Energy for Life

Learning Objectives 1. What is Energy and why is it important for life? 2. What is the relationship between photosynthesis and Respiration? 3. What is ATP?

Energy from Reactions In chemistry you will have heard of endothermic and exothermic reactions. In biology we describe exergonic and endergonic reactions. Exergonic gives out energy. Endergonic takes in energy. The release of energy from the respiration of glucose is an Exergonic reaction. The synthesis of proteins or DNA in a cell however require the input of energy we say that these reactions are Endergonic. It is important for the energy released from exergonic reactions be made available for endergonic reactions. The cell does this by producing a molecule called ATP.

Respiration releases energy slowly in a series of steps so energy is not wasted as heat

ATP
The energy from exergonic reactions is passed to endergonic reactions by the formation of ATP. ATP has a universal role as an immediate source of energy in cells from bacteria, oak trees to elephants. ATP cannot be transported around the body or plant and cannot be stored for long so a continuous supply must be made. ATP can be broken down into ADP and inorganic phosphate by the addition of water (hydrolysis reaction) and catalysed by an enzyme called ATPase. ATP + H2O ADP + P This reaction releases 30.6kJ mol-1 The reverse reaction where ATP is synthesised from ADP and P takes in the same amount of energy. This energy is derived from respiration.
ATPase

Role of ATP in Glycolysis

Uptake of mineral ions in roots

Gas exchange and transport

ATP
Role of ATP in Photosynthesis

Nutrition

Formation and breakdown Importance in transferring energy

Reproduction and growth

Movement of sperm cells

Homeostasis and excretion

Coordination of movement

Active transport in first convoluted tubule of nephron

Cyclic AMP and production of hormones

Contraction of skeletal muscle

Aerobic respiration
Lesson Objectives 1. How the structure of the mitochondria is related to its function 2. Understand how the oxidation of glucose drives respiration 3. Understand the role of glycolysis as the first stage in respiration.

Mitochondria.

1. You will find mitochondria in nearly all eukarotic cells 2. Cells that use lots of energy have lots of mitochondria eg sperm cells, liver cells, intestinal cells muscle cells. 3. The inner membrane is folded into cristae to increase the surface area. 4. ATP is produced by the stalked particles on the cristae of the inner mitochondrial membrane. This is where the

electron transport chain

happens.

5. Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix of the

mitochondria.

Mitochondria in sperm tails

Mitochondria in papillary muscle

1. 2. 3. 4.

Aerobic Respiration actually consists of four distinct stages which you need to be aware of, as well as where they take place in the cell. Glycolysis which takes place in the cytosol of the cytoplasm. The link Reaction taking place in the matrix of the mitochondria. The Krebs Cycle Again taking place in the matrix mitochondria The Electron Transport -chain taking place on the cristae of the mitochondria

Where the stages of Respiration Happen

Glucose

Plasma membrane

Mitochondrion Cytoplasm

Extracellular fluid

Where the stages of Respiration Happen

Glucose

Glycolysis

Pyruvate

ATP

NADH

Plasma membrane

Mitochondrion Cytoplasm

Extracellular fluid

Where the stages of Respiration Happen

Glucose

Glycolysis

Pyruvate

ATP

NADH

Acetyl-CoA

NADH

Plasma membrane

Mitochondrion Cytoplasm

Extracellular fluid

Where the stages of Respiration Happen

Glucose

Glycolysis

Pyruvate

ATP

NADH

Acetyl-CoA
Krebs cycle

NADH

ATP NADH

Plasma membrane

Mitochondrion Cytoplasm

Extracellular fluid
CO2

Where the stages of Respiration Happen

Glucose

Glycolysis

Pyruvate

ATP

NADH

Acetyl-CoA
Krebs cycle

NADH H2O

ATP NADH

Plasma membrane

Mitochondrion Cytoplasm ATP

Extracellular fluid
CO2

O2

Where the stages of Respiration Happen

Glucose

Glycolysis

Pyruvate

Lactate

ATP

NADH

Plasma membrane

Mitochondrion Cytoplasm

Extracellular fluid

Inner membrane

Outer membrane

Inner membrane

Outer membrane

Intermembrane space

Inner membrane

Outer membrane

Intermembrane space

Matrix

Inner membrane

Outer membrane

Cristae

Intermembrane space

Matrix

Inner membrane

Outer membrane

Cristae

Intermembrane space

Matrix

Pore

Inner membrane

Outer membrane

Cristae

Intermembrane space

Matrix

Pore

Matrix

Intermembrane space

Inner membrane

Inner membrane

Outer membrane

Cristae

Intermembrane space

Matrix

Pore

Enzymes of electron transport chain

Matrix

Intermembrane space

Inner membrane

Inner membrane

Outer membrane

Cristae

Intermembrane space

Matrix

Pore

Enzymes of electron transport chain

Matrix

Intermembrane space

Enzymes for ATP synthesis Inner membrane

Inner membrane

Outer membrane

Cristae

Intermembrane space

Matrix

Pore

Enzymes of Krebs cycle Enzymes of electron transport chain Matrix

Intermembrane space

Enzymes for ATP synthesis Inner membrane

Useful Chemistry REDOX reactions involve Reduction and Oxidation.

Oxidation
Electrons are lost Oxygen is added Hydrogen is lost

Reduction
Electrons are gained Oxygen is lost Hydrogen is gained

OILRIG Oxidation Is Loss (of e- and H) Reduction Is Gain (of e- and H)

A REDOX Reaction

o
A + B

A REDOX Reaction

o
A + B

o
A

e B

In this reaction an electron is passed from A to B

A REDOX Reaction
Loss of electron (oxidation)

o
A + B

o
A

e B

A*

A has lost an electron it has been OXIDISED

A REDOX Reaction
Loss of electron (oxidation)

o
A + B

o
A

e B

A*

B*

Gain of electron (reduction)

B has gained an electron it has been REDUCED

A REDOX Reaction
Loss of electron (oxidation)

o
A + B

o
A

e B

A*

B*

Gain of electron (reduction) Low energy High energy

Notice how B has a higher energy level due to being REDUCED REDOX reactions drive respiration high energy electrons are transferred from glucose to electron carriers/Co Enzymes eg NAD & FAD

Oxidation of Glucose to produce Reduced NAD

Glycolysis Overview
1

6-carbon glucose (Starting material) 2 ATP P P

6-carbon sugar diphosphate

Glycolysis Overview
1 2

6-carbon glucose (Starting material) 2 ATP P P

6-carbon sugar diphosphate

6-carbon sugar diphosphate

3-carbon sugar 3-carbon sugar phosphate phosphate

Glycolysis Overview
1 2 3

6-carbon glucose (Starting material) 2 ATP P P

6-carbon sugar diphosphate

6-carbon sugar diphosphate

3-carbon sugar 3-carbon sugar 3-carbon sugar 3-carbon sugar phosphate phosphate phosphate phosphate NADH NADH 2 ATP 2 ATP

3-carbon 3-carbon pyruvate pyruvate

Each molecule of Triose phosphate is oxidised (loosing hydrogen) and its phosphate group. The energy released allows the formation of ATP from inorganic phosphate and ADP in the cytosol. The phosphate from TP is recycled to make another ATP by combining with ADP (substrate level phosphorylation)

Glucose (6C)

ATP
ADP Glucose Phosphate (6C) ATP ADP Fructose Biphosphate (6C)
A molecule of glucose is phosphorylated using two molecules of ATP.

The hydrogen is picked up by the NAD+ to become Reduced NAD

This makes the Now phosphorylated sugar more unstable and easier to split into a 3C sugar Triose Phosphate.

Triose Phosphate (3C) 2ADP 2ATP Pyruvate (3C)

NAD

Triose Phosphate (3C)

NAD

2ADP 2ATP Pyruvate (3C)

Reduced NAD

Reduced NAD

6C Glucose is now 3C Pyruvate 2ATP were used in process but 4ATP were made net gain of 2ATP.

How Glycolysis works.

The Link Reaction and Krebs Cycle

Lesson Objectives 1. Understand that a link reaction prepares pyruvate for further reactions under aerobic conditions. Understand subsequent reactions of the Krebs Cycle and the importance of the electron carriers NAD and FAD. Understand the Fate of a molecule of Glucose at the end of Krebs. Understand where in the cell each stage takes place.

2.
3. 4.

The Link Reaction Pyruvate (3C)

If oxygen is available the Pyruvate goes into the matrix of the mitochondria via active transport.

Pyruvate Decarboxylated

C02

NAD+ Reduced NAD (NADH)

At the same time Pyruvate is being oxidised losing hydrogen to NAD+ No ATP is made during the link reaction.

Coenzyme A
Acetyl is take up by Coenzyme A to form Acetyl Co A

Acetyl (2C)

The Reduced NAD will however go on to make ATP in the Electron Transport Chain.
Acetyl Co Co (2C) Acetyl A A Acetyl Co A will now enter the next stage of respiration The Krebs Cycle to be further oxidised.

Understanding where the Link reaction takes place

Understanding where the Link reaction takes place

Understanding where the Link reaction takes place

Understanding where the Link reaction takes place

Understanding where the Link reaction takes place

Understanding where the Link reaction takes place

Understanding where the Link reaction takes place

Understanding where the Link reaction takes place

Understanding where the Link reaction takes place

Understanding where the Link reaction takes place

Understanding where the Link reaction takes place

Remember this is for one molecule of pyruvate

One molecule of pyruvate generates one reduced NAD

There will be two link reactions for one molecule of glucose therefore two reduced NAD

An Overview of Krebs Cycle

1
CoA (Acetyl-CoA)

4-carbon molecule (Starting material) 6-carbon molecule

An Overview of Krebs Cycle

1
CoA (Acetyl-CoA)

4-carbon molecule (Starting material) 6-carbon molecule

6-carbon molecule NADH CO2 4-carbon molecule ATP 5-carbon molecule NADH CO2

An Overview of Krebs Cycle

1
CoA (Acetyl-CoA)

4-carbon molecule (Starting material) 6-carbon molecule

6-carbon molecule NADH CO2 4-carbon molecule ATP 5-carbon molecule NADH CO2

4-carbon molecule (Starting material) NADH FADH2 4-carbon molecule

The Krebs Cycle

Acetyl Co A (2C) Co A

ATP

Oxaloacetate (4C)

NADH NAD FADH2 FAD NADH NAD CO2

Carbon compounds are oxidised loose hydrogens to produce coenzymes.

Citric Acid (6C)

decarboxylation

CO2

Co enzymes are then used in ect to generate ATP

Ketogluterate (5C)

NAD NADH

How the Krebs Cycle works

How it adds up. Process Glycolysis ATP made Reduced NAD 2 2 Reduced FAD 0

Link reaction
Krebs

0
2

2
6

0
2

Totals

10

The Electron Transport Chain Lesson Objectives 1. 2. 3. What is the Fate of the reduced FAD and NAD? How the ETC uses chemiosmosis via a series of redox reactions to generate ATP. Establish the difference between Substrate level Phosphorylation and oxidative Phosphorylation.

Inner membrane

Outer membrane

Cristae

Intermembrane space

Matrix

Pore

Enzymes of Krebs cycle Enzymes of electron transport chain Matrix

Intermembrane space

Enzymes for ATP synthesis Inner membrane

Proteins of the ETC

ATP Synthase

ETC Establishing a proton gradient in the intermembrane space to drive ATPsynthase

ETC Establishing a proton gradient in the intermembrane space to drive ATPsynthase

ETC Establishing a proton gradient in the intermembrane space to drive ATPsynthase

ETC Establishing a proton gradient in the intermembrane space to drive ATPsynthase

ETC Establishing a proton gradient in the intermembrane space to drive ATPsynthase

ETC Establishing a proton gradient in the intermembrane space to drive ATPsynthase

How the electron transport chain works

The ETC The electron transport chain consists of a series of protein complexes on the inner mitochondrial membrane which is folded into christae to provide a large S/A. Electrons are delivered to the ETC by reduced NAD and Reduced FAD The electrons pass from one protein to the other in a series of REDOX reactions which release energy. This is coupled with pumping protons into the intermembrane space. (Chemiosmosis) The flow of protons down a gradient through the ATPsynthase complex generates ATP form ADP and Pi. This is called Oxidative Phosphorylation as opposed to substrate level phosphorylation which happens in Glycolysis and Krebs.

The theoretical ATP yield for Aerobic Respiration

Glucose

1 NADH = 2.5 ATP 1FADH2 = 1.5 ATP

ATP

Glycolysis Pyruvate 2 NADH 2 NADH

2 5 5

ATP ATP ATP

ATP made in Glycolysis and Krebs cycle are by

Acetyl-CoA 2

ATP ATP
ATP

substrate level phosphorylation.

ATP made in the ETC are made by

Krebs cycle

6 NADH 2 FADH2

15 3

oxidative phosphorylation

Total net ATP yield = 32

ATP

Anaerobic Respiration
Lesson Objectives 1. Understand how ATP production continues in the absence of oxygen. 2. Understand why NADH needs to be oxidised to allow the continuation of Glycolysis. 3. Understand the difference between lactate and ethanol fermentation

The link reaction will only take place if oxygen is available

Without oxygen available the electron transport chain stops.

This stops the oxidation of NADH. This in turn prevents free NAD being able to oxidize the intermediates in Krebs. Which in turn stops the link reaction.

Pyruvate builds in the Cytosol.

Glycolysis will also stop if NAD is not available

Lactic acid fermentation

Glycolysis is an anaerobic process producing pyruvate, ATP and NADH.

The NADH is oxidised to NAD by donating hydrogens to pyruvate.

This generates a molecule of Lactate. The NAD is now available to oxidise TP in glycolysis so that ATP production can continue in the absence of O2

Animals, protists, and many bacteria and fungi make lactate and release two molecules of ATP, enough to regenerate some NAD to keep glycolysis running.

Ethanol fermentation

Glycolysis is an anaerobic process producing pyruvate, ATP and NADH.

In ethanol fermentation the pyruvate is decarboxylated to ethanal (acetaldehyde)

The NADH is oxidised to NAD by donating hydrogens to ethanal.

This generates a molecule of ethanol. The NAD is now available to oxidise TP in glycolysis so that ATP production can continue in the absence of O2

Most plant cells and yeasts (fungi) breakdown pyruvate to ethanal releasing CO2