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THERMAL PHYSICS

STATES OF MATTER: Matter is made up of molecules or atoms. There are three states of matter i.e.
solid, liquid and gases. Liquids and gases are called fluids.

SOLIDS: A solid has a fixed shape and volume. The solid molecules are closely packed and the forces of
attraction are more than the repulsion forces. These molecules are not free to move, they vibrate at
fixed positions.

LIQUIDS: A liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape. The forces between the molecules in a
liquid are almost equal i.e. attraction and repulsion forces are almost equal. The molecules are free to
move, vibrate and rotate.

GASES: A gas has neither a definite shape nor definite volume. The gas molecules are far apart and are in
constant random motion.

BROWNIAN MOTION: This is the random movement of particles in a liquid or gas. E.g. smoke particles
are used to demonstrate Brownian motion. The smoke particles will collide with the randomly moving
air particles. Therefore the smoke particles will also move in random motion. If they are in a container
they will also collide against the walls. The following apparatus can be used to study Brownian motion.

The following diagram shows the view through a microscope of a smoke particle in a smoke cell
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EVAPORATION: It is the conversion of liquid to gas or vapour. Evaporation occurs when the fastest
moving molecules escape from the surface of the liquid. The energy of the remaining molecules is
relatively low, therefore evaporation causes cooling.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF EVAPORATION

(a) TEMPERATURE: When the temperature is higher or rises more molecules gain kinetic energy and
move fast enough to escape from the surface.
(b) SURFACE AREA: When surface area is large, molecules get a chance to escape as more are near
the surface.
(c) HUMIDITY: When humidity is low, more molecules get a chance to escape into the atmosphere.
(d) WIND/DRAUGHT: When air is moving it carries away escaped molecules so they do not return to
the liquid.

GAS LAWS

BOYLE’S LAW: The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume if the
temperature is kept constant.

i.e. P 1/V or Pv = n (constant)

CHARLES LAW: The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if
the pressure is kept constant.
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i.e . V T or V/T = n (constant)

T is absolute temperature in Kelvins.

PRESSURE LAW: The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if
the volume is kept constant.

i.e. P T or P/T = n (constant)

When we combine the three gas laws, when all the three quantities change we get;

PV/T = n (constant) Gas equation

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE: When graphs of volume against temperature and pressure against
temperature of a gas are plotted, a straight line is obtained. If lines are extended backwards they cut the
temperature axis at about -273°C. The temperature is called absolute zero. Absolute Zero: It is the
lowest temperature possible or the lowest temperature that can be recorded. This is the zero of the
Kelvin scale.

T= + 273
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Where T is temperature in Kelvins (K), is temperature in degrees Celsius (°C).

THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER

When an object is heated, kinetic energy of the particles increases. The particles will tend to push each
other further apart increasing the volume of the body. Friction between the particles will result in the
average temperature of the object increasing. The opposite where a body loses energy and its
temperature decreasing resulting in a decrease in volume is called contraction.

NOTE: Different substances may expand by different amounts at the same rate of energy supply. In
general gases expand more than liquids and liquids expand more than solids.

DEMOSTRATION: BALL AND RING

The ball and ring is constructed so that it just fits through the hole in the ring. When the ball is heated
for a few minutes it can no longer pass through the ring as it has expanded.

USES OF EXPANSION

 Thermometer (liquid –in – glass)

 Shrink fitting
 Riveting metal plates
 Bimetallic strip

BIMETALLIC STRIP: It is constructed by riveting two equal lengths of different metals so that they cannot
move separately
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USES OF THE BIMETALLIC STRIP

(a) THERMOSTAT: It is a device which keeps the temperature of an appliance constant or near
constant. E.g. electric iron
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When the iron is switched on, the bimetallic strip bends down and breaks the circuit. This switches the
iron off. After cooling the strip tightens and the two contacts will touch each other again, therefore the
circuit becomes complete. The iron will be switched on again and this maintains a near steady (constant)
temperature.

(b) FIRE ALARM

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When there is fire outbreak, the strip bends upwards and closes the circuit at the contacts then the bell
rings.

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST EXPANSION

(a) RAILWAY LINES: Previously gaps were left between the lengths of rail but today rails are welded into
lengths of about 1 km and are tapered overlap at the ends. This allows for a smooth journey and also for
expansion.

(b) LOOPING OF PIPELINES:

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Long water, oil or gas pipes may have loops to avoid cracking during expansion and contraction.

(c) BRIDGES: They are made with concrete sections and gaps are left between the sections. The
expansion gaps are filled with soft material like rubber to allow for expansion and also stops chunks of
rocks from falling in.

(d) POWER AND TELEPHONE LINES:

The lines must be made to hang loose when constructed in summer to allow for contraction in winter.
The lines are made a bit tight in winter so that they do not hang too loose in summer due to expansion.

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE: Temperature is the degree of hotness and coldness of a substance.

The instrument used to measure temperature is called a thermometer.

To measure temperature we rely on some physical properties which vary with temperature e.g. thermal
expansion, electromotive force (EMF) or voltage, electrical resistance and colour.

(a) THERMAL EXPANSION: LIQUID –IN-GLASS THERMOMETER S (Laboratory and clinical) rely on the fact
that liquids expands more than solids when heated. When the bulb is warmed, the liquid rise through
the capillary tube and the temperature is read at the highest level reached by the liquid.
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(b) ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE:

THERMOCOUPLE THERMOMETER: This type of thermometer consists of two wires of different materials
joined together at the ends. One of the junctions is at a point where the temperature is measured (temp
probe) and the other is kept at a lower fixed temperature (cold junction), usually ice is used. Due to the
temperature differences between the junctions an electromotive force is developed across the
junctions. An electric current will flow and it can be measured by means of galvanometer.

A thermocouple measures a wide range of temperatures from -250 °C to 1500 °C. It is also very sensitive
i.e. can detect rapid temperature changes.

(c) ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

THERMISTOR THERMOMETERS: A thermistor is an electrical resistor whose resistance varies with

temperature. A thermistor is inserted in an electric circuit and when it is hot its resistance decrease
allowing a large current to flow through the circuit therefore we get a large reading on a digital scale
(display) i.e. the temperature reading becomes high. When it is cold, its resistance increase and a small
amount of current flow therefore we get a small reading.
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(d) COLOUR

TEMPERATURE STRIPS: They usually change colour from blue to green when warmed.

THE TEMPERATURE SCALE

THE CELCIUS SCALE: Celsius used two fixed points to calibrate a thermometer.

FIXED POINTS: These are constant temperatures of natural systems.

(a) THE ICE POINT (LOWER FIXED POINT): An uncallibrated thermometer is placed in pure melting ice at
normal atmospheric pressure. This gives 0 °C.
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(b) THE STEAM POINT (UPPER FIXED POINT): The thermometer is placed in steam at normal atmospheric
pressure. This gives 100 °C.

Once the liquids levels have been established at the fixed points, the distance between the two fixed
points is divided into 100 equal divisions.
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LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETERS: A volume of liquid is filled into the glass bulb which is connected to a
capillary tube. The liquid expands into the capillary tube when heated and contracts when cooled. The
liquids normally used in this type of thermometer are mercury and alcohol.

LINEARITY: The degree marks along the capillary tube are equally spaced. Thus the change in length of
the liquid thread is directly proportional to the change in temperature.

SENSETIVITY: A sensitive thermometer is one which responds quickly to small temperature changes.
Sensitivity of a liquid- in – glass thermometer can be improved by:

(i) Using a thin (narrow) capillary tube.

(ii) Using a large bulb

RANGE: The range is a set of temperatures which a thermometer can measure. Range of a thermometer
can be improved by:

(i) Using a wide capillary tube.

THE LABORATORY THERMOMETER

 Range varies
 Accuracy is to the nearest whole number of degrees.
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CLINICAL THERMOMETER

 Range is normally from 35 °C to 42 °C.

 Accuracy to 0.1 °C.

SPECIAL FEATURES

 The capillary tube is oval in cross section, so that the liquid may be seen despite the capillary
tube being thin.
 The capillary tube has a constriction which prevents the liquid from flowing back into the bulb
before taking the reading. The liquid is returned to the bulb by shaking the thermometer.
 The capillary tube is very thin.

HEAT CAPACITY: It is the heat energy needed to raise the temperature of a body by 1°C.

Thus we write

Where: C is heat capacity (J/°C)

is change in temp (°C) i.e. final temp – initial temp

Q is energy supplied (J)

It is clear from everyday experience that C of a body depends on both mass and the material. Thus it is
usually more useful to work with heat capacity of unit mass (specific heat capacity).

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY: It is heat energy needed to raise the temperature of unit mass (1 kg) of
substance by 1°C.
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Thus we write

Where: c is specific heat capacity (J/kg °C)

is change in temp (°C) i.e. final temp – initial temp (T2 –T1)

Q is energy supplied (J)

m is mass of the body (kg)

MEASURING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF METAL BLOCKS

The set up above can be used to measure specific heat capacity. Some oil is placed into the holes to
improve conduction from heater to thermometer. The metal block must be covered by insulating
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material to prevent heat loss to the environment. Provided the power of the heater is known, the time
for which it is on can be measured using a stopwatch.

Q = Pt= IVt

Q is energy supplied in (J)

P is power (w)

t is time (s)

I is current (A)

V is voltage (V)

The final temperature reading should be taken after the heater is switched off allowing time for the heat
to be conducted through the block.

Therefore: = =

MELTING AND BOILING

Some substances can exist in three phases or states i.e. solid, liquid and gas.
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MELTING AND SOLIDIFICATION

Imagine a block of ice at a temperature of -10 °C, if thermal energy is supplied to the ice at a uniform
rate the temperature of ice will increase until it is 0 °C. As more energy is supplied, the ice melts but the
temperature remains constant. The energy supplied is used to overcome the bounds which hold the
particles together. Bond breaking involves taking in energy. The energy absorbed is called latent heat of
fusion. Latent means hidden and fusion means melting.

BOILING AND CONDENSATION

If water is heated, the temperature rises until the water boils at a temperature of about 100°C then the
temperature remains constant. The temperature remains constant until all the water has evaporated.
The energy being used is called Latent Heat of Vapourasation. This is energy used to change the water
from liquid to gas. Generally latent heat is the energy required to change state of a substance.
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BOILING POINT: It is the temperature at which a liquid boils and some groups of particles form separate
bubbles of vapour throughout the liquid.

MELTING POINT: It is the temperature at which a solid changes into liquid

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BOILING AND EVAPORATION

EVAPORATION BOILING
 Occurs at any temperature  Occurs at a definite temperature

 Occurs at surface of liquid  Occurs within the liquid

 No bubbles  Bubbles appear

COOLING CURVES: The rate at which an object cools can tell us a great deal about the material it is made
of.

COOLING CURVE OF WAX

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The first break in the smooth curve is when solid wax began to form. The temperature is never constant,
this shows that wax is a mixture of substances (hydrocarbons).

COOLING CURVE OF ETHANAMIDE

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The flat part of the graph AB is when the substance is solidifying. The graph shows that ethanamide is a
pure substance because it has a definite freezing/melting point.

UNUSUAL EXPANSION OF WATER

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This explains why water pipes bursts in winter and why fish can survive in a frozen pond. Water has
maximum density at 4°C.

LATENT HEAT OF FUSION

It is heat which is absorbed by a solid during melting or given out by a liquid during solidification.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION: Specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity of heat
needed to change unit mass (kg) from solid to liquid without temperature change.

Q = mlf

Where Q is energy (J)

m is mass (kg)

lf is specific latent heat of fusion (J/kg)

LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURISATION

It is heat which is absorbed by a liquid during vaporisation or given out by a vapour during
vapourisation.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURISATION: Specific latent heat of vapourisation of a substance is the
quantity of heat needed to change unit mass (kg) from liquid to vapour without temperature change.

Q = mlv

Where Q is energy (J)

m is mass (kg)

lv is specific latent heat of vapourisation (J/kg)

MEASURING SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT

(a) SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION FOR ICE

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An immersion heater of known power is placed in a filter funnel and surrounded by small pieces of ice.
Electricity could be supplied by a Joule meter. The heater is switched on for a set time and the amount
of water which collects in the beaker is measured.

Specific latent heat of fusion can be calculated using:

lf = =

Where Q is energy (J)

m is mass (kg)

lf is specific latent heat of fusion (J/kg)

P is power (w)

t is time (s)
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(b) SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURISATION OF WATER

The immersion heater is clamped so that it is well covered by water in the beaker. When the water in
the beaker is boiling briskly, the reading on the balance is noted and the stopwatch started. The time for
50 g of water to be boiled off (evaporated) is found.

Specific latent heat of vapourisation can be calculated using:

lv = =

Where Q is energy (J)

m is mass (kg)

lv is specific latent heat of vapourisation (J/kg)

P is power (w)

t is time (s)
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APPLICATION OF LATENT HEAT

Inside a refrigerator, a volatile liquid is circulated through a closed circuit of pipes by a pump. The circuit
contains an Evaporator and Condenser panel behind the refrigerator. Valves ensure one way flow of the
liquid. Inside the Evaporator the liquid is vapourised at low pressure by heat transfer from warm object
(food) i.e. latent heat is required for the volatile liquid to evaporate. The vapour passes through valves
into the compressor pump which forces under high pressure into the condenser panel. The condenser
panel liquefies the vapour releasing latent heat (internal energy) to the environment. So the
refrigerator transfers energy from warm objects in the refrigerator to the surrounding. Examples of
liquids used are Freon and Ammonia.

TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

(a) CONDUCTION: It is the flow of heat through matter from places of high temperature to places of
lower temperature without movement of matter as a whole. Conduction occurs faster in solids (metals).

CONDUCTING POWER OF DIFFERENT METALS

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DIAGRAM X

DIAGRAM Y

An experiment is set up to find out which metal is the best conductor of heat. Balls are stuck with
Wax to rods made from different metals, as shown in diagram x.
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The rods are heated at one end. Some of the balls fall off, leaving some as shown in diagram Y. Most of
the balls on copper drop off followed by aluminium, brass and finally iron. This show that copper is the
best conductor amongst the four metals.

GOOD CONDUCTORS: Good conductors of heat are used when heat is required to travel quickly through
matter. E.g. kettle, pans, pots and other boilers are made of good conductors of heat.

BAD CONDUCTORS: Handles of boilers are made up of bad conductors of heat (good insulators). E.g.
wood, plastic, air, water, wool etc.

The apparatus below show that water is a bad conductor of heat as water at the top of the tube boils
while ice has not melted.

(b) CONVECTION: It is the flow of heat from places of higher temperature to places of lower
temperature by the movement of the fluid particles.
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Water at the heated point expands, get less dense and rise up creating streams of moving fluid called
convection currents. The dense surrounding water molecules move down.

The following figure shows how convection occurs in air.

(c) RADIATION: It is the flow of heat from one place to another through electromagnetic waves.
Radiation can occur in a vacuum. Dull, black surfaces are good absorbers/ emitters of heat. Shiny white
surfaces are good reflectors or poor absorbers and emitters of heat.

The following apparatus can be used to study these.

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The two flasks are left in the sun for about five minutes. The thermometer in a black flask will record a
higher reading.

APPLICATIONS OF CONDUCTION, RADIATION AND CONVECTION

(a) VACUUM/ THERMOS FLASK

A vacuum flask keeps hot liquids hot and cold liquids for a longer time. Such flasks are designed to
reduce heat loss through conduction, convection and radiation.
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FEATURES OF A THERMOS FLASK

 Double silvered walls: Reduce heat loss by radiation.

 Vacuum: Reduce heat loss by convection and conduction.
 Insulated Stopper: Reduce heat loss by conduction and evaporation.

(b) HOT WATER SYSTEM

Water is heated in the boiler it expands and rises by convection to hot water tank. Cold water flows
from the hot water tank to the boiler. Convection currents will be set until water in the hot water tank
and boiler is hot.

(c)SOLAR PANEL: In sunny countries warm water can be produced using solar panels. In other type of a
panel, a metal tube (pipe) is welded at the back of a metal plate which is painted black. The plate
absorbs heat from the sun and shares this energy by conduction with the pipes (water).
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(d) BUILDINGS: In hot countries buildings are often painted white to reflect heat.

(e) COOLING FINS:

The cooling fins at the back of the refrigerator are painted black so that they lose heat more rapidly.

(f) ELECTRIC FIRES: Curved surfaces of electric fires are made of shiny metal to reflect heat.

CONSEQUENCES OF CONDUCTION, CONVECTION AND RADIATION

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(a) CYCLONES: This is an area of intense low pressure. An abundant source of warm moist air at a
temperature of about 27° C will result near the sea surface due sun. This warm moist and less dense air
will blow inwards and rise rapidly to great heights. Clouds of great vertical extent capable of providing
torrential rainfall will be formed.

The upper cooler, drier and denser air will descend. Cyclones results in violent winds, dense clouds and
heavy rain. This causes destruction to buildings and trees.

(b) NIGHTS AND DAYS IN DESERTS: In deserts there is absence of cloud cover. This result in the
maximum solar radiation reaching the earth therefore we have very high temperatures during the day.
At night all the radiation is lost to the atmosphere and this result in very cold nights. This extreme
temperatures result in harsh conditions in deserts.

(c) GREENHOUSE EFFECT

Carbon dioxide (CO2) and other gases like methane (CH4) and water vapour (H2O) form a layer in the
atmosphere i.e. they form a blanket above the earth’s surface. Shorter wavelength infrared radiation
from the sun is more energetic therefore it can pass through these gases and is absorbed by plants, soil
and buildings. The soil, plants and buildings emit less energetic long wavelength radiation. The long
wavelength radiation cannot pass through greenhouse gases but rather is absorbed. These gases are
warmed up as a result and radiate energy in all directions. Some of this infrared radiation is radiated
back to earth so the earth will become warm. This results in global warming.
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