Kinetic Model of Matter

Relate molecular structure (arrangement, force, motion and distance between particles) and
properties of solids, liquids and gases

Force and arrangement of particles Properties

Solid Particles are closely packed High density
Held by strong attractive forces Fixed shape and
Vibrate about fixed positions volume
Incompressible
Liquid Particles are slightly farther apart compared to in solids High density
and randomly arranged Fixed volume but no
Free to move over one another fixed shape
Strong attractive forces Incompressible

Gas Particles are far apart and randomly arranged Low density
Free to move at high speeds No fixed volume and
Weak forces of attraction between particles shape
Compressible

Evidence for movement of molecules (Brownian motion)

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 • Experiment: observe smoke trapped in the glass cell under a microscope

• Observations:

• smoke particles appear as bright dots because they scatter the light that shines on
them

• smoke particles move in random directions

• the larger the particles the less agitated the motion

• Deduction:
• The smoke particles moved randomly because they were being bombarded by
many air molecules in all directions. The air molecules are too small to be seen

• Conclusion:
• Brownian motion refers to the random motion of particles, such as pollen and dust
specks, suspended in fluids (e.g. air, water).
• This random motion is due to the fluid particles moving about randomly and
bombarding the suspended particles.

Relationship between motion of molecules and temperature

• When a substance is heated, it gains thermal energy.

• The thermal energy gained increases the random kinetic energy of the molecules
• Hence when temperature increases, kinetic energy and speed of molecules increase

Assumptions of the kinetic model of an ideal gas (not tested)

• The gas consists of a very large number of identical molecules

• The volume of the molecules is negligible compared with the total volume occupied by the
gas
• The molecules are moving in completely random directions, at a wide variety of speeds
• There are no forces between the molecules
• The total kinetic energy of the molecules remain constant at the same temperature

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Pressure of a gas (Recall P = F/A)

• Moving gas molecules collide with the inner wall of the container and exert a force on it.
• The force exerted per unit area is the called gas pressure.
[Note: Each and every collision can result in a different sized force, and it is not realistic to know all
the forces that individual molecules exert on the walls. However, because the molecular motions
are random and because of the very large number of them, the total force caused by many
molecular collisions on any unit area of the container wall will be completely predictable and will
(usually) be constant at all places in the container.]

Relationship between Pressure, Volume and Temperature of a gas

1. Pressure and temperature (keeping volume constant)

• At a higher temperature, the air molecules

have greater speeds (greater average
kinetic energy).

• The air molecules will then bombard the

walls of their container more forcefully and
more frequently.
• This causes an increase in gas pressure
inside the container.

The pressure p of a fixed mass of gas is

directly proportional to its temperature T
at constant volume.

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 Transfer of Thermal Energy

Direction of transfer of thermal energy

 A and B are two objects at different temperatures, insulated from their surroundings but in
contact with each other.
 There will be a net transfer of thermal energy from the hotter object (A) to the colder object
(B).
 As the temperature difference between the two objects get smaller, the rate of thermal
transfer decreases.
 This is shown in the graph above where the slopes become gentler as the temperature of A
and B become similar.
 When the temperatures of A and B stop changing, they are at the same temperature, they
are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
 Thermal energy always flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature. Net flow of thermal energy occurs only when there is a difference in
temperature.

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2
 Thermal Properties of Matter

(a) Internal energy (Distinguish between internal energy, temperature and thermal energy)

• The internal energy of a body is the sum of the total random kinetic energies and total
intermolecular potential energies of all the molecules inside it.

• Random – molecular movements are disordered and unpredictable (different from KE of a moving car
or change in GPE of a falling object)

• If energy is transferred to a body, it gains internal energy and its molecules move faster. This is
measured as an increased temperature.

• Thermal energy refers to energy flowing from a higher temperature to a lower temperature.

(b) Heat capacity

Heat capacity C is the amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1 K (or
1°C).
𝑄
𝐶=
∆𝜃
Specific heat capacity
Specific heat capacity c is the amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a
substance by 1 K (or 1°C).
𝐶 𝑄
𝑐= =
𝑚 𝑚∆𝜃

A substance with a high c heats up more slowly compared to a substance with a lower c (and vice versa)

This is important in heating and cooling systems, e.g. water is used in heating and cooling systems because
it has high c. It can store a large amount of heat and also lose its heat slowly.

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Question 1
Determine the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 100 g of ice from −20°C to −5°C. The
−1 −1
specific heat capacity of ice is 2000 J kg K .

Determining specific heat capacity c of a substance (Calorimetry)

• Supply a known amount of energy from an electric heater placed inside the substance. (immersion
heater)
• A joulemeter can be used to measure the energy Q transferred, or the amount of energy can be
calculated using knowledge of electric circuits, from the equation E = VIt or E = Pt)
• Assumption – all of the substance was at the same temperature and the thermometer recorded the
temperature accurately at the relevant times
• As some energy will be lost to the surroundings, insulation is needed to limit the energy transfers. The
process involves surrounding it with a material that traps air (a poor conductor) and is known as lagging.
• Calorimetry – experiments that try to accurately measure the temperature changes produced by various
physical or chemical processes. Calorimeters are used in these experiments as they are designed to
limit thermal energy transfer to, or from, the surroundings.

Question 2
Determine the specific heat capacity of aluminium, given that a heater rated 30 W takes 5.0 min to raise the
temperature of 450 g of aluminium from 27°C to 50°C.

Question 3
It takes the same heater 500 s to heat up a piece of iron by 5.0 K, and 200 s to heat up a piece of copper by
10 K. Which piece of metal has the larger mass? Assume no heat loss and that the specific heat capacity of
−1 −1 −1 −1
iron and copper are 460 J kg K and 400 J kg K respectively.

Question 4
A piece of hot coal of mass 50 g at a temperature of 200°C is dropped into 150 g of water at a temperature
of 25°C.
−1 −1
(a) Determine the final temperature reached. (The specific heat capacity of coal and water are 710 J kg K
−1 −1
and 4200 J kg K respectively.)
(b) Suggest why your answer could be inaccurate.

2
Question 5
A large metal bolt, of mass 53.6 g was heated for a long time in an oven at 245°C. The bolt was transferred
as quickly as possible from the oven into a beaker containing 257.9 g of water initially at 23.1°C. The water
was stirred continuously and the temperature rose to a maximum of 26.5 °C.
(a) Calculate the energy transferred to the water.
(b) Why was the bolt kept in the oven for a long time?
(c) Why was the transfer made quickly?
(d) Calculate the specific heat capacity of the material of which the bolt is made.
(e) Why was it necessary to stir the water?
(f) Is the value for the specific heat capacity of the bolt likely to be an underestimate or an overestimate
of its true value? Explain your answer.

(d) Change of state

• Thermal energy, which causes a change of state, is known as latent heat. (Latent heat means ‘hidden
heat’, in the sense that when ice melts, its temperature is constant even when absorbing energy)
• During melting or boiling, additional energy input is used to overcome intermolecular forces in the solid
or liquid. The potential energy of the molecules increase.
• Boiling occurs at a precise temperature – the temperature at which the molecules have enough kinetic
energy to form bubbles inside the liquid

Melting Melting is the process in which the thermal energy absorbed by a substance changes it
from solid state to liquid state without a change in temperature.

Boiling Boiling is the process in which the thermal energy absorbed by a substance changes it
from liquid state to gaseous state without a change in temperature.

Condensation Condensation is the process in which the thermal energy taken away from a substance
changes it from gaseous state to liquid state without a change in temperature.

Freezing Freezing is the process in which the thermal energy taken away from a substance changes
it from liquid state to solid state without a change in temperature.

(e) Evaporation

• Evaporation occurs when a liquid turns into a vapour. The liquid requires latent heat of vaporization
which is from the liquid or its surroundings. Evaporation therefore results in cooling.
• Molecules in a liquid have a range of different kinetic energies that are continuously transferred between
them as they collide.
• The molecules at the surface, which have enough kinetic energy to overcome the attractive forces that
hold molecules together escape from the surface.
• The average kinetic energy of the molecules remaining decrease resulting in cooling
• Evaporation occurs at the surface of the liquid and at any temperature, with the rate of evaporation
increasing with rising temperature

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Differences between boiling and evaporation

(f) Latent Heat

• The thermal energy involved with changing potential energies during a change of state is known
as latent heat.
• The latent heat associated with melting or freezing is called latent heat of fusion. The latent heat
associated with boiling or condensation is called latent heat of vaporization.

Specific latent heat (l)

• The specific latent heat of a substance is the amount of energy transferred when unit mass of the
substance changes state at a constant temperature
𝑄
𝑙=
𝑚

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(h) Latent heat and Molecular behaviour

1. From P to Q, the temperature of solid ice rises

from −15°C to 0°C.
2. From Q to R, the temperature remains steady
at 0°C, even though heat is being absorbed as
ice melts.
3. From R to S, the temperature of melted ice
rises from 0°C to 10°C.
Why is PQ steeper than RS?

1. From A to B, the temperature of naphthalene

falls from 90°C to 79°C.
2. From B to C, the temperature remains steady
at 79°C, even though heat is being released as
solidification occurs.
3. From C to D, the temperature of solid
naphthalene falls from 79°C to room
temperature.

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Question 6
°
2.00 kg of water at 100 C requires 4400 kJ of energy to boil off completely. Determine its latent heat of
vaporisation and specific latent heat of vaporisation.

Question 7
A 1.00 kW heater immersed in 550 g of crushed ice at 0°C is switched on for five minutes. In the five
minutes, the ice melts and the temperature of the melted water rises to 49°C. Assuming that there is no heat
−1 −1
loss to the surroundings and the specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg K ,
(a) what is the total energy supplied by the heater?
(b) how much energy is needed to raise the temperature of the water from 0°C to 49°C?
(c) using your answers to (a) and (b), what is the specific latent heat of fusion of ice?

Question 8
During the melting process, there is no change in temperature even though thermal energy is absorbed.
Where does the thermal energy go?

Solution
The thermal energy absorbed is used to overcome intermolecular bonds in order for the solid to melt. The
internal potential energy of the particles increases.

Question 9
1 kg of ice at −10°C is heated until it becomes steam at 100°C. State the effect of thermal energy on the
water molecules in the mass of ice at each stage of heating and the amount of energy needed at each
5 −1 −1
stage. (c of ice = 2100 J/(kgK), lf = 3.4 × 10 J kg , c of water = 4200 J/(kgK), lv = 2200 kJ kg )

Solution
• −10°C to 0°C:
The ice is in solid state and the thermal energy causes the molecules to vibrate more energetically as
temperature increases.
Q1 =

• At 0°C:
Melting occurs and the thermal energy absorbed is used to overcome/weaken the bonds between the
molecules such that they have greater freedom of motion in the liquid state.
Q2 =

• 0°C to 100°C:
As thermal energy is absorbed by the liquid water, the temperature increases. The kinetic energy of the
molecules increases and the molecules move more quickly.
Q3 =

• At 100°C:
Boiling occurs and the thermal energy absorbed is used to completely break the intermolecular bonds and
provide energy to the molecules to push back on the atmosphere and escape into the air.
Q4 =

6
• 100°C to 110°C:
The thermal energy absorbed is used to raise the temperature of the water vapour molecules. The molecules
gain kinetic energy and move with greater speeds.

Q5 =

7
(i) Cooling curve summary

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June 1986
2.0 kg of ice is placed in a vacuum flask, both ice and flask being at 0 C. It is found that exactly 14 hours
elapse before the contents of the flask are entirely water at 0 C. Given that the specific latent heat of fusion
5
of ice is 3.4 ×10 J/kg calculate the average rate at which the contents gain heat from the surroundings.
Suggest a reason why the rate of gain of heat gradually decreases after all the ice has melted.

Nov 81
Liquid nitrogen boils at a very low temperature, at normal atmospheric pressure. Explain why liquid nitrogen
contained in an open vacuum flask in a laboratory boils steadily and continuously? Why does the liquid
nitrogen boil more rapidly when contained in a glass beaker?

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10
 Conduction Convection Radiation
Description Particles in solids vibrate about an When a fluid is heated, it expands, Transfer of thermal energy in the form of
equilibrium position; as particles at one becomes less dense than the electromagnetic radiation like infrared
end get heated up, their temperature surroundings and rises. Cooler, denser radiation.
rises and the speed of vibration fluid is displaced and sinks where the (all objects radiate energy continuously in
increases. They collide more vigorously process is repeated. This sets up a the form of electromagnetic waves due to
with neighbouring particles, passing on convection current, which heats up all the thermal vibrations of their molecules.)
their energy from particle to particle, fluid eventually.
eventually heating up the solid.
(vice versa for cooling)
Need medium Yes Yes No. Can occur in vacuum
Metals have many free electrons, which
speed up on gaining thermal energy.
They move rapidly and collide with
particles in the cooler parts of the solid,
passing on their energy through electron
diffusion.
Characteristics Good conductors/poor insulators –  Heating element must be placed at the  Black and rough surfaces are good
metals (due to electron diffusion) bottom in a water heater tank emitters and absorbers of heat
Speed up rate of thermal conduction  Cooling element must be placed at the
top in a refrigerator  White and shiny/silvered surfaces are
Poor conductors/Good insulators – air  Involves bulk movement of the medium poor absorbers and emitters of
and water. due to density differences heat/good reflectors of heat.
Air: Particles are far apart so collisions  Works in fluids (liquids and gases)

3
do not take place regularly and frequently  The larger the temperature difference,
therefore thermal conduction does not the higher the rate of radiation
occur efficiently
 The larger the surface area, the
Water: Particles do not stay in fixed higher the rate of radiation
positions long enough for collisions to
occur regularly and frequently. The *Rate of thermal radiation
intermolecular forces are also slightly
weaker than in solids hence the amount P = eσA(T4 – TC4)
of energy transferred through collisions is
reduced.  e = emissivity of surface
 σ = constant (5.67 × 10−8 W/m2K4)
Insulators reduce the rate of thermal  A = surface area
conduction  T = temperature of radiator
 TC = surrounding temperature

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6
 2. Volume and temperature (keeping pressure constant)

• The glass tube allows the gas in the round-

bottomed flask to expand.

• An increase in the gas volume can be

observed by the rise of the coloured water
droplet.

• When the air is heated, the increased temperature causes the air molecules to move at
higher speeds.

• The air molecules will then bombard the walls of their container more forcefully and more
frequently. In other words, the gas pressure increases.
• To maintain a constant pressure, the air expands and the air molecules move farther
apart. As the air molecules occupy a larger volume, they collide with the walls less
frequently, resulting in a decrease in pressure.

• The pressure will stop decreasing when it is equal to the atmospheric pressure again.

Before heating After heating Explanation and conclusion

Volume Constant Increases
Frequency of Higher Lower Molecules move faster and
collision farther apart hence colliding with
the walls less frequently
Force of Lower Higher Temperature increases so KE
collision increases and force of impact
with walls increases
Gas Pressure Atmospheric Atmospheric Remains unchanged
pressure pressure

4
 The volume V of a fixed mass of gas is
directly proportional to its temperature T
at constant pressure.

3. Pressure and volume (temperature remains constant)

The pressure of the gas inside the

syringe is increased by slowly
pushing the piston inwards (to
compress the gas).

• When the volume of the gas is decreased, the number of air molecules per unit
volume increases.
• The air molecules will therefore bombard the walls of the container more
frequently.
• This causes an increase in the average force exerted on the walls of the container,
and hence an increase in the gas pressure.

The pressure p of a fixed mass of gas is

inversely proportional to its volume V at
constant temperature.

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Question 1
Some gas is trapped in a container. Use the kinetic model of matter to explain and predict the
changes in the gas pressure for the following cases. State any assumptions you made to arrive at
your answer.

1. The container that holds the gas is rigid (i.e. its volume is constant), and the gas is heated.

2. The container that holds the gas is able to expand freely (i.e. its volume is not constant),
and the gas is heated.

3. The container that holds the gas is flexible (i.e. its volume is not constant), and the gas
volume is increased.

Question 2

The figure shows a syringe that contains gas at the same pressure as the air outside. The piston
moves freely along the piston without any friction. No gas escapes.

As the syringe is heated from 20°C to 100°C, the piston moves outwards. It stops moving when the
temperature is steady. State how the value of each of the following quantities compares at 100°C,
after the piston stops, with its value at 20°C. For each quantity, you should write greater, the same
or less.

The average distance between the gas molecules

The pressure of the gas after the piston stops
The average speed of the gas molecules
The frequency of the collisions between the gas molecules and the piston