Final Exam-Biochem

(10pts) 1) Identify those vitamins that when taken in excess would become toxic
into our body. Explain with example.

Vitamins are necessary for us to maintain good health and boost our immune
systems, but excessive intake of non-water-soluble vitamins such as vitamins A, D,
E, and K can cause toxicity when stored in our bodies for an extended period of
time. Excessive vitamin D consumption is one example of this. Even though this
vitamin helps our bodies form and maintain strong bones and healthy teeth, it has a
negative effect if we experience excessive intake of this vitamin, which can cause
accumulations in the liver and symptoms of poisoning. According to a previous book
I read, people who are experiencing toxicity as a result of excessive vitamin D intake
may experience nausea, excess calcium in the blood, decreased appetite, slowed
mental and physical growth, and vomiting.
(10pts) 2) How does the vitamins affect the different metabolisms in our body.
Give an example.
With the help of vitamins, macronutrients such as proteins, carbohydrates,
and lipids can be catabolized to release energy during metabolism. Vitamins are
required as functional components of enzymes involved in the release and storage
of energy. It is also made up of enzymes known as coenzymes or cofactors. An
example of a vitamin that influences metabolism in the body is Vitamin B1, also
known as thiamine. Thiamine is a water-soluble vitamin that aids in the metabolism
of glucose. It functions as a cofactor for enzymes that break down glucose to
produce energy. Furthermore, thiamine participates in the synthesis of ribose from
glucose and is thus required for the synthesis of DNA, RNA, and ATP.
(10pts) 3) Discuss the differences between RNA and DNA, in terms of structure
and function. Identify the difference in the nucleobase of RNA from DNA.
Both RNA and DNA are nucleic acids with sugar, nitrogenous bases, and a
phosphate backbone. They are both involved in the storage of genetic data. DNA,
also known as deoxyribonucleic acid, is made up of the sugar deoxyribose. It is a
double-stranded molecule made up of four nitrogenous bases: adenine, which is
paired with thymine, and guanine, which is paired with cytosine. On the other hand,
RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a single-stranded molecule which is made up of the sugar
ribose and four nitrogenous bases: adenosine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil. We can
see the difference between DNA and RNA in terms of nucleobases. Thymine is found
in DNA, whereas uracil is found in RNA.
(10pts) 4) What if the DNA is not a double helix, what is its implication? Explain
and give example
As I know, DNA must be double stranded to replicate or copy DNA and

synthesize proteins in our cells. The double helix unwinds during DNA replication,
and each separated strand is used to synthesize a new strand. For example, in
protein synthesis, the DNA molecule is transcribed to produce messenger RNA. After
that, the messenger RNA molecule is translated to produce proteins. To allow an
enzyme called RNA polymerase to transcribe the DNA, the DNA double helix must
unwind. Therefore, if the DNA is not a double helix, it will not be able to replicate
DNA or synthesize proteins.
(10pts) 5) Explain why the phosphate group is located at the outer part of the
double helix, whereas, the nucleotide base is located at the inner part of the helix.
Because of their affinity for water, the phosphate group are on the outside of
the double helix, while the nitrogenous bases are on the inside. The phosphate
group is attracted to water, causing it to be in external part of the helix, whereas the
nitrogenous bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine) are hydrophilic,
meaning they should get away from water, causing them to curl inside towards each
other while also bringing them inside the helix to avoid contact with cell fluid. At the
same time, we also understand that charges repel one another. As a result, the
negatively charged phosphates on the outside edges allow the phosphates to go as
far as possible. Nitrogenous base pairs, on the other hand, are held together by
hydrogen bonds. That's why they're crammed inside the helix.
(20pts) 6) Describe Kreb's cycle along with regulation and its energetic. Compare
this with ETC cycle. Provide one example of food that enters either Kreb's or ETC
cycle.
The Krebs or citric acid cycle, is the primary source of energy for cells and is
an essential component of aerobic respiration. The cycle harnesses the available
chemical energy of acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) into the reducing power of
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). The TCA cycle is a component of glucose
metabolism in which glucose is oxidized to form pyruvate, which is then oxidized and
enters the TCA cycle as acetyl-CoA. The Krebs cycle is powered by lipids (fats) and
carbohydrates, both of which produce the molecule acetyl coenzyme-A. (acetyl-
CoA). The electron transport chain, on the other hand, is one of the steps in your
cell's processes that generate energy from the foods we eat.
In terms of the ATP, for every glucose molecule entering glycolysis, the
Krebs cycle (also known as the Citric acid cycle) produces two ATP and six NADH.
This cycle, which takes place inside the mitochondria, also converts pyruvic acid to
carbon dioxide. The CO2 that we exhale is produced by the Krebs cycle. In
contrast, the electron transport chain generates the majority of the energy (34 ATP
molecules, compared to only 2 ATP for Krebs cycle). The electron transport chain
also occurs within the mitochondria. The NADH is converted into ATP at this stage.
I ate rice for breakfast and lunch, which is classified as a carbohydrate. We
all know that carbohydrates are converted into glucose, which is necessary for the
production of energy in the form of ATP to various tissues and cells. This is also
going through Kreb's Cycle, in which glucose is oxidized during glycolysis to
produce
pyruvate, which is then processed through the Krebs cycle to produce NADH,
FADH2, ATP, and CO2. FADH2 and NADH both produce ATP. When hexokinase or
glucokinase enters the cell, it phosphorylates glucose, converting it to glucose-6-
phosphate.
(10pts) 7) List down FIVE different vitamins, its sources from foods and
consequences when this particular vitamin has low levels in our body causing
diseases.
 Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)- found only in citrus fruits, cabbage family
vegetables, mangoes, kiwifruit, cantaloupe, peppers, strawberries, tomatoes,
potatoes, papayas, and lettuce. Severe deficiency, also known as scurvy, can
cause bruising, gum and dental problems, dry hair and skin, and anemia.
 Biotin (vitamin B7)- it is found in many foods and is also produced in the
intestinal tract by bacteria. Biotin deficiency can result in hair thinning and
loss, a rash around the eyes, nose, mouth, and anal area, pinkeye, high levels
of acid in the blood and urine, seizures, skin infection, brittle nails, and
nervous system disorders.
 Pyridoxine (vitamin B6) is found in meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, and fruits.
Because vitamin B6 is found in many foods, deficiency is uncommon, except
in severe malnutrition, which can result from impaired absorption of food,
alcoholism, excessive loss of vitamin B6 during haemodialysis, and use of
drugs that deplete vitamin B6 stored in the body. Peripheral neuropathy and
pellagra-like syndrome are caused by vitamin B6 deficiency.
 Thiamine (vitamin B1)- It is found in moderate amounts in all nutritious foods,
including pork, whole-grain or enriched breads and cereals, legumes, nuts,
and seeds. Thiamine deficiency can cause a drop in heart rate, which can lead
to fatigue and dizziness.
 Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is found in milk and milk products, leafy green
vegetables, whole-grain, enriched breads, and cereals. Fatigue, swollen
throat, blurred vision, and depression can all result from riboflavin
deficiency. It has the potential to cause skin cracking, itching, and dermatitis
around the mouth.
(20pts) 9) Describe in detail the differences of metabolism among protein, lipids

and carbohydrates. Provide examples.
Biomolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are stored in an
absorptive state and oxidized for energy production in a starvation state. Absorption
occurs with biomolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. Carbohydrates
are broken down into glucose, which is then stored as fat or glycogen, synthesized
into other compounds, and oxidized energy, leading to Acetyl-CoA and the Kreb's
cycle, which produces ATP for body fuel. Proteins are broken down into amino acids,
and using the transamination metabolic pathway, amino acids are synthesized into
new protein compounds and oxidized energy, which leads to Acetyl-CoA and then
the Kreb's cycle, which produces ATP for body fuel. Finally, fats are broken down
into fatty acids and glycerol, and through the metabolic pathway of beta-oxidation,
glycerol and fatty acids are stored as triglycerides in fat cells, synthesized into
cellular membranes, and oxidized energy, leading to Acetyl-CoA and then Kreb's
cycle to create ATP for body fuel. During a fat-starvation state, fatty acids are
converted to ketone bodies for use as body fuels, and glycerol is converted to
glucose for use as brain or body cell fuel.

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(10pts) 1) Identify those vitamins that when taken in excess would become toxic

into our body. Explain with example.

As I know, DNA must be double stranded to replicate or copy DNA and

(20pts) 9) Describe in detail the differences of metabolism among protein, lipids

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