to extreme
temperatures, over 5000 oC, they have so much
kinetic energy that their collisions will break electrons
out of the atoms, and a change in physical state
occurs.

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

Gases can be studied by considering the small scale action of

individual molecules or by considering the large scale action of
the gas as a whole. We can directly measure, or sense, the large
scale action of the gas. But to study the action of the molecules,
we must use a theoretical model. The model, called the kinetic
theory of gases, assumes that

1. The molecules are very small relative to the distance

between molecules.
2. The molecules are in constant, random motion and
frequently collide with each other and with the walls of
any container.

The individual molecules possess the standard physical

properties of mass, momentum, and energy. The density of a
gas is simply the sum of the mass of the molecules divided by
the volume which the gas occupies. The pressure of a gas is a
measure of the linear momentum of the molecules. As the gas
molecules collide with the walls of a container, the molecules
impart momentum to the walls, producing a force that can be
measured. The force divided by the area is defined to be the
pressure. So pressure in a gas is determined by

1. The collisions of the gas particles with themselves and

2. The collisions of the gas particles with the walls of the
container

The temperature of a gas is a measure of the mean kinetic

energy of the gas. The molecules are in constant random
motion, and there is an energy (mass x square of the velocity)
associated with that motion. The higher the temperature, the
greater the motion.

In a solid, the location of the molecules relative to each other

remains almost constant. But in a gas, the molecules can move
around and interact with each other and with their surroundings
in different ways.
 1. Use kinetic theory to explain why a ball appears inflated
when placed in the sun.
2. Why does placing more air into a tyre increase its pressure?
3. How can the pressure inside a hot can of soda be reduced?
4. Use kinetic theory to explain how a hole in bicycle tyre
reduces its pressure.
5. What is Brownian Motion?

GAS LAWS
The three gas laws that we would be looking at are :

1. BOYLES’ LAW
2. CHARLES LAW
3. PRESSURE LAW

Each of the laws investigate the relationship between pressure,

volume and temperature. The laws determine a relationship
between two of the above quantities by keeping one quantity
constant.

BOYLES’ LAW

This states that for a gas the pressure is inversely proportional its
Use kinetic theory to explain Pressure
volume provided that the temperature of the gas is kept constant.
Law
If P – Pressure and V – Volume
1
So Pα𝑉

𝑘
 P=𝑉
 PV = k
 P1V1=P2V2
This means that as P increases then V would decrease, or if P
decreases then V would increase provided that temperature is kept
constant.

CHARLES’ LAW

This states that for a gas the volume is directly proportional its
temperature provided that the pressure of the gas is kept constant.

If T – Temperature and V – Volume

So Vα𝑇
Derive the formula

This means that as V increases then T would also increase, or if V

decreases then T would decrease provided that pressure is kept Use kinetic theory to explain Charles’
constant. Law
PRESSURE LAW

This states that for a gas the pressure is directly proportional its
temperature provided that the volume of the gas is kept constant.

If T – Temperature and P – Pressure

So Pα𝑇 Derive the formula

This means that as P increases then T would also increase, or if P

decreases then T would decrease provided that volume is kept
constant Use your own diagrams to explain
Pressure Law.

GENERAL GAS LAW

This is a combination of the above three laws and is used when

pressure, volume nor temperature is kept constant.
This Formula can be use the
𝑃V remember all the other Gas laws by
=k
𝑇 simply eliminating the quantity that is
constant

1. Find the unknown in the following :

a) Constant pressure. V1= 5 m3, V2 = 10 m3, T1 = 245 K, T2 = ?
b) Constant volume. P1= 125 Pa, P2 = 150 Pa, T1 = 245 K, T2 = ?
c) Constant temperature. V1= 25 m3, V2 = 60 m3, P1 = 25 Pa, P2 =?
d) P1= 225 Pa, P2 = 550 Pa, T1 = 245 K, T2 = ?, V1= 25 m3, V2 =
10 m3
 THERMAL
MEASUREMENTS
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The specific heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat required

to change the temperature of unit mass of a substance by one
degree Celcius.

So by using Eh = mc ∆θ

where Eh – Energy supplied to mass (J)

m – mass (kg)
c - specific heat capacity (JK-1kg-1)
∆θ – temperature change (K)

Therefore
E
c = 𝑚∆θ

HEAT CAPACITY

Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the

temperature of a substance by one degree Celsius.

E
C = ∆θ ( NB. – heat capacity has no unit mass )

where Eh – Energy supplied to mass (J)

C - specific heat capacity (JK-1)
∆θ – temperature change (K)

So heat capacity is related to specific heat capacity by the

following formula:
C = mc

LATENT HEAT
This is the amount of heat required to change the state [or phase] of
unit mass. It should be noted that latent heat, Lh, deals with phase
change with no rise in temperature, while heat capacity deals with
temperature change with no phase change.
So
𝐸
Lh = 𝑚
where Lh – is the latent heat [ Jkg-1 ]
E - is the energy supplied [ J ]
m – is the mass [kg]

Experiment involving specific heat

capacity

USING A CALORIMETER [ELECTRIC METHOD]

In the above experiment set up, we used a calorimeter to determine

E
the specific heat capacity of a liquid. By using the formula c = 𝑚∆θ
we can find the specific heat capacity of a liquid.
So
c- is the specific heat capacity in Jg-1K-1
m- mass in g or kg which is found by using a scale or balance
∆θ – temperature change in K which is found by using the
thermometer [final – initial temperature]
E – energy in J which is found by using the formula E = Power x time
or E = voltage x current x time

USING METHOD OF MIXTURES

(a)SOLIDS
Weigh the solid to find its mass. Heat it in boiling water for a period
of time and note the temperature of the boiling water (which will
also be the temperature of the hot solid). Quickly transfer the solid
to a polystyrene cup containing a known mass of cold water at a
known temperature. Gently stir the water and note the highest
reading on the thermometer. Assuming no heat is loss to the
surroundings when the hot solid is transferred, the specific heat
capacity could be found.

(b) LIQUIDS
The procedure is the same as in (a) but in this case the
specific heat capacity of the hot solid is known and it is dropped into
the liquid whose specific heat capacity is required.

Differences between Boiling and Evaporation

 TRANSFER OF
THERMAL
ENERGY
There are three ways that heat energy can move:

1. Conduction.
2. Convection.
3. Radiation.

Conduction

When you first pour boiling water onto a Pot Noodle, the plastic
container feels cool on the outside. Soon, the heat energy has
worked its way through the plastic and the container starts to
feel hot on the outside. Heat energy has travelled through the
solid plastic container. This process is called conduction.

Atoms in a substance are always vibrating. If the substance gets

hotter, the atoms vibrate more. The heat energy is given to the
atoms, which makes them move about faster. Note: the atoms
don't swap places, or move around they just vibrate more on the
spot.

Solids are better at conducting than liquids and gases because

the atoms are closer together. If the atoms are too spaced out it
makes it harder for the atoms to pass the energy along.

Metals are the best solids for conducting heat energy. In metals,
there are free electrons that can move through the metal. These
electrons are able to move from hot parts of the metal to colder
parts, taking the heat energy with them. This is called electron
diffusion.

The poorest conductors are gases as their molecules are too far
apart to affect each other much. This means that air is a terrible
conductor of heat energy.
Using the apparatus and the diagram,
Explain how it is possible to determine
which material is the better conductor.
Convection

Hot air rises in cold air. Hot water rises in cold water. This way
of moving energy is called convection. When hot air rises,
colder air has to move in to replace it. When hot water rises in a
cup, colder water sinks to replace it. This movement of a liquid
or gas is called a convection current.

Convection cannot happen in solids, as the atoms aren't able

to move around.

When a liquid or gas heats up, the particles move around more.
This makes the particles spread out, so they have more room to
move. This lowers the density of the substance. The hotter it
gets, the lower the density goes. It is this lower density that
makes the hotter substance rise. The cooler substance has a Explain……
higher density, which makes it sink.
Radiation

"How to toast bread!" When a piece of bread is put in a toaster

the wires inside the toaster glow red hot on either side of the
bread.

How does the heat energy get to the bread?

Is it by conduction?

No, the heat energy cannot conduct through the air to the bread
because air is a very bad conductor.

Is it by convection?

No, hardly any of the heat energy could have travelled to the
bread by convection, as the hot air particles would rise out of
the toaster.

The heat energy must have reached the toast some other way. It
travelled as radiated heat. This heat energy movement is
sometimes called heat waves, but strictly speaking, it is
infrared radiation.

Hot objects radiate heat to their colder surroundings. The weird

thing is that the surface colour of an object makes a difference.
 Black and dull surfaces emit (give out) and absorb radiation
well.

White and shiny surfaces do not emit radiation well and reflect
radiation instead of absorbing it.

Solar panels are always coloured black. They then absorb the
maximum amount of the Sun's energy. This is very important
considering the amount of sun we get in the UK. Wearing white
in the summer should, in theory, be cooler than wearing black,
as more of the incoming heat is reflected away.

Poor absorber/emitter
Factors Good absorber/emitter
(good reflector)

Colour of object Dark (e.g. black) Light (e.g. white)

Surface texture Rough Shiny
Surface temperature High Low
Surface area Big Small
 Applications in Daily Life

Example – The Vacuum Flask

Example – Solar Water Heater