AC

FUNDAMENTALS

INSTRUCTOR: ENGR. KENNETH B. DE TORRES REE,RME

OVERVIEW AND CONTENTS

 CAPACITANCE
 INDUCTANCE
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
INTRODUCTION
So far we have limited our study to resistive circuits.
In this chapter, we shall introduce two new and
important passive linear circuit elements: the capacitor
and the inductor. Unlike resistors, which dissipate
energy, capacitors and inductors do not dissipate but
store energy, which can be retrieved at a later time. For
this reason, capacitors and inductors are called storage
elements.

We begin by introducing capacitors and describing

how to combine them in series or in parallel. Later, we
do the same for inductors. As typical applications.
CAPACITOR
CAPACITOR
A capacitor consists of
two conducting plates
separated by an insulator
(or dielectric)

In many practical
applications, the plates
may be aluminum foil
while the dielectric may
be air, ceramic, paper, or
mica.

A typical capacitor.
CAPACITOR
CAPACITANCE
When a voltage source v is
connected to the capacitor, as in
the figure, the source deposits a
positive charge q on one plate
and a negative charge −q on the
other. The capacitor is said to
store the electric charge. The
amount of charge stored,
represented by q, is directly
proportional to the applied
voltage v so that

A capacitor with
applied voltage v.
CAPACITANCE
where C, the constant of proportionality, is known as the
capacitance of the capacitor. The unit of capacitance is
the farad (F), in honor of the English physicist Michael
Faraday (1791–1867).

Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a

capacitor to the voltage difference between the two
plates, measured in farads (F).

Note that 1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt

CAPACITANCE
The charge Q stored in a capacitor is given by:

𝑸 = 𝑰 × 𝒕 , 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔
Capacitors are commercially available in different values and types. Polyester capacitors are light in
weight, stable, and their change with temperature is predictable. Instead of polyester, other dielectric
materials such as mica and polystyrene may be used. Film capacitors are rolled and housed in metal or
plastic films. Electrolytic capacitors produce very high capacitance. The capacitance of a trimmer (or
padder) capacitor or a glass piston capacitor is varied by turning the screw. The trimmer capacitor is
often placed in parallel with another capacitor so that the equivalent capacitance can be varied slightly.
The capacitance of the variable air capacitor (meshed plates) is varied by turning the shaft.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Determine (a) the voltage across a 4µF when charged with 5
mC. (b) Find the charge on a 50 pF capacitor when the
voltage applied to it is 2 kV.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Determine (a) the voltage across a 4µF when charged with 5
mC. (b) Find the charge on a 50 pF capacitor when the
voltage applied to it is 2 kV.
CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL

Figure shows three capacitors C1-C3 connected in parallel with a

supply voltage V applied across the arrangement. Calculating the
total capacitance of two or more capacitors in parallel is simple: Just
add up the individual capacitor values to get the total capacitance.

Total capacitance in parallel

connection

𝑪 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 … + 𝐶n
CAPACITORS IN SERIES
Figure shows three capacitors, C1, C2 and C3, connected in
series across a supply voltage V. Let the voltage. across the
individual capacitors be V1, V2 and V3 respectively as
shown. The equivalent capacitance of series-connected
capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual capacitances.
CAPACITORS IN SERIES
Total capacitance in series connection For three or more
capacitors in series, the formula is:

For the special case, if only two capacitors are connected in

series:
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the equivalent capacitance seen between terminals a
and b of the circuit below.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the equivalent capacitance seen between terminals a
and b of the circuit below.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the equivalent capacitance seen between terminals a
and b of the circuit below.
INDUCTOR
INDUCTOR
An inductor is a passive element
designed to store energy in its
magnetic field. Inductors find
numerous applications in electronic
and power systems. They are used in
power supplies, transformers, radios,
TVs, radars, and electric motors.

Any conductor of electric current has

inductive properties and may be
regarded as an inductor. But in
order to enhance the inductive effect,
a practical inductor is usually formed
into a cylindrical coil with many A typical form of an
turns of conducting wire, as shown inductor
in the figure
INDUCTOR
INDUCTANCE
An inductor is an electronic component consisting of a
coil of wire with an electric current running through
it, creating a magnetic field. The unit for inductance is
the henry (H), named after Joseph Henry, an American
physicist who discovered inductance independently at
about the same time as English physicist Michael
Faraday. One henry is the amount of inductance that is
required to induce 1 volt of electromotive force (the
electrical pressure from an energy source) when the
current is changing at 1 ampere per second.
FARADAY’S LAWS OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
Faraday summed up the above facts into two laws known
as Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction.

 First Law states that, whenever the magnetic flux linked

with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is always induced in
it. Or whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f.
is induced in that conductor.

 Second Law states that, the magnitude of the induced

e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of flux-linkages.
FARADAY’S LAWS OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
In a generator, conductors forming an electric circuit are made
to move through a magnetic field. By Faraday’s law an e.m.f.
is induced in the conductors and thus a source of e.m.f. is
created. A generator converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. The induced e.m.f. E set up between the
ends of the conductor is given by:

Where: 𝐵 = flux density ; Tesla (T)

𝑙 = length of conductor ; meters (m)
𝑣 = velocity ; meters per second(m/s)
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
A conductor 300 mm long moves at a uniform speed of 4 m/s at right-angles to a uniform
magnetic field of flux density 1.25 T. Determine the current flowing in the conductor
when (a) its ends are open-circuited, (b) its ends are connected to a load of 20 Ωresistance
INDUCTORS IN SERIES
AND PARALLEL
Just like resistors or capacitors, you can combine inductors in
series or parallel within an electronic circuit. Then you can
use simple equations to calculate the total inductance of the
circuit.

The equivalent inductance of

series-connected inductors is
the sum of the individual
inductances.
INDUCTORS IN SERIES
AND PARALLEL
We now consider a parallel connection of N
inductors, as shown in the figure.

The equivalent inductance of

parallel inductors is the reciprocal
of the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual inductances.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the equivalent inductance of the circuit shown
below.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the equivalent inductance of the circuit shown
below.
 Sinusoidal
Voltage And
Current
Sinusoidal Voltage
And Current
Historically, dc sources were the main means of providing
electric power up until the late 1800s. At the end of that country, the battle
of direct current versus alternating current began. Both had their
advocates among the electrical engineer s of that time. Because ac is
more efficient and economical to transmit over long distances, ac
systems ended up the winner. Thus, it is in keeping with the historical
sequence of events that we considered dc sources first, we now begin the
analysis of circuits in which the source voltage and current is time-
varying. In this discussion, we are particularly interested in sinusoidally
time-varying excitation, or simply, excitation by a sinusoid. A sinusoid is
a signal that has the form of sine or cosine function.
Sinusoidal Voltage
And Current
A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current
(ac). Such a current reverses at regular time intervals and has alternately
positive and negative values. Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or
voltage are called ac circuits. We are interested in sinusoids for a number
of reasons. First, nature itself is characteristically sinusoidal. Second, a
sinusoidal signal is easy to generate and transmit. Third, through Fourier
analysis, any practical periodic signal can be represented by a sum of
sinusoids. Sinusoids, therefore, play an important role in the analysis of
periodic signals. Lastly, a sinusoid is easy to handle mathematically.
General Aspects Of Direct-and
Alternatingcurrent Systems

Almost 90% of electric energy is generated by

AC Machines.
A great portion of AC Energy is converted to
DIRECT CURRENT for us in many types of
Industry Electromechanical Industry
Production of Aluminum Manufacture of
Fertilizers,
Advantages Of AC
Generation
Accomplished economically in large power plant that may be
located where fuel and water are abundant.
Transmission over network of high-voltage lines to distant loads
centres is entirely practicable
Widely used in Industrial Application
• Industrial motors
• Transformer equipment
• Control devices
What Is Alternating Current
(A. C. Current)
Alternating current is the
current which constantly changes in
amplitude, and which reverses
direction at regular intervals. Direct
current flows only in one direction,
and that the amplitude of current is
determined by the number of
electrons flowing past a point in a
circuit in one second.
What Is Alternating Current
(A. C. Current)
For example, a coulomb of electrons moves past a point in
a wire in one second and all of the electrons are moving in the
same direction, the amplitude of direct current in the wire is one
ampere. Similarly, if half a coulomb of electrons moves in one
direction past a point in the wire in half a second, then reverses
direction and moves past the same point in the opposite direction
during the next half-second, a total of one coulomb of electrons
passes the point in one second. The amplitude of the alternating
current is one ampere.
Properties Of Alternating
Current
A D.C. power source, such as a battery, outputs a constant
voltage over time. Of course, once the chemicals in the battery
have completed their reaction, the battery will be exhausted and
cannot develop any output voltage. But until that happens, the
output voltage to the right will remain essentially constant. The
same is true for any other source of D.C. electricity: the output
voltage remains constant over time.
Properties Of Alternating
Current
THANK YOU!
 Electrical
System
Design

INSTRUCTOR: ENGR. KENNETH B. DE TORRES REE,RME

OVERVIEW AND CONTENTS

 Philippine Electrical Code

 Design
INTRODUCTION
THANK YOU!
 CIRCUIT
ANALYSIS

INSTRUCTOR: ENGR. KENNETH B. DE TORRES REE,RME

OVERVIEW AND CONTENTS

✓ MESH ANALYSIS
✓ NODAL ANALYSIS
✓ THEVENIN’S THEOREM
✓ NORTON’S THEOREM
✓ SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
✓ SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
✓ MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
INTRODUCTION

Having the knowledge and understanding of the

fundamental laws of electric circuits (the combination of the
Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Laws), it is now time to apply
these laws to a more structurally complicated circuits which
involves more and more elements wherein direct methods
are not enough. Here, we will be introducing two powerful
techniques which can be used in the analysis of a more
complex circuit: the nodal analysis and Mesh analysis.
MESH ANALYSIS
MESH ANALYSIS
The solution of complex networks are frequently be simplified by
using a system of loop or mesh current instead of branch
currents of the frequently (Kirchhoff’s Law) procedure. First
proposed by James Clerk Maxwell. This method involves a set of
independent loop or mesh currents assigned to as many meshes
as exists in the circuit. The magnitude of the current passing
through in each resistor is the algebraic sum of the mesh
currents passing through it. This method is only applicable to a
circuit that is planar.

A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within
it.

A super mesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or

independent) current source in common.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
NODAL ANALYSIS
NODAL ANALYSIS
Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits
using node voltages as the circuit variables. Choosing node
voltages instead of element voltages as circuit variables is
convenient and reduces the number of equations one must solve
simultaneously.

Steps to Determine Node Voltages:

1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1, v2 . . .
vn-1 to the remaining n-1 nodes. The voltages are referenced with
respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non reference nodes. Use Ohm’s
law to express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the
unknown node voltages.
NODAL ANALYSIS
The first step in nodal analysis is selecting a node as the reference
or datum node. The reference node is commonly called the
ground since it is assumed to have zero potential. A reference
node is indicated by any of the three symbols in the figure below.
The type of ground in (c) is called a chassis ground and is used
in devices where the case, enclosure, or chassis acts as a
reference point for all circuits. When the potential of the earth is
used as reference, we use the earth ground in (a) or (b). We shall
always use the symbol in (b).

As the second step, we apply KCL to each

non reference node in the circuit.

The third step in nodal analysis is to solve

for the node voltages.
NODAL ANALYSIS
Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a
resistor.
NODAL ANALYSIS

KCL at node b:
I1 = I2 + I3
NODAL ANALYSIS WITH
VOLTAGE SOURCE
Consider how voltage sources
affect nodal analysis.

CASE 1: If a voltage source is

connected between the reference
node and a non reference node.

CASE 2: If the voltage source

(dependent or independent) is
connected between two
nonreference nodes, the two
nonreference nodes form a
generalized node or supernode;
we apply both KCL and KVL to
determine the node voltages.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
For the circuit shown. Find V1 and V2 using Nodal Analysis.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
 When practical circuits are more and more complex, the
applications of the previously used methods for solving currents
and voltages become complicated. Scientists working in the field of
electrical engineering have developed more simplified theorems to
analyze these kinds of complex circuits (Wang, 2019). This chapter
presents several theorems useful for analyzing such complex
circuits or networks. These theorems include superposition
theorem, source transformation, Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem.
In addition, circuit analysis involving controlled circuits and ideal op
amp will also be discussed.
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Thevenin’s theorem provides a technique by which the fixed
part of the circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit. Thevenin’s
theorem (Alexander, 2017) states that “a linear two-terminal circuit
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage
source Vth in series with a resistor Rth where Vth is the open-circuit
voltage at the terminals and Rth is the input or equivalent resistance
at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.” This
theorem states that if any network is examined, we know that with
respect to those terminals, the entire network is equivalent to a
simple circuit consisting of an independent voltage source in series
with a resistor (Irwin, 2019). Any combination of power supplies and
resistors with two terminals can be replaced by a single voltage
source and a single series resistor for Thevenin’s theorem. The key
to applying Thevenin’s theorem is to determine the equivalent
resistance Rth and the equivalent voltage Vth (Wang, 2019).
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Thevenin’s theorem tells us that we can replace the entire
network, exclusive of the load, by an equivalent circuit that contains
only an independent voltage source in series with a resistor in such
a way that the current-voltage relationship at the load is unchanged
(Irwin, 2015). Figure below shows how the original circuit is replaced
by its equivalent circuit.
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
As mentioned earlier, a linear circuit with a variable load can be
replaced by the Thevenin equivalent, exclusive of the load. The
equivalent network behaves the same way externally as the
original circuit. The current IL through the load and the voltage
VL across the load are easily determined once the Thevenin
equivalent of the circuit at the load’s terminals is obtained, as
shown in Figure.

Therefore, we obtain:
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in the figure below
to the left of the terminals a-b. Then find the current through RL = 6, 16,
and 36 ohms.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
NORTON’S THEOREM
NORTON’S THEOREM
In 1926, about 43 years after Thevenin published his theorem, E.L.
Norton, an American engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories,
proposed a similar theorem. Norton’s theorem states that a linear
two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN
(Alexander, 2017).
NORTON’S THEOREM
This is essentially source transformation. For this reason, source
transformation is often called Thevenin-Norton transformation.
Since VTh, IN , and RTh are related, to determine the Thevenin or
Norton equivalent circuit requires that we find:
• The open-circuit voltage voc across terminals a and b.
• The short-circuit current isc at terminals a and b.
• The equivalent or input resistance Rin at terminals a and b when
all independent sources are turned off.

We can calculate any two of the

three using the method that takes
the least effort and use them to get
the third using Ohm’s Law.
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in figure below.

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in figure below.

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in figure below.

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in figure below.

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 SOURCE
TRANSFORMATION
SOURCE
TRANSFORMATION
Although mesh analysis and nodal
analysis are powerful tools for solving
circuits, there are other techniques
that can be used to simplify circuits. In
the previous discussions, we have
already noticed that wye-delta
transformation and series-parallel
combination help simplify a circuit.
Source transformation is another tool
for simplifying circuits. The source
transformation allow a voltage source
in series with a resistor to be replaced
by a current source in parallel with a
resistor, or vice versa.
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the power associated with the 6-V source for the circuit given
below.

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the power associated with the 6-V source for the circuit given
below.

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the power associated with the 6-V source for the circuit given
below.

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the power associated with the 6-V source for the circuit given
below.

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SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
If a circuit contains two or more independent sources, nodal and
mesh analysis are some of the methods to determine the values
of specific variables (current or voltage). Another method is by
determining the contribution of the individual independent source
to the v variable and then add them up. This method is known as
the superposition principle.

As defined, superposition principle states that the voltage across

(or current through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic
sum of the voltage across (or current through) that element due
to each independent source acting alone.
 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
In applying the superposition principle, we must take in mind the
following things:

1. We consider one independent source at a time while all the other

sources are turned off. This implies that we are replacing every
voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit) and every current
source 0 A (or an open circuit). By doing this, we are able to
obtain a simpler and manageable circuit.
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by
circuit variables.
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Use the superposition principle to find v in the given circuit below.

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Use the superposition principle to find v in the given circuit below.

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Use the superposition principle to find v in the given circuit below.

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Use the superposition principle to find v in the given circuit below.

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MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER
MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER
Maximum power transfer can be best described with the aid
of the circuit shown in figure below. Suppose that a load resistance
RL is connected to a circuit between terminals a and b. We are
interested in finding the power PL delivered to the load and finding
the load resistance RL that maximizes the power delivered to the
load. We first find the Thevenin equivalent circuit with respect to the
terminals a and b. Let Vth be the Thevenin equivalent voltage and
Rth be the Thevenin equivalent resistance.
MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER
The current through the load resistor is given by

Thus, the power delivered to the load is

MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER
Thus the maximum power transfer occurs when the load resistance
RL equals the Thevenin resistance Rth

Thus, the maximum power delivered to RL is

 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit of
figure below. Then find the maximum power transferred.

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit of
figure below. Then find the maximum power transferred.

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit of
figure below. Then find the maximum power transferred.

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit of
figure below. Then find the maximum power transferred.

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THANK YOU!