c02_1 12/02/2008 45

2
BASIC SENSORS AND
PRINCIPLES
Robert A. Peura and John G. Webster

This chapter deals with basic mechanisms and principles of the sensors used in
a number of medical instruments. A transducer is a device that converts energy
from one form to another. A sensor converts a physical parameter to an electric
output. An actuator converts an electric signal to a physical output. An electric
output from the sensor is normally desirable because of the advantages it gives
in further signal processing (Pallas-Areny and Webster, 2001). As we shall see
in this chapter, there are many methods used to convert physiological events to
electric signals. Dimensional changes may be measured by variations in
resistance, inductance, capacitance, and piezoelectric effect. Thermistors
and thermocouples are employed to measure body temperatures. Electro-
magnetic-radiation sensors include thermal and photon detectors. In our
discussion of the design of medical instruments in the following chapters,
we shall use the principles described in this chapter (Togawa et al., 1997).

2.1 DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENTS

The physician and biomedical researcher are interested in measuring the size,
shape, and position of the organs and tissues of the body. Variations in these
parameters are important in discriminating normal from abnormal function.
Displacement sensors can be used in both direct and indirect systems of
measurement. Direct measurements of displacement are used to determine
the change in diameter of blood vessels and the changes in volume and shape of
cardiac chambers.
Indirect measurements of displacement are used to quantify movements of
liquids through heart valves. An example is the movement of a microphone
diaphragm that detects the movement of the heart indirectly and the resulting
heart murmurs.
Here we will describe the following types of displacement-sensitive
measurement methods: resistive, inductive, capacitive, and piezoelectric
(Nyce, 2004).

45
c02_1 12/02/2008 46

46 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

2.2 RESISTIVE SENSORS

POTENTIOMETERS
Figure 2.1 shows three types of potentiometric devices for measuring displace-
ment. The potentiometer shown in Figure 2.1(a) measures translational dis-
placements from 2 to 500 mm. Rotational displacements ranging from 108 to
more than 508 are detected as shown in Figure 2.1(b) and (c). The resistance
elements (composed of wire-wound, carbon-film, metal-film, conducting-
plastic, or ceramic material) may be excited by either dc or ac voltages. These
potentiometers produce a linear output (within 0.01% of full scale) as a function
of displacement, provided that the potentiometer is not electrically loaded.
The resolution of these potentiometers is a function of the construction. It
is possible to achieve a continuous stepless conversion of resistance for low-
resistance values up to 10 V by utilizing a straight piece of wire. For greater
variations in resistance, from several ohms to several megohms, the resistance
wire is wound on a mandrel or card. The variation in resistance is thereby not
continuous, but rather stepwise, because the wiper moves from one turn of
wire to the next. The fundamental limitation of the resolution is a function of
the wire spacing, which may be as small as 20 mm. The frictional and inertial
components of these potentiometers should be low in order to minimize
dynamic distortion of the system.

STRAIN GAGES
When a fine wire (25 mm) is strained within its elastic limit, the wire’s resistance
changes because of changes in the diameter, length, and resistivity. The
resulting strain gages may be used to measure extremely small displacements,
on the order of nanometers. The following derivation shows how each of these
parameters influences the resistance change. The basic equation for the

Figure 2.1 Three types of potentiometric devices for measuring displace-

ments (a) Translational. (b) Single-turn, (c) Multiturn. (From Measurement
Systems: Application and Design, by E. O. Doebelin. Copyright # 1990 by
McGraw-Hill, Inc. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Co.)
c02_1 12/02/2008 47

2.2 RESISTIVE SENSORS 47

resistance R of a wire with resistivity r (ohm
meter), length L (meters), and

cross-sectional area A (meter squared) is given by

rL
R¼ (2.1)
A
The differential change in R is found by taking the differential

rdL dr
dR ¼  rA2 L dA þ L (2.2)
A A
We shall modify this expression so that it represents finite changes in the
parameters and is also a function of standard mechanical coefficients. Thus
dividing members of (2.2) by corresponding members of (2.1) and introducing
incremental values, we get

DR DL DA Dr
¼  þ (2.3)
R L A r

Poisson’s ratio m. relates the change in diameter DD to the change in length:

DD=D ¼ m DL=L. Substituting this into the center term of (2.3) yields
DR DL Dr
¼ ð1 þ 2mÞ þ (2.4)
R L ffl}
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl r
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
Dimensional Piezoresistive
effect effect

Note that the change in resistance is a function of changes in dimension—

length ðDL=LÞ and area ð2m DL=LÞ—plus the change in resistivity due to
strain-induced changes in the lattice structure of the material, Dr=r. The gage
factor G, found by dividing (2.4) by DL=L, is useful in comparing various
strain-gage materials.

DR=R Dr=r
G¼ ¼ ð1 þ 2mÞ þ (2.5)
DL=L DL=L

Table 2.1 gives the gage factors and temperature coefficient of resistivity of various
strain-gage materials. Note that the gage factor for semiconductor materials is
approximately 50 to 70 times that of the metals.
Also note that the gage factor for metals is primarily a function of
dimensional effects. For most metals, m ¼ 0:3 and thus G is at least 1.6,
whereas for semiconductors, the piezoresistive effect is dominant. The desir-
able feature of higher gage factors for semiconductor devices is offset by their
greater resistivity–temperature coefficient.
Designs for instruments that use semiconductor materials must incorpo-
rate temperature compensation.
Strain gages can be classified as either unbonded or bonded. An unbonded
strain-gage unit is shown in Figure 2.2(a). The four sets of strain-sensitive wires
c02_1 12/02/2008 48

48 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

Table 2.1 Properties of Strain-Gage Materials

Temperature
Coefficient of
Resistivity
Material Composition (%) Gage Factor (˚ Cⴚ1ⴚ10ⴚ5)

Constantan Ni45, Cu55 2.1 2

(advance)
Isoelastic Ni36, Cr8 3.52 to 3.6 þ17
(Mn, Si, Mo)4
Fe52
Karma Ni74, Cr20, Fe3 2.1 þ2
Cu3
Manganin Cu84, Mnl2, Ni4 0.3 to 0.47 2
Alloy 479 Pt92,W8 3.6 to 4.4 þ24
Nickel Pure 12 to 20 670
Nichrome V Ni80, Cr20 2.1 to 2.63 10
Silicon ( p type) 100 to 170 70 to 700
Silicon (n type) 100 to 140 70 to 700
Germanium (p type) 102
Germanium (n type) 150

SOURCE: From R. S. C. Cobbold, Transducers for Biomedical Measurements, 1974, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.. Used with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

are connected to form a Wheatstone bridge, as shown in Figure 2.2(b). These

wires are mounted under stress between the frame and the movable armature
such that preload is greater than any expected external compressive load. This
is necessary to avoid putting the wires in compression. This type of sensor may
be used for converting blood pressure to diaphragm movement, to resistance
change, then to an electric signal.
A bonded strain-gage element, consisting of a metallic wire, etched foil,
vacuum-deposited film, or semiconductor bar, is cemented to the strained
surface. Figure 2.3 shows typical bonded strain gages. The deviation from
linearity is approximately 1%. One method of temperature compensation for
the natural temperature sensitivity of bonded strain gages involves using a
second strain gage as a dummy element that is also exposed to the temperature
variation, but not to strain. When possible, the four-arm bridge shown in
Figure 2.2 should be used, because it not only provides temperature compen-
sation but also yields four times greater output if all four arms contain active
gages. Four bonded metal strain gages can be used on cantilever beams to
measure bite force in dental research (Dechow, 2006).
Strain-gage technology advanced in the 1960s with the introduction of the
semiconductor strain-gage element, which has the advantage of having a high
gage factor, as shown in Table 2.1. However, it is more temperature sensitive
and inherently more nonlinear than metal strain gages because the piezo-
resistive effect varies with strain. Semiconductor elements can be used as
c02_1 12/02/2008 49

2.2 RESISTIVE SENSORS 49

Figure 2.2 (a) Unbonded strain-gage pressure sensor. The diaphragm is

directly coupled by an armature to an unbonded strain-gage system. With
increasing pressure, the strain on gage pair B and C is increased, while that on
gage pair A and D is decreased. (b) Wheatstone bridge with four active
elements: R1 ¼ B; R2 ¼ A; R3 ¼ D, and R4 ¼ C when the unbonded strain
gage is connected for translational motion. Resistor Ry and potentiometer Rx
are used to initially balance the bridge, Vi is the applied voltage, and Dv o is the
output voltage on a voltmeter or similar device with an internal resistance of Ri.

Figure 2.3 Typical bonded strain-gage units (a) resistance-wire type, (b) foil
type, (c) helical-wire type. Arrows above units show direction of maximal
sensitivity to strain. [Parts (a) and (b) are modified from Instrumentation in
Scientific Research, K. S. Lion. Copyright # 1959 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Used
with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Co.]
c02_1 12/02/2008 50

50 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

bonded, unbonded, or integrated strain-gage units. These integrated devices

can be constructed with either silicon or germanium p or n type as the substrate
that forms the structural member. The opposite-type material is diffused into
the substrate. Opposite signs for the gage factor result for n- and p-type
substrate gages. A large gage factor can be attained with lightly doped
material. Figure 2.4 shows typical semiconductor strain-gage units.

(a)

p Top view
A n A
p-type
diffused
layer
p
A– A
n Cross-sectional view
(b)

Clamp
(+) T1 n-type Si
plane T2 Q1

Q1(–) T1 Q2
(+) (+) Silicon
S1 S2
R1 (–) (–) R2 P1 P2
Q2 (–) S1 R2

(+) T2 S2 R1

Diffused
p region (c)
R1 p-type diffused layer
n Side view
R2
p F

R3
n Top view
R1

p
Figure 2.4 Typical semiconductor strain-gage units (a) unbonded, uniformly
doped, (b) diffused p-type gage, (c) integrated pressure sensor, (d) integrated
cantilever-beam force sensor. (From Transducers for Medical Measurements:
Application and Design, R. S. C. Cobbold. Copyright # 1974, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
c02_1 12/02/2008 51

2.2 RESISTIVE SENSORS 51

Figure 2.5 Isolation in a disposable blood-pressure sensor Disposable blood-

pressure sensors are made of clear plastic so air bubbles are easily seen. Saline
flows from an intravenous (IV) bag through the clear IV tubing and the sensor
to the patient. This flushes blood out of the tip of the indwelling catheter to
prevent clotting. A lever can open or close the flush valve. The silicon chip has
a silicon diaphragm with a four-resistor Wheatstone bridge diffused into it. Its
electrical connections are protected from the saline by a compliant silicone
elastomer gel, which also provides electrical isolation. This prevents electric
shock from the sensor to the patient and prevents destructive currents during
defibrillation from the patient to the silicon chip.

The integrated-type sensor has an advantage in that a pressure sensor can

be fabricated by using a silicon substrate for the structural member of the
diaphragm. The gages are diffused directly onto the diaphragm. When pressure
is applied to the diaphragm, a radial stress component occurs at the edge. The
sign of this component is opposite to that of the tangential stress component
near the center. The placement of the eight diffused strain-gage units shown in
Figure 2.4(c) gives high sensitivity and good temperature compensation
(Cobbold, 1974). Figure 2.5 shows a disposable blood-pressure sensor that
uses an integrated silicon chip. Silicon strain-gage pressure sensors can be
placed on the tip of a catheter and inserted directly into the blood, resulting in
more accurate measurements and faster response times (Korites, 1987).
Elastic-resistance strain gages are extensively used in biomedical applica-
tions, especially in cardiovascular and respiratory dimensional and plethysmo-
graphic (volume-measuring) determinations. These systems normally consist of a
narrow silicone-rubber tube [0.5 mm inner diameter (ID), 2 mm outer diameter
(OD)] from 3 to 25 cm long and filled with mercury or with an electrolyte or
conductive paste. The ends of the tube are sealed with electrodes (amalgamated
copper, silver, or platinum). As the tube stretches, the diameter of the tube
decreases and the length increases, causing the resistance to increase. The
resistance per unit length of typical gages is approximately 0.02 to 2 V/cm. These
units measure much higher displacements than other gages.
The elastic strain gage is linear within 1% for 10% of maximal extension.
As the extension is increased to 30% of maximum, the nonlinearity reaches 4%
of full scale. The initial nonlinearity (dead band) is ascribed to slackness of the
c02_1 12/02/2008 52

52 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

unit. Long-term creep is a property of the rubber tubing. This is not a problem
for dynamic measurements.
Operational problems include maintaining a good contact between the mer-
cury and the electrodes, ensuring continuity of the mercury column, and controll-
ing the drift in resistance due to a relatively large gage temperature coefficient.
In addition, accurate calibration is difficult because of the mass-elasticity and
stress–strain relations of the tissue–strain-gage complex. The low value of resist-
ance means more power is required to operate these strain-gage units.
Lawton and Collins (1959) determined the static and dynamic response of
elastic strain gages. They found that the amplitude and phase were constant up
to 10 Hz. Significant distortion occurred for frequencies greater than 30 Hz.
Cobbold (1974) indicated that a problem not fully appreciated is that the gage
does not distend fully during pulsations when diameter of the vessel is being
measured. The mass of the gage and its finite mechanical resistance can cause it
to dig into the vessel wall as the vessel expands, so it can give a reading several
times lower than that measured using ultrasonic or cineangiographic methods.
Hokanson et al. (1975) described an electrically calibrated mercury-in-
rubber strain gage. Lead-wire errors are common with these devices because of
the low resistance of the strain gage. In Hokanson’s design, the problem was
eliminated by effectively placing the strain gage at the corners of the mea-
surement bridge. A constant-current source causes an output that is linear for
large changes in gage resistance. Figure 2.6 shows the device and its output
when applied to the human calf.

Figure 2.6 Mercury-in-rubber strain-gage plethysmography (a) Four-lead

gage applied to human calf, (b) Bridge output for venous-occlusion plethys-
mography. (c) Bridge output for arterial-pulse plethysmography. [Part (a) is
based on D. E. Hokanson, D. S. Sumner, and D. E. Strandness, Jr., ‘‘An
electrically calibrated plethysmograph for direct measurement of limb blood
flow.’’ 1975, BME-22, 25–29; used with permission of IEEE Trans. Biomed.
Eng., 1975, New York.]
c02_1 12/02/2008 53

2.4 INDUCTIVE SENSORS 53

2.3 BRIDGE CIRCUITS

The Wheatstone bridge circuit is ideal for measuring small changes in resist-
ance. Figure 2.2(b) shows a Wheatstone bridge with an applied dc voltage of v i
and a readout meter Dv o with internal resistance Ri. It can be shown by the
voltage-divider approach that Dv o is zero—that is, the bridge is balanced—
when R1 =R2 ¼ R4 =R3 .
Resistance-type sensors may be connected in one or more arms of a bridge
circuit. The variation in resistance can be detected by measuring Dv o with a
differential amplifier feeding an analog-to-digital converter (ADC), which
feeds a computer.
Assume that all values of resistance of the bridge are initially equal to R0
and that R0  R1 . An increase in resistance, DR, of all resistances still results in
a balanced bridge. However, if R1 and R3 increase by DR, and R2 and R4
decrease by DR, then
DR
Dv o ¼ vi (2.6)
R0
Because of the symmetry a similar expression results if R2 and R4 increase by
DR and R1 and R3 decrease by DR. Note that (2.6), for the four-active-arm
bridge, shows that Dv o is linearly related to DR. A nonlinearity in DR=R0 is
present even when R0 =R1 ¼ 0.
It is common practice to incorporate a balancing scheme in the bridge
circuit [see Figure 2.2(b)]. Resistor Ry and potentiometer Rx are used to
change the initial resistance of one or more arms. This arrangement brings the
bridge into balance so that zero voltage output results from ‘‘zero’’ (or base-
level) input of the measured parameter.
To minimize loading effects, Rx is approximately 10 times the resistance of
the bridge leg, and Ry limits the maximal adjustment. Strain-gage applications
normally use a value of Ry ¼ 25 times the resistance of the bridge leg.
Alternating-current (ac) balancing circuits are more complicated because a
reactive as well as a resistive imbalance must be compensated.

2.4 INDUCTIVE SENSORS

An inductance L can be used to measure displacement by varying any three of

the coil parameters:
L ¼ n2 Gm (2.7)
where
n ¼ number of turns of coil
G ¼ geometric form factor
m ¼ effective permeability of the medium
Each of these parameters can be changed by mechanical means.
c02_1 12/02/2008 54

54 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

Figure 2.7 Inductive displacement sensors (a) self-inductance, (b) mutual

inductance, (c) differential transformer.

Figure 2.7 shows (a) self-inductance, (b) mutual-inductance, and (c) differ-
ential transformer types of inductive displacement sensors. It is usually possible to
convert a mutual-inductance system into a self-inductance system by series of
parallel connections of the coils. Note in Figure 2.7 that the mutual-inductance
device (b) becomes a self-inductancedevice (a) whenterminals b–c are connected.
An inductive sensor has an advantage in not being affected by the
dielectric properties of its environment. However, it may be affected by
external magnetic fields due to the proximity of magnetic materials.
The variable-inductance method employing a single displaceable core is
shown in Figure 2.7(a). This device works on the principle that alterations in
the self-inductance of a coil may be produced by changing the geometric form
factor or the movement of a magnetic core within the coil. The change in
inductance for this device is not linearly related to displacement. The fact that
these devices have low power requirements and produce large variations in
inductance makes them attractive for radiotelemetry applications.
The mutual-inductance sensor employs two separate coils and uses the varia-
tion in their mutual magnetic coupling to measure displacement [Figure 2.7(b)].
Cobbold (1974) describes the application of these devices in measuring cardiac
dimensions, monitoring infant respiration, and ascertaining arterial diameters.
Van Citters (1966) provides a good description of applications of mutual
inductance transformers in measuring changes in dimension of internal organs
(kidney, major blood vessels, and left ventricle). The induced voltage in the
secondary coil is a function of the geometry of the coils (separation and axial
alignment), the number of primary and secondary turns, and the frequency and
amplitude of the excitation voltage. The induced voltage in the secondary coil
is a nonlinear function of the separation of the coils. In order to maximize the
output signal, a frequency is selected that causes the secondary coil (tuned
circuit) to be in resonance. The output voltage is detected with standard
demodulator and amplifier circuits.
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is widely used in
physiological research and clinical medicine to measure pressure, displacement,
and force (Kesavan and Reddy, 2006). As shown in Figure 2.7(c), the LVDT is
composed of a primary coil (terminals a–b) and two secondary coils (c–e and d–e)
connected in series. The coupling between these two coils is changed by the
c02_1 12/02/2008 55

2.4 INDUCTIVE SENSORS 55

motion of a high-permeability alloy slug between them. The two secondary

coils are connected in opposition in order to achieve a wider region of linearity.
The primary coil is sinusoidally excited, with a frequency between 60 Hz
and 20 kHz. The alternating magnetic field induces nearly equal voltages v ce
and v de in the secondary coils. The output voltage v cd ¼ v ce  v de . When the
slug is symmetrically placed, the two secondary voltages are equal and the
output signal is zero.
Linear variable differential transformer characteristics include linearity
over a large range, a change of phase by 1808 when the core passes through the
center position, and saturation on the ends. Specifications of commercially
available LVDTs include sensitivities on the order of 0.5 to 2 mV for a
displacement of 0.01 mm/V of primary voltage, full-scale displacement of
0.1 to 250 mm, and linearity of 0.25%. Sensitivity for LVDTs is much higher
than that for strain gages.
A disadvantage of the LVDT is that it requires more complex signal-
processing instrumentation. Figure 2.8 shows that essentially the same

Figure 2.8 (a) As x moves through the null position, the phase changes 1808,
while the magnitude of v o is proportional to the magnitude of x. (b) An
ordinary rectifier demodulator cannot distinguish between (a) and (b), so a
phase-sensitive demodulator is required.
c02_1 12/02/2008 56

56 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

magnitude of output voltage results from two very different input displace-
ments. The direction of displacement may be determined by using the fact that
there is a 1808 phase shift when the core passes through the null position. A
phase-sensitive demodulator is used to determine the direction of displace-
ment. Figure 3.17 shows a ring-demodulator system that could be used with the
LVDT.

2.5 CAPACITIVE SENSORS

The capacitance between two parallel plates of area A separated by distance

x is

A
C ¼ e0 er (2.8)
x
where e0 is the dielectric constant of free space (Appendix A.1) and er is the
relative dielectric constant of the insulator (1.0 for air) (Bowman and Meindl,
1988). In principle it is possible to monitor displacement by changing any of
the three parameters er , A, or x. However, the method that is easiest to
implement and that is most commonly used is to change the separation
between the plates.
The sensitivity K of a capacitive sensor to changes in plate separation Dx is
found by differentiating (2.8).

DC A
K¼ ¼ e0 er 2 (2.9)
Dx x
Note that the sensitivity increases as the plate separation decreases.
By substituting (2.8) into (2.9), we can develop an expression showing that
the percent change in C about any neutral point is equal to the per-unit change
in x for small displacements. Thus

dC C
¼ (2.10)
dx x
or

dC dx
¼ (2.11)
C x

The capacitance microphone shown in Figure 2.9 is an excellent example of a

relatively simple method for detecting variation in capacitance (Doebelin,
1990; Cobbold, 1974). This is a dc-excited circuit, so no current flows when the
capacitor is stationary (with separation x0), and thus v 1 ¼ E. A change in
c02_1 12/02/2008 57

2.5 CAPACITIVE SENSORS 57

Figure 2.9 Capacitance sensor for measuring dynamic displacement

changes.

position Dx ¼ x1  x0 produces a voltage v o ¼ v 1  E. The output voltage Vo is

related to x1 by
Vo ð jvÞ ðE=x0 Þ jvt
¼ (2.12)
X1 ð jvÞ jvt þ 1

where t ¼ RC ¼ Re0 er A=x0 .

Typically, R is 1 MV or higher, and thus the readout device must have a
high (10 MV or higher) input impedance.
For vt  1; V0 ð jvÞ=X1 ð jvÞ ffi E=x0 , which is a constant. However, the
response drops off for low frequencies, and it is zero when v ¼ 0. Thus (2.12)
describes a high-pass filter. This frequency response is quite adequate for a
microphone that does not measure sound pressures at frequencies below
20 Hz. However, it is inadequate for measuring most physiological variables
because of their low-frequency components.
Compliant plastics of different dielectric constants may be placed between foil
layers to form a capacitive mat to be placed on a bed. Patient movement generates
charge, which is amplified and filtered to display respiratory movements from the
lungs and ballistographic movements from the heart (Alihanka et al, 1982).
A capacitance sensor can be fabricated from layers of mica insulators
sandwiched between corrugated metal layers. Applied pressure flattens the
corrugations and moves the metallic plates closer to each other, thus increasing
the capacitance. The sensor is not damaged by large overloads, because flattening
of the corrugations does not cause the metal to yield. The sensor measures the
pressure between the foot and the shoe (Patel et al., 1989). Tsoukalas et al. (2006)
describe micromachined silicon capacitive sensors and their electronic interfaces.

EXAMPLE 2.1 For a 1 cm2 capacitance sensor, R is 100 MV. Calculate x,

the plate spacing required to pass sound frequencies above 20 Hz.

ANSWER From the corner frequency, C ¼ 1=2pfR ¼ 1=ð2p20  108 Þ ¼

80 pF From (2.8) we can calculate x given the value of C.

e0 er A ð8:854  1012 Þð1  104 Þ

x¼ ¼ ¼ 1:11  105 m ¼ 11:1 mm
C 80  1012
c02_1 12/02/2008 58

58 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

2.6 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS

Piezoelectric sensors are used to measure physiological displacements and

record heart sounds. Piezoelectric materials generate an electric potential
when mechanically strained, and conversely an electric potential can cause
physical deformation of the material. The principle of operation is that when
an asymmetrical crystal lattice is distorted, a charge reorientation takes place,
causing a relative displacement of negative and positive charges. The displaced
internal charges induce surface charges of opposite polarity on opposite sides
of the crystal. Surface charge can be determined by measuring the difference in
voltage between electrodes attached to the surfaces.
Initially, we assume infinite leakage resistance. Then, the total induced
charge q is directly proportional to the applied force f.

q ¼ kf (2.13)

where k is the piezoelectric constant, C=N. The change in voltage can be found
by assuming that the system acts like a parallel-plate capacitor where the
voltage v across the capacitor is charge q divided by capacitance C. Then, by
substitution of (2.8), we get

kf kfx
v¼ ¼ (2.14)
C e0 er A

Tables of piezoelectric constants are given in the literature (Lion, 1959; and
Cobbold, 1974).
Typical values for k are 2.3 pC=N for quartz and 140 pC=N for barium
titanate. For a piezoelectric sensor of 1 cm2 area and 1 mm thickness with an
applied force due to a 10 g weight, the output voltage v is 0.23 mV and 14 mV
for the quartz and barium titanate crystals, respectively.
There are various modes of operation of piezoelectric sensors, depending
on the material and the crystallographic orientation of the plate (Lion, 1959).
These modes include the thickness or longitudinal compression, transversal
compression, thickness-shear action, and face-shear action.
Also available are piezoelectric polymeric films, such as polyvinylidene
fluoride (PVDF) (Hennig, 1988; Webster, 1988). These films are very thin,
lightweight and pliant, and they can be cut easily and adapted to uneven
surfaces. The low mechanical quality factor does not permit resonance appli-
cations, but it permits acoustical broadband applications for microphones and
loudspeakers.
Piezoelectric materials have a high but finite resistance. As a consequence,
if a static deflection x is applied, the charge leaks through the leakage resistor
(on the order of 100 GV). It is obviously quite important that the input
impedance of the external voltage-measuring device be an order of magnitude
higher than that of the piezoelectric sensor. It would be helpful to look at the
c02_1 12/02/2008 59

2.6 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS 59

Figure 2.10 (a) Equivalent circuit of piezoelectric sensor, where Rs = sensor

leakage resistance, Cs = sensor capacitance, Cc = cable capacitance, Ca =
amplifier input capacitance, Ra = amplifier input resistance, and q = charge
generator. (b) Modified equivalent circuit with current generator replacing
charge generator. (From Measurement Systems: Application and Design, by E.
O. Doebelin. Copyright # 1990 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Used with permission of
McGraw-Hill Book Co.)

equivalent circuit for the piezoelectric sensor [Figure 2.10(a)] in order to

quantify its dynamic-response characteristics.
This circuit has a charge generator q defined by

q ¼ Kx (2.15)

where where
K ¼ proportionality constant, C/m
x ¼ deflection

The circuit may be simplified by converting the charge generator to a

current generator, is.

dq dx
is ¼ ¼K (2.16)
dt dt
c02_1 12/02/2008 60

60 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

The modified circuit is shown in Figure 2.10(b), where the resistances and
capacitances have been combined. Assuming that the amplifier does not draw
any current, we then have

is ¼ iC þ iR (2.17)
 Z
1
vo ¼ vC ¼ iC dt (2.18)
C
 
dv o dx v o
is  iR ¼ C ¼K  (2.19)
dt dt R

or
Vo ð jvÞ Ks jvt
¼ (2.20)
Xð jvÞ jvt þ 1

where
Ks ¼ K=C (sensitivity, V/m)
t ¼ RC (time constant)

EXAMPLE 2.2 A piezoelectric sensor has C ¼ 500 pF. The sensor leakage
resistance is 10 GV. The amplifier input impedance is 5 MV. What is the low-
corner frequency?

ANSWER We may use the modified equivalent circuit of the piezoelectric

sensor given in Figure 2.10(b) for this calculation.

fc ¼ 1=ð2pRCÞ ¼ 1=½2pð5  106 Þð500  1012 Þ ¼ 64 Hz

Note that by increasing the input impedance of the amplifier by a factor of 100,
we can lower the low-corner frequency to 0.64 Hz.

EXAMPLE 2.3 For a piezoelectric sensor plus cable that has 1 nF capaci-
tance, design a voltage amplifier (not a charge amplifier) by using only one
noninverting amplifier that has a gain of 10. It should handle a charge of 1 mC
generated by the carotid pulse without saturation. It should not drift into
saturation because of bias currents. It should have a frequency response from
0.05 to 100 Hz. Add the minimal number of extra components to achieve the
design specifications.

ANSWER Calculate the voltage from V ¼ Q=C ¼ 1 mC=1 nF ¼ 1 kV. Be-

cause this is too high, add a shunt capacitor Cs ¼ 1 mF to achieve 1.0 V.
Allow for a gain of 10. To achieve low-corner frequency, add shunt
c02_1 12/02/2008 61

2.6 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS 61

Figure 2.11 Sensor response to a step displacement (From Doebelin, E. O.

1990. Measurement Systems: Application and Design, New York: McGraw-
Hill.)

Rs ¼ 1=2pfc C ¼ 1=2pð0:05Þð1 mFÞ ¼ 3:2 MV. To achieve gain of þ10 in a

noninverting amplifier, select Rf ¼ 10 kV and Ri ¼ 11:1 kV. To achieve
high-corner frequency, Cf ¼ 1=2pfc Rf ¼ 1=2pð100Þð10 kVÞ ¼ 160 nF.

Figure 2.11 shows the voltage-output response of a piezoelectric sensor to

a step displacement x. The output decays exponentially because of the finite
internal resistance of the piezoelectric material. At time equal to T the force is
released, and a displacement restoration results that is equal to and opposite of
the original displacement. This causes a sudden decrease in voltage of magni-
tude Kx=C, with a resulting undershoot equal to the decay prior to the release
of the displacement. The decay and undershoot can be minimized by increas-
ing the time constant, t ¼ RC. The simplest approach to increasing t is to add a
parallel capacitor. However, doing so reduces the sensitivity in the midband
frequencies according to (2.20).
Another approach to improving the low-frequency response is to use the
charge amplifier described in Section 3.8.
Because of its mechanical resonance, the high-frequency equivalent
circuit for a piezoelectric sensor is complex. This effect can be represented
by adding a series RLC circuit in parallel with the sensor capacitance and
leakage resistance. Figure 2.12 shows the high-frequency equivalent circuit
and its frequency response. Note that in some applications—for example, in
the case of crystal filters—the mechanical resonance is useful for accurate
frequency control.
Piezoelectric sensors are used quite extensively in cardiology for external
(body-surface) and internal (intracardiac) phonocardiography. They are also
used in the detection of Korotkoff sounds in blood-pressure measurements
(Chapter 7). Additional applications of piezoelectric sensors involve their use in
measurements of physiological accelerations. A piezoelectric sensor and circuit
can measure the acceleration due to human movements and provide an estimate
of energy expenditure (Servais et al., 1984). Section 8.4 describes ultrasonic
blood-flow meters in which the piezoelectric element operating at mechanical
resonance emits and senses high-frequency sounds. Li and Su (2006) describe
piezoelectric sensors as sensitive mass sensors to detect and measure a broad
variety of biomedical analytes in both gas and liquid phases based on the
adsorption and/or desorption of target analyte(s) on the sensor surface.
c02_1 12/02/2008 62

62 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

Figure 2.12 (a) High-frequency circuit model for piezoelectric sensor. Rs is

the sensor leakage resistance and Cs is the capacitance. Lm, Cm, and Rm
represent the mechanical system, (b) Piezoelectric sensor frequency response.
(From Transducers for Biomedical Measurements: Principles and Applications,
by R. S. C. Cobbold. Copyright (c) 1974, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Reprinted
by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

2.7 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

A patient’s body temperature gives the physician important information about

the physiological state of the individual. External body temperature is one of
many parameters used to evaluate patients in shock, because the reduced
blood pressure of a person in circulatory shock results in low blood flow to the
periphery. A drop in the big-toe temperature is a good early clinical warning of
shock. Infections, on the other hand, are usually reflected by an increase in
body temperature, with a hot, flushed skin and loss of fluids. Increased
ventilation, perspiration, and blood flow to the skin result when high fevers
destroy temperature-sensitive enzymes and proteins. Anesthesia decreases
body temperature by depressing the thermal regulatory center. In fact,
physicians routinely induce hypothermia in surgical cases in which they
wish to decrease a patient’s metabolic processes and blood circulation.
In pediatrics, special heated incubators are used for stabilizing the body
temperature of infants. Accurate monitoring of temperature and regulatory
c02_1 12/02/2008 63

2.8 THERMOCOUPLES 63

control systems are used to maintain a desirable ambient temperature for the
infant.
In the study of arthritis, physicians have shown that temperatures of joints
are closely correlated with the amount of local inflammation. The increased
blood flow due to arthritis and chronic inflammation can be detected by
thermal measurements.
The specific site of body-temperature recording must be selected carefully
so that it truly reflects the patient’s temperature. Also, environmental changes
and artifacts can cause misleading readings. For example, the skin and oral-
mucosa temperature of a patient seldom reflects true body-core temperature.
The following types of thermally sensitive methods of measurement will be
described here: thermocouples, thermistors, and radiation and fiber-optic
detectors (Samaras, 2006). The voltage across a p–n junction changes about
2 mV/ C so temperature sensors that use this principle are available (Togawa,
2006).

2.8 THERMOCOUPLES

Thermoelectric thermometry is based on the discovery of Seebeck in 1821. He

observed that an electromotive force (emf) exists across a junction of two
dissimilar metals. This phenomenon is due to the sum of two independent
effects. The first effect, discovered by Peltier, is an emf due solely to the contact
of two unlike metals and the junction temperature. The net Peltier emf is
roughly proportional to the difference between the temperatures of the two
junctions. The second effect, credited to Thomson (Lord Kelvin), is an emf due
to the temperature gradients along each single conductor. The net Thomson
emf is proportional to the difference between the squares of the absolute
junction temperatures (T1 and T2). The magnitudes of the Peltier and Thom-
son emfs can be derived from thermodynamic principles (Anonymous, 1974),
and either may predominate, depending on the metals chosen.
Knowledge of these two effects is not generally useful in practical appli-
cations, so empirical calibration data are usually curve fitted with a power
series expansion that yields the Seebeck voltage,

1
E ¼ aT þ bT 2 þ


(2.21)
2
where T is in degrees Celsius and the reference junction is maintained at 0 8C.
Figure 2.13(a) is a thermocouple circuit with two dissimilar metals, A and
B, at two different temperatures, T1, and T2. The net emf at terminals c–d is a
function of the difference between the temperatures at the two junctions and
the properties of the two metals. In the practical situation, one junction is held
at a constant known temperature (by an ice bath or controlled oven) for a
reference in order to determine the desired or unknown temperature.
c02_1 12/02/2008 64

64 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

Figure 2.13 Thermocouple circuits (a) Peltier emf, (b) law of homogeneous
circuits, (c) law of intermediate metals, (d) law of intermediate temperatures.

An understanding of the three empirical thermocouple laws leads to using

them properly. The first law, homogeneous circuits, states that in a circuit
composed of a single homogeneous metal, one cannot maintain an electric
current by the application of heat alone. In Figure 2.13(b), the net emf at c–d is
the same as in Figure 2.13(a), regardless of the fact that a temperature
distribution (T3) exists along one of the wires (A).
The second law, intermediate metals, states that the net emf in a circuit
consisting of an interconnection of a number of unlike metals, maintained at
the same temperature, is zero. The practical implication of this principle is that
lead wires may be attached to the thermocouple without affecting the accuracy
of the measured emf, provided that the newly formed junctions are at the same
temperature [Figure 2.13(c)].
The third law, successive or intermediate temperatures, is illustrated in
Figure 2.13(d), where emf E1 is generated when two dissimilar metals have
junctions at temperatures T1 and T2 and emf E2 results for temperatures T2 and
T3. It follows that an emf E1 þ E2 results at c–d when the junctions are at
temperatures T1 and T3. This principle makes it possible for calibration curves
derived for a given reference-junction temperature to be used to determine the
calibration curves for another reference temperature.
The thermoelectric sensitivity a (also called the thermoelectric power or the
Seebeck coefficient) is found by differentiating (2.21) with respect to T. Then

dE
a¼ ¼ a þ bT þ


(2.22)
dT
c02_1 12/02/2008 65

2.8 THERMOCOUPLES 65

Figure 2.14 The LT1025 electronic cold junction and the hot junction of the
thermocouple yield a voltage that is amplified by an inverting amplifier.

Note that a is not a constant but varies (usually increases) with temperature.
The sensitivities of common thermocouples range from 6.5 to 80 mV/ C at
20 C, with accuracies from ¼% to 1%.
For accurate readings, the reference junction should be kept in a triple-
point-of-water device the temperature of which is 0:01  0:0005 C (Doebelin,
1990). Normally the accuracy of a properly constructed ice bath, 0:05 C with a
reproducibility of 0:001 C is all that is necessary. Temperature-controlled
ovens can maintain a reference temperature to within 0:4 C. Figure 2.14
shows that modern thermocouple signal conditioners contain an electronic
cold junction (Tompkins and Webster, 1988; Sheingold, 1980).
Increased sensitivity may be achieved by connecting a number of ther-
mocouples in series, all of them measuring the same temperature and using the
same reference junction. An arrangement of multiple-junction thermocouples
is referred to as a thermopile. Parallel combinations may be used to measure
average temperature.
It is easy to obtain a direct readout of the thermocouple voltage using a
digital voltmeter. Chart recordings may be secured by using a self-balancing
potentiometer system. The linearity of this latter device is dependent only
on the thermocouple and potentiometer; it is independent of the other
circuitry.
Thermocouples have the following advantages: fast response time (time
constant as small as 1 ms), small size (down to 12 mm diameter), ease of
fabrication, and long-term stability. Their disadvantages are small output
voltage, low sensitivity, and the need for a reference temperature.
Numerous examples of the use of thermocouples in biomedical re-
search are given in the literature (Wren, 2006). Thermocouples can be
made small in size, so they can be inserted into catheters and hypodermic
needles.
c02_1 12/02/2008 66

66 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

2.9 THERMISTORS

Thermistors are semiconductors made of ceramic materials that are thermal

resistors with a high negative temperature coefficient. These materials react to
temperature changes in a way that is opposite to the way metals react to such
changes. The resistance of thermistors decreases as temperature increases and
increases as temperature decreases (Melo, 2006).
Sapoff (1971) reviewed the various types of thermistors that have been
found to be most suitable for biomedical use. The resistivity of thermistor
semiconductors used for biomedical applications is between 0.1 and 100 V
m.
These devices are small in size (they can be made less than 0.5 mm in
diameter), have a relatively large sensitivity to temperature changes (3 to
5%= C), and have excellent long-term stability characteristics (0:2% of
nominal resistance value per year).
Figure 2.15(a) shows a typical family of resistance-versus-temperature
characteristics of thermistors. These properties are measured for the

Figure 2.15 (a) Typical thermistor zero-power resistance ratio–temperature

characteristics for various materials. (b) Thermistor voltage-versus-current
characteristic for a thermistor in air and water. The diagonal lines with a positive
slope give linear resistance values and show the degree of thermistor linearity at
low currents. The intersection of the thermistor curves and the diagonal lines
with negative slope give the device power dissipation. Point A is the maximal
current value for no appreciable self-heat. Point B is the peak voltage. Point C is
the maximal safe continuous current in air. [Part (b) is from Thermistor Manual,
EMC-6, # 1974, Fenwal Electronics, Framingham, MA. Used by permission.]
c02_1 12/02/2008 67

2.9 THERMISTORS 67

thermistor operated at a very small amount of power such that there is

negligible self-heating. This resistance is commonly referred to as zero-power
resistance. The empirical relationship between the thermistor resistance Rt and
absolute temperature T in kelvin (K) (the SI unit kelvin does not use a degree
sign) is

Rt ¼ R0 e½bðT0 TÞ=TT0  (2.23)

where
b ¼ material constant for thermistor, K
T0 ¼ standard reference temperature, K

The value of b increases slightly with temperature. However, this does not
present a problem over the limited temperature spans for biomedical work
(10 C to 20 C). b, also known as the characteristic temperature, is in the range
of 2500 to 5000 K. It is usually about 4000 K.
The temperature coefficient a can be found by differentiating (2.23) with
respect to T and dividing by Rt. Thus

1 dR1 b
a¼ ¼  2 ð%=KÞ (2.24)
Rt dT T

Note from (2.24) that a is a nonlinear function of temperature. This non-

linearity is also reflected in Figure 2.15(a).
The voltage-versus-current characteristics of thermistors, as shown in
Figure 2.15(b), are linear up to the point at which self-heating becomes a
problem. When there is large self-heating, the thermistor voltage drop de-
creases as the current increases. This portion of the curve displays a negative-
resistance characteristic.
In the linear portion, Ohm’s law applies and the current is directly
proportional to the applied voltage. The temperature of the thermistor is
that of its surroundings. However, at higher currents a point is reached,
because of increased current flow, at which the heat generated in the thermis-
tor raises the temperature of the thermistor above ambient. At the peak of the
v–i characteristic, the incremental resistance is zero, and for higher currents a
negative-resistance relationship occurs. Operations in this region render the
device vulnerable to thermal destruction.
Figure 2.15(b) shows the difference in the self-heat regions for a thermistor
in water and air due to the differences in thermal resistance of air and water.
The principle of variation in thermal resistance can be used to measure blood
velocity, as described in Section 8.5.

EXAMPLE 2.4 Sketch typical thermistor v–i characteristics with and with-
out a heat sink. Explain why there is a difference.
c02_1 12/02/2008 68

68 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

ANSWER Figure 2.15(b) shows typical thermistor v–i characteristics in water

and air. For low currents Ohm’s law applies, and the current is directly
proportional to the applied voltage in both cases. The thermistor temperature
is close to ambient. The system with water can reach higher current levels and still
remain in a linear portion of the v–i curve since the water keeps the thermistor
close to ambient temperature. Eventually the thermistor-water combination will
self-heat and a negative-resistance relationship will result. In the same manner,
the heat sink keeps the thermistor temperature close to ambient at higher current
levels and yields characteristics similar to Figure 2.15(b).

EXAMPLE 2.5 For a thermistor assume self-heating < 0:1 C, voltage ¼ 5 V,

dissipation coefficient ðDCÞ ¼ 2:0 mW= C. Calculate minimum thermistor
resistance.

ANSWER

P V 2 =R
DT ¼ ¼
D:C: D:C:
V2 52
R¼ ¼ ¼ 125; 000 V
DTðD:C:Þ 0:1 Cð0:002 W= CÞ

Choose next larger available size ¼ 500; 000 V

The current–time characteristics of a thermistor are important in any

dynamic analysis of the system. When a step change in voltage is applied to a
series circuit consisting of a resistor and a thermistor, a current flows. The time
delay for the current to reach its maximal value is a function of the voltage
applied, the mass of the thermistor, and the value of the series-circuit resist-
ance. Time delays from milliseconds to several minutes are possible with
thermistor circuits. Similar time delays occur when the temperature surround-
ing the thermistor is changed in a step fashion.
Various circuit schemes for linearizing the resistance-versus-temperature
characteristics of thermistors have been proposed (Cobbold, 1974; Doebelin,
1990). Modern instruments use microcomputers to correct for nonlinearities,
rather than the former circuit schemes.
The circuitry used for thermistor readout is essentially the same as for
conductive sensors, and many of the same techniques apply. Bridge circuits
give high sensitivity and good accuracy. The bridge circuit shown in Figure
2.2(b) could be used with R3 ¼ Rt and R4 ¼ the thermistor resistance at the
midscale value.
Very small differences in temperature can be found using a differential-
temperature bridge. It is often necessary to measure such minute differences in
biological work. An example is the need to determine the temperature
difference between two organs or between multiple sites in the same organ.
c02_1 12/02/2008 69

2.10 RADIATION THERMOMETRY 69

A dc differential bridge can achieve a linearity of better than 1% of full-

scale output when bead thermistors matched to within 1% of each other at
25 8C are used. The dc stability of this bridge is not normally a problem,
because the output voltage of the bridge—even for temperature differences of
0.01%—is larger than the dc drift of good integrated-circuit operational
amplifiers (Cobbold, 1974).
Operational-amplifier circuits may be used to measure the current in a
thermistor as a function of temperature. In essence, this circuit applies a
constant voltage to the thermistor and monitors its current with a current-to-
voltage converter.
Various shapes of thermistors are available: beads, chips, rods, and
washers (Sapoff, 1971). The glass-encapsulated bead thermistor is the one
most commonly used in biomedical applications. The glass coating protects
the sensing element from the hostile environment of the body without
significantly affecting the thermal response time of the system. The small
size of these thermistors makes possible their placement at the tip of catheters
or hypodermic needles. The thermodilution-catheter system discussed in
Section 8.2 employs a four-lumen catheter with a thermistor located near
the catheter tip.
An additional application of thermistors is in the clinical measurement of
oral temperature. Thermistor probes with disposable sheaths are presently
used, but these exhibit a first-order step response as shown in Figure 1.6(c). To
yield the oral temperature prior to stabilization, a fixed correction of about
1 C is added to the probe temperature when the rate of change of probe
temperature decreases below 0:1 C/s.
A problem with thermistor neonatal skin surface temperature-monitoring
instruments is that the probes fall off. Thermal contact with the skin can be
monitored by applying a 14 s pulse every 4.5 min and monitoring the resultant
temperature rise (Re and Neuman, 1991).

2.10 RADIATION THERMOMETRY

The basis of radiation thermometry is that there is a known relationship

between the surface temperature of an object and its radiant power. This
principle makes it possible to measure the temperature of a body without
physical contact with it. Medical thermography is a technique whereby the
temperature distribution of the body is mapped with a sensitivity of a few
tenths of a kelvin. It is based on the recognition that skin temperature can vary
from place to place depending on the cellular or circulatory processes occur-
ring at each location in the body. Thermography has been used for the early
detection of breast cancer, but the method is controversial. It has also been
used for determining the location and extent of arthritic disturbances, for
gauging the depth of tissue destruction from frostbite and burns, and for
detecting various peripheral circulatory disorders (venous thrombosis, carotid
c02_1 12/02/2008 70

70 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

artery occlusions, and so forth) (Qi, 2006). Here we shall deal with the basic
principles of thermal radiation and detector systems.
Every body that is above absolute zero radiates electromagnetic power,
the amount being dependent on the body’s temperature and physical propert-
ies. For objects at room temperature, the spectrum is predominantly in the far-
and extreme-far-infrared regions.
A blackbody is an ideal thermal radiator; as such, it absorbs all incident
radiation and emits the maximal possible thermal radiation. The radiation
emitted from a body is given by Planck’s law multiplied by emissivity e. This
expression relates the radiant flux per unit area per unit wavelength Wl at a
wavelength l ðmmÞ and is stated as

eC1
Wl ¼ ðW/cm2
mmÞ (2.25)
l5 ðeC2 =lT  1Þ
where

C1 ¼ 3:74  100 ðW
mm4 =cm2 Þ

C2 ¼ 1:44  104 ðmm
KÞ

T ¼ blackbody temperature, K
e ¼ emissivity, the extent by which a surface deviates from a blackbody
(e ¼ 1)

Figure 2.16(a) shows a plot of (2.25), the spectral radiant emittance versus
wavelength for a blackbody at 300 K.
Wien’s displacement law gives the wavelength lm for which Wl is a
maximum. It can simply be found by differentiating (2.25) and setting this
to zero.

2898
lm ¼ ðmmÞ (2.26)
T
Figure 2.16(a) indicates lm ¼ 9:66 mm ðT ¼ 300 KÞ. Note from (2.25) that the
maximal level of spectral emittance increases with T, and from (2.26) that lm is
inversely related to T.
The total radiant power Wt, can be found by integrating the area under the
curve. This expression is known as the Stefan–Boltzmann law.

Wt ¼ esT 4 ðW/cm2 Þ (2.27)

where s is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant (see Appendix).

It is of interest to examine how the percentage of total radiant power varies
with wavelength for room-temperature R l objects. This parameter, plotted in
Figure 2.14(a), is found by dividing 0 Wl dl by the total radiant power W,
(2.27). Note that approximately 80% of the total radiant power is found in the
wavelength band from 4 to 25 mm.
c02_1 12/02/2008 71

2.10 RADIATION THERMOMETRY 71

Figure 2.16 (a) Spectral radiant emittance versus wavelength for a blackbody
at 300 K on the left vertical axis; percentage of total energy on the right vertical
axis. (b) Spectral transmission for a number of optical materials. (c) Spectral
sensitivity of photon and thermal detectors. [Part (a) is from Transducers for
Biomedical Measurements: Principles and Applications, R. S. C. Cobbold.
Copyright # 1974, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. Parts (b) and (c) are from Measurement Systems: Applica-
tion and Design, E. O. Doebelin. Copyright # 1990 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Used
with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Co.]
c02_1 12/02/2008 72

72 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

Determining the effect of changes in surface emissivity with wavelength is

important in order to accurately determine the temperature of a given source.
It can be shown that for T ¼ 300 K and l ¼ 3 mm, a 5% change in e is
equivalent to a temperature change of approximately 1 C. Variations in e
with A should be found in the case of absolute-temperature determinations,
but they are less significant when relative temperature is desired, provided that
e remains constant over the surface area being measured. The data relating the
variation of e with A for human skin are not consistent and show variations as
large as 5% from unity over the l span from 2 to 6 mm (Cobbold, 1974).
The lenses used in infrared instruments must be carefully selected for their
infrared spectral properties. Special materials must be chosen because stan-
dard glass used for the visible spectrum does not pass wavelengths longer than
2 mm. On the other hand, some materials (such as arsenic trisulfide) readily
pass infrared and not visible light. Figure 2.16(b) shows the spectral transmis-
sion for a number of optical materials.
Infrared detectors and instrument systems must be designed with a high
sensitivity because of the weak signals. These devices must have a short
response time and appropriate wavelength–bandwidth requirements that
match the radiation source. Thermal and photon detectors are used as infrared
detectors. The detectors are of two types, both of which are described in
Section 2.16. The thermal detector has low sensitivity and responds to all
wavelengths, as shown in Figure 2.16(c), whereas quantum detectors respond
only to a limited wavelength band.
Suitable instrumentation must be used to amplify, process, and display
these weak signals from radiation detectors. Most radiometers make use of a
beam-chopper system to interrupt the radiation at a fixed rate (several hundred
hertz). This arrangement allows the use of high-gain ac amplifiers without the
inherent problems of stability associated with dc amplifiers. In addition,
comparison of reference sources and techniques of temperature compensation
are more applicable to ac-instrumentation systems.
Figure 2.17 shows a typical chopped-beam radiation-thermometer system
(Cobbold, 1974). A mirror focuses the radiation on the detector. However, a
blackened chopper interrupts the radiation beam at a constant rate. The output
of the detector circuit is a series of pulses with amplitude dependent on the
strength of the radiation source. This ac signal is amplified, while the mean
value, which is subject to drift, is blocked. A reference-phase signal, used to
synchronize the phase-sensitive demodulator (Section 3.15), is generated in a
special circuit consisting of a light source and detector. The signal is then
filtered to provide a dc signal proportional to the target temperature. This
signal can then be displayed or recorded. Infrared microscopes have also been
designed using these techniques.
Figure 2.18 shows one application of radiation thermometry is an instru-
ment that determines the internal or core body temperature of the human by
measuring the magnitude of infrared radiation emitted from the tympanic
membrane and surrounding ear canal. The tympanic membrane and hypo-
thalamus are perfused by the same vasculature. The hypothalamus is the
c02_1 12/02/2008 73

2.10 RADIATION THERMOMETRY 73

Figure 2.17 Stationary chopped-beam radiation thermometer (From Trans-

ducers for Biomedical Measurements: Principles and Applications, by R. S. C.
Cobbold. Copyright (c) 1974, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permis-
sion of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

Shutter
Ambient sensor
Ear
Micro
IR Ta processor
MUX A/D
Tb

Amp.
Sensor Digital
Waveguide Window Shutter display
switch

Figure 2.18 The infrared thermometer opens a shutter to expose the sensor
to radiation from the tympanic membrane. [From J. G. Webster (ed.), Bio-
instrumentation, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2004.]

body’s main thermostat, which regulates the core body temperature. This
approach has advantages over using mercury thermometers, thermocouples,
or thermistors. The standard temperature-measuring techniques measure the
temperature of the sensor, not that of the subject. The sensor must be in
contact with the patient long enough for its temperature to become the same
as, or close to, that of the subject whose temperature is being measured.
However, the infrared thermometry device detects emitted energy that is
proportional to the actual temperature of the subject. There is negligible
thermal time constant for the pyroelectric sensor (Fraden, 1997). The infrared
tympanic temperature-monitoring system has a response time in the order of
0.1 s and an accuracy of approximately 0:1 C. A disposable sanitary probe
cover is used to prevent cross-contamination from patient to patient. Ear
thermometry offers several clinical benefits over taking sublingual (oral) or
rectal measurements. Response is rapid, and readings can be obtained
c02_1 12/02/2008 74

74 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

independent of user technique and degree of patient activity or cooperation

(Fraden, 1991).
Infrared tympanic temperature-monitoring systems require a calibration
target in order to maintain their high accuracy.

2.11 FIBER-OPTIC TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Figure 2.19 shows the details of a GaAs semiconductor temperature probe

(Samaras, 2006). A small prism-shaped sample of single-crystal undoped GaAs
is epoxied at the ends of two side-by-side optical fibers. The sensors and fibers
can be quite small, compatible with biological implantation after being
sheathed. One fiber transmits light from a light-emitting diode source to
the sensor, where it is passed through the GaAs and collected by the other
fiber for detection in the readout instrument. Some of the optical power
traveling through the semiconductor is absorbed, by the process of raising
valence-band electrons, across the forbidden energy gap into the conduction
band. Because the forbidden energy gap is a sensitive function of the material’s
temperature, the amount of power absorbed increases with temperature.
This nonmetallic probe is particularly suited for temperature measure-
ment in the strong electromagnetic heating fields used in heating tissue for
cancer therapy or in patient rewarming.

Figure 2.19 Details of the fiber-sensor arrangement for the GaAs semi-
conductor temperature probe.

2.12 OPTICAL MEASUREMENTS

Optical systems are widely used in medical diagnosis. The most common use
occurs in the clinical-chemistry lab, in which technicians analyze samples of
blood and other tissues removed from the body. Optical instruments are also
used during cardiac catheterization to measure the oxygen saturation of
hemoglobin and to measure cardiac output.
c02_1 12/02/2008 75

2.13 RADIATION SOURCES 75

Figure 2.20 (a) General block diagram of an optical instrument. (b) Highest
efficiency is obtained by using an intense lamp and lenses to gather and focus
the light on the sample in the cuvette, and a sensitive detector. (c) Solid-state
lamps and detectors may simplify the system.

Figure 2.20(a) shows that the usual optical instrument has a source, filter,
and detector. Figure 2.20(b) shows a common arrangement of components.
Figure 2.20(c) shows that in some cases, the function of source, filter, sample,
and detector may be accomplished by solid-state components.
The remainder of this chapter is divided into sections that deal with
sources, geometrical optics, filters, detectors, and combinations thereof.

2.13 RADIATION SOURCES

TUNGSTEN LAMPS
Incandescent tungsten-wire filament lamps are the most commonly used
sources of radiation. Their radiant output varies with temperature and wave-
length, as given by (2.25). For l < 1 mm, tungsten has an emissivity of about
0.4 and thus emits about 40% of what it would if the emissivity were 1.0.
The relative-output spectrum shown in Figure 2.21(a) is only slightly altered.
For higher temperatures, lm , the maximal wavelength of the radiant-output
c02_1 12/02/2008 76

76 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

Figure 2.21 Spectral characteristics of sources, filters, detectors, and combina-

tions thereof (a) Light sources: tungsten (W) at 3000 K has a broad spectral
output. At 2000 K, output is lower at all wavelengths and peak output shifts to
longer wavelengths. Light-emitting diodes yield a narrow spectral output with
GaAs in the infrared, GaP in the red, and GaAsP in the green. Monochromatic
outputs from common lasers are shown by dashed lines: Ar, 515 nm; HeNe, 633
nm; ruby, 693 nm; Nd, 1064 nm; CO2 (not shown), 10,600 nm. (b) Filters: A
Corning 5-56 glass filter passes a blue wavelength band. A Kodak 87 gelatin
filter passes infrared and blocks visible wavelengths. Germanium lenses pass
long wavelengths that cannot be passed by glass. Hemoglobin Hb and oxy-
hemoglobin HbO pass equally at 805 nm and have maximal difference at
660 nm. (c) Detectors: The S4 response is a typical phototube response. The
eye has a relatively narrow response, with colors indicated by VBGYOR. CdS
plus a filter has a response that closely matches that of the eye. Si p–n junctions
are widely used. PbS is a sensitive infrared detector. InSb is useful in far
infrared. Note: These are only relative responses. Peak responses of different
detectors differ by 107. (d) Combination: Indicated curves from (a), (b), and (c)
are multiplied at each wavelength to yield (d), which shows how well source,
filter, and detector are matched. (e) Photon energy: If it is less than 1 eV, it is
too weak to cause current flow in Si p–n junctions.
c02_1 12/02/2008 77

2.13 RADIATION SOURCES 77

curves, shifts to a shorter wavelength, as given by (2.26) and as shown in Figure

2.21(a).
Low temperatures, then, yield a reddish color (infrared lamps), whereas
high temperatures yield a bluish color (photoflood lamps). The total radiation
is given by (2.27). Hence the radiant output increases rapidly with temperature,
as do the efficiency, the evaporation of tungsten, and the blackening of the
glass bulb. The life of the filament is thus drastically shortened by higher
temperatures.
Filaments are usually coiled to increase their emissivity and efficiency. For
use in instruments, short linear coils may be arranged within a compact, nearly
square area lying in a single plane. To produce a source of uniform radiant
output over a substantial area, ribbon filaments may be used.
Tungsten–halogen lamps have iodine or bromine added to the gases
normally used to fill the bulb. The small quartz bulbs operate at temperatures
above 250 C and usually require cooling by a blower. The halogen combines
with tungsten at the wall. The resulting gas migrates back to the filament,
where it decomposes and deposits tungsten on the filament. As a result, these
lamps maintain more than 90% of their initial radiant output throughout their
life. The radiant output of a conventional lamp, on the other hand, declines as
much as 50% over its lifetime.

ARC DISCHARGES
The fluorescent lamp is filled with a low-pressure Ar–Hg mixture. Electrons
are accelerated and collide with the gas atoms, which are raised to an excited
level. As a given atom’s electron undergoes a transition from a higher level to a
lower level, the atom emits a quantum of energy. The energy per quantum
E ¼ hv ¼ hc=l, where h ¼ Planck’s constant, v ¼ frequency, c ¼ velocity of
light, and l ¼ wavelength.
Because the strongest transition of the mercury atom corresponds to
about 5 eV, Figure 2.21(e) shows the resulting wavelength to be about
250 nm. A phosphor on the inside of the glass bulb absorbs this ultraviolet
radiation and emits light of longer, visible wavelengths. The fluorescent
lamp has low radiant output per unit area, so it is not used in optical
instruments. However, it can be rapidly turned on and off in about 20 ms,
so it is used in the tachistoscope (which presents brief stimuli to the eye) used
in measurements of visual perception. Other low-pressure discharge lamps
include the glow lamp (such as the neon lamp), the sodium-vapor lamp, and
the laser.
High-pressure discharge lamps are more important for optical instruments
because the arc is compact and the radiant output per unit area is high. The
carbon arc has been in use for the longest time, but it has largely been replaced
by the mercury lamp (bluish-green color), the sodium lamp (yellow color), and
the xenon lamp (white color). These lamps usually have a clear quartz bulb
with electrodes at both ends of the spherical bulb. The zirconium arc lamp
provides an intense point source.
c02_1 12/02/2008 78

78 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

Figure 2.22 Forward characteristics for p–n junctions. Ordinary silicon diodes
have a band gap of 1.1 eV and are inefficient radiators in the near-infrared
range. GaAs has a band gap of 1.44 eV and radiates at 900 nm. GaP has a band
gap of 2.26 eV and radiates at 700 nm.

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES (LEDS)

Light-emitting diodes are p–n junction devices that are optimized for radiant
output. The ordinary silicon p–n junction characteristic shown in Figure 2.22 emits
radiant power when a current (typically 20 mA) passes in the forward direction.
Spontaneous recombination of injected hole and electron pairs results in the
emission of radiation. Because the silicon band gap is 1.1 eV, the wavelength is at
about 1100 nm. The silicon device is not efficient. However, GaAs has a slightly
higher band gap, as shown in Figure 2.22, and therefore radiates at 900 nm, as
shown in Figure 2.21(a). Although the output is not visible, the efficiency is high
and the GaAs device is widely used. It can be switched in less than 10 ns.
Figure 2.21(c) and Figure 2.21(e) show that, in order to produce visible
light, the band gap of a p–n junction must exceed 1.9 eV. The GaP LED in
Figure 2.22 has a band gap of 2.26 eV, requires a larger forward-bias voltage
than silicon diodes, and is electroluminescent at 700 nm, as shown in Figure
2.21(a). It is an efficient visible LED and produces a bright red light. The
GaAsP LEDs make use of a special phosphor that absorbs two photons at one
wavelength and emits a single photon at a shorter wavelength. The GaAs is Si
doped to emit radiation at 940 nm. Power at this wavelength is absorbed by the
phosphor coating that emits green light at 540 nm, as shown in Figure 2.21(a).
The decay time of the phosphor is about 1 ms.
Light-emitting diodes are compact, rugged, economical, and nearly mono-
chromatic. They are widely used in a variety of medical, transportation, and
industrial circuits. A variety of circuits are available for LEDs and photo-
detectors using either steady or modulated radiation.

LASERS
Laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) action can occur
in GaAs. The end faces that are perpendicular to the p–n junction are polished
c02_1 12/02/2008 79

2.14 GEOMETRICAL AND FIBER OPTICS 79

to serve as partial mirrors, thus forming a resonant optical cavity. The forward
current pumps a large population of the molecules to an excited energy level.
Radiation incident on the molecules causes the production of additional
radiation that is identical in character. This phenomenon, known as stimulated
emission, is produced by the feedback from the mirrors. Laser output is highly
monochromatic, collimated (parallel), and phase coherent. However, p–n
junction lasers are not widely used because they operate in the infrared
and require current densities of 103 A/cm2 or more, thus necessitating pulsed
(10–100 ns) operation rather than continuous wave (CW).
The most common laser is the He–Ne laser that operates at 633 nm in the
red region, as shown in Figure 2.21(a). The laser is operated by a low-pressure
arc similar to a neon sign and provides up to 100 mW. Partially reflective
mirrors at each end provide the resonant optical cavity and laser action.
Argon lasers provide the highest continuous-power levels (1–15 W) in the
visible part of the spectrum at 515 nm [Figure 2.21(a)]. This high-power output
permits photocoagulation of blood vessels in the eyes of patients suffering
from diabetic retinopathy.
CO2 lasers provide 50–500 W of CW output power and are used for cutting
plastics, rubber, and metals up to 1 cm thick.
Two solid-state lasers—both usually operated in the pulsed mode—are
widely used. The lasers are pumped by firing a flash tube that is wound around
them. The ruby laser has a moderate (1 mJ) output in the red region of the
spectrum at 693 nm, as shown in Figure 2.21(a). The neodymium in yttrium
aluminum garnet (Nd: YAG) laser has a high (2 W/mm2) output in the infrared
region at 1064 nm, as shown in Figure 2.21(a).
The most important medical use of the laser has been to mend tears in the
retina. A typical photocoagulator uses a pulsed ruby laser with a controllable
output. It is focused on a tear in the retina. The heat dissipated by the pulse forms
a burn, which, on healing, develops scar tissue that mends the original tear.
Section 13.10 provides further information on therapeutic applications of lasers.
Safety to the eye should be considered with respect to some light sources. It is
safe to look at a 100 W frosted light bulb for long periods of time. However,
looking at clear incandescent lamps, the sun, high-pressure arc sources, or lasers
can cause burns on the retina. Protective eyewear worn by the physician to protect
against lasers usually consists of a set of filters that attenuate at the specific
wavelengths emitted by the laser but transmit as much visible radiation as possible.

2.14 GEOMETRICAL AND FIBER OPTICS

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
There are a number of geometric factors that modify the power transmitted
between the source and the detector. In Figure 2.20(b), the most obvious
optical elements are the lenses. The lamp emits radiation in all directions. The
c02_1 12/02/2008 80

80 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

first lens should have as small an f number (ratio of focal length to diameter) as
practical. Thus it collects the largest practical solid angle of radiation from the
lamp. The first lens is usually placed one focal length away from the lamp, so
that the resulting radiation is collimated (that is, the rays are parallel). Thus, for
a point source, the second lens can be placed at any distance without losing any
radiation. Also, some interference filters operate best in collimated rays.
The second lens focuses the radiation on a small area of sample in the
cuvette. Because the radiation now diverges, third and fourth lenses are used to
collect all the radiation and focus it on a detector. Some spectrophotometers
[Figure 2.20(c)] transmit collimated radiation through the sample section. The
lenses can be coated with a coating that is a quarter-wavelength thick to
prevent reflective losses at air–glass surfaces. Full mirrors may be used to fold
the optical path to produce a compact instrument. Half-silvered mirrors enable
users to split the beam into two beams for analysis or to combine two beams for
analysis by a single detector. Curved mirrors may function as lenses for
wavelengths that are absorbed by normal glass lenses.
Scattered radiation must be prevented from reaching the detector. Inter-
nal support structures and mechanical components of optical instruments are
internally painted flat black to prevent scattered radiation. Stops (apertures
that pass only the desired beam size) may be placed at several locations along
the instrument’s optical axis to trap scattered radiation.

FIBER OPTICS
Fiber optics are an efficient way of transmitting radiation from one point to
another (Modell and Perelman, 2006). Transparent glass or plastic fiber with a
refractive index n1 is coated or surrounded by a second material of a lower
refractive index n2. By Snell’s law,

n2 sin u2 ¼ n1 sin u1 (2.28)

where u is the angle of incidence shown in Figure 2.23. Because

n1 > n2 ; sin u2 > sin u1 , so sin u2 ¼ 1:0 for a value of u1 that is less than 90 .
For values of u1 greater than this, sin u2 is greater than unity, which is
impossible, and the ray is internally reflected. The critical angle for reflection
ðuic Þ is found by setting sin u2 ¼ 1:0, which gives

n2
sin uic ¼ (2.29)
n1

A ray is internally reflected for all angles of incidence greater than uic . Because
rays entering the end of a fiber are usually refracted from air ðn ¼ 1:0Þ into
glass (n ¼ 1:62 for one type), a larger cone of radiation ðu3 Þ is accepted by a
fiber than that indicated by calculations using 90  uic . Rays entering the end
of the fiber at larger angles ðu4 Þ are not transmitted down the fiber; they escape
through the walls.
c02_1 12/02/2008 81

2.14 GEOMETRICAL AND FIBER OPTICS 81

Figure 2.23 Fiber optics The solid line shows refraction of rays that escape
through the wall of the fiber. The dashed line shows total internal reflection
within a fiber.

Fiber-optic (FO) sensors are replacing some conventional sensors for

measuring a variety of electrical, electronic, mechanical, pneumatic, and
hydraulic variables (Sirohi and Kothiyal, 1991; Udd, 1991). They are chemi-
cally inert and have freedom from electromagnetic interference.
A 50 cm glass fiber exhibits a transmission exceeding 60% for wavelengths
between 400 and 1200 nm. A 50 cm plastic fiber has a transmission exceeding
70% for wavelengths between 500 and 850 nm. Although a single fiber is useful
for sampling incident radiation of a small area, most applications use flexible
bundles of about 400 fibers. In noncoherent bundles (called light guides), the
diameter of a fiber is typically 13 to 100 nm. There is no correlation between a
fiber’s spatial position at the input and at the output. These fibers are useful
only for transmitting radiation. In one application, light is transmitted through
the flexible bundle for viewing internal organs (Northrop, 2002). In a second
application, an instrument that measures blood oxygen saturation within the
vessels alternately transmits radiation at two wavelengths down one bundle
(Chapter 10). The radiation is backscattered by the red-blood cells and
returned to the instrument for analysis through a second bundle.
In coherent-fiber bundles, the fibers occupy the same relative position at
both end faces. An image at one end is faithfully transmitted to the other end.
The most important medical application of these fibers is in the endoscope
(a tube for examining body cavities through natural openings) (Hooper, 2006).
A typical endoscope is 1 m long and 1 cm in diameter and may be used for
viewing the lining of the stomach, intestines, and so forth. A noncoherent
bundle transmits light for illumination. A small lens focuses the image of the
lining onto the end of a coherent bundle, which transmits the image in such a
way that it may be viewed or photographed. External levers make it possible to
steer the internal end of the optical-fiber device over a 360 range so that the
examining physician can look at cavity walls and around corners.
c02_1 12/02/2008 82

82 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

LIQUID CRYSTALS
Liquid crystals change their state in such a way that they modify passive
scattering or absorption of light. As the crystals melt, the three-dimensional
order becomes a two-dimensional or one-dimensional order. Layers or strands
form that can be seen as a clarification of the previously turbid melt.
In one medical application, the patient’s body is painted with a black water-
soluble varnish to show up the color of the liquid crystals better. Liquid crystals
are painted over the varnish, and any inflammation causes a rise in temperature
that is indicated by a color pattern. Liquid crystals are also used, in disposable
thermometers, in the measurement of oral temperatures. They are widely used
in wristwatches, because a low-voltage (1–15 V), low-power ð1 mW/cm2 Þ
electric field causes observable changes in digital-display elements.

2.15 OPTICAL FILTERS

FILTERS
Filters are frequently inserted in the optical system to control the distribution
of radiant power or wavelength. To reduce radiant power only, neutral-density
filters are used. When glass is partially silvered, most of the power is reflected,
and the desired fraction of the power is transmitted. When carbon particles are
suspended in plastic, most of the power is absorbed and the desired fraction of
the power is transmitted. Two Polaroid filters may also be used to attenuate the
light. Each filter transmits only that portion of the light that is in a particular
state of polarization. As one is rotated with respect to the other, the optical
transmission of the combination varies.
Color filters transmit certain wavelengths and reject others. Gelatin filters
are the most common type of absorption filters. An organic dye is dissolved in
an aqueous gelatin solution, and a thin film is dried on a glass substrate. An
example shown in Figure 2.21(b) is the infrared Kodak 87 Wratten filter. Glass
filters, made by combining additives with the glass itself in its molten state, are
extensively used. They provide rather broad passbands, as illustrated by the
blue Corning 5-56 filter shown in Figure 2.21(b).
Interference filters are formed by depositing a reflective stack of layers on
both sides of a thicker spacer layer. This sandwich construction provides multiple
reflection and interference effects that yield sharp-edge high, low, and bandpass
filters with bandwidths from 0.5 to 200 nm. Interference filters are generally used
with collimated radiation and cost more than those just mentioned. Interference
coatings are used on dichroic mirrors (cold mirrors), which reflect visible
radiation from projection lamps. The nonuseful infrared radiation is transmitted
through the coating and mirror to the outside of the optical system. This reduces
heat within the optical system without sacrificing the useful light.
Diffraction gratings are widely employed to produce a wavelength spec-
trum in the spectrometer. Plane gratings are formed by cutting thousands of
c02_1 12/02/2008 83

2.16 RADIATION SENSORS 83

closely spaced parallel grooves in a material. The grating is coated with

aluminum, which reflects and disperses white light into a diffraction spectrum.
A narrow slit selects a narrow band of wavelengths for use.
Although clear glass is not ordinarily thought of as a filter, Figure 2.21(b)
shows that crown glass does not transmit below 300 nm. For instruments that
operate in the ultraviolet, fused quartz (silica glass) is used. Most glasses do
not transmit well above 2600 nm, so instrument makers use either curved
mirrors for infrared instruments or lenses made of Ge, Si, AsS3, CaF2, or
Al2O3.
Conway et al. (1984) describe an optical method for measuring the
percentage of fat in the body. They found that fat has an absorption band
at 930 nm and that water has an absorption band at 970 nm. From a single-
beam rapid-scanning spectrophotometer, they conducted light to and reflected
light from five sites on the body through a fiber-optic probe. The method
successfully predicted percent body fat in 17 subjects ðr ¼ 0:91Þ when com-
pared with the D2O dilution technique.

2.16 RADIATION SENSORS

Radiation sensors may be classified into two general categories: thermal

sensors and quantum sensors (Mendelson, 2006).

THERMAL SENSORS
The thermal sensor absorbs radiation and transforms it into heat, thus causing a
rise in temperature in the sensors. Typical thermal sensors are the thermistor and
the thermocouple. The sensitivity of such a sensor does not change with (is flat
with) wavelength, and the sensor has slow response [Figure 2.21(c)]. Changes in
output due to changes in ambient temperature cannot be distinguished from
changes in output due to the source, so a windmill-shaped mechanical chopper is
frequently used to interrupt the radiation from the source periodically.
The pyroelectric sensor (Fraden, 1997) absorbs radiation and converts it
into heat. The resulting rise in temperature changes the polarization of the
crystals, which produces a current proportional to the rate of change of
temperature. As it is for the piezoelectric sensor, dc response is zero, so a
chopper is required for dc measurements.

QUANTUM SENSORS
Quantum sensors absorb energy from individual photons and use it to release
electrons from the sensor material. Typical quantum sensors are the eye, the
phototube, the photodiode, and photographic emulsion. Such sensors are
sensitive over only a restricted band of wavelengths; most respond rapidly.
Changes in ambient temperature cause only a second-order change in sensi-
tivity of these sensors.
c02_1 12/02/2008 84

84 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

PHOTOEMISSIVE SENSORS
Photoemissive sensors—an example is the phototube—have photocathodes
coated with alkali metals. If the energy of the photons of the incoming
radiation is sufficient to overcome the work function of the photocathode,
the forces that bind electrons to the photocathode are overcome, and it emits
electrons. Electrons are attracted to a more positive anode and form a current
that is measured by an external circuit. Photon energies below 1 eV are not
large enough to overcome the work function, so wavelengths longer than
1200 nm cannot be detected. Figure 2.21(c) shows the spectral response of the
most common photocathode, the S4, which has lower sensitivity in the ultra-
violet region because of absorption of radiation in the glass envelope.
The photomultiplier shown in Figure 2.24 is a phototube combined with an
electron multiplier (Lion, 1975). Each accelerated electron hits the first dynode
with enough energy to liberate several electrons by secondary emission. These
electrons are accelerated to the second dynode, where the process is repeated,
and so on. Time response is less than 10 ns. Photomultipliers are the most
sensitive photodetectors. When they are cooled (to prevent electrons from
being thermally generated), they can count individual photons. The eye is
almost as sensitive; under the most favorable conditions, it can detect six
photons arriving in a small area within 100 ms. Photodiodes have replaced
photomultipliers in many applications.

Figure 2.24 Photomultiplier An incoming photon strikes the photocathode

and liberates an electron. This electron is accelerated toward the first dynode,
which is 100 V more positive than the cathode. The impact liberates several
electrons by secondary emission. They are accelerated toward the second
dynode, which is 100 V more positive than the first dynode. This electron
multiplication continues until it reaches the anode, where currents of about
1 mA flow through RL.

PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS
Photoresistors are the simplest solid-state photoelectric sensors. A photo-
sensitive crystalline material such as CdS or PbS [Figure 2.21(c)] is deposited
c02_1 12/02/2008 85

2.16 RADIATION SENSORS 85

on a ceramic substrate, and ohmic electrodes are attached. If a photon of the

incoming radiation has sufficient energy to jump the band gap, hole–electron
pairs are produced because the electron is raised from the valence band to the
conduction band. The presence of the electrons in the conduction band and of
the holes in the valence band increases the conductivity of the crystalline
material so that the resistance decreases with input radiation. Photocurrent is
linear at low levels of radiation but nonlinear at levels that are normally used.
It is independent of the polarity of applied voltage. After a step increase or
decrease of radiation, the photocurrent response rises and decays with a time
constant of from 10 to 0.01 s, depending on whether the radiation is low or high.

PHOTOJUNCTION SENSORS
Photojunction sensors are formed from p–n junctions and are usually made of
silicon. If a photon has sufficient energy to jump the band gap, hole–electron pairs
are produced that modify the junction characteristics, as shown in Figure 2.25. If
the junction is reverse-biased, the reverse photocurrent flowing from the cathode
to the anode increases linearly with an increase in radiation. The resulting
photodiode responds in about 1 ms. In phototransistors, the base lead is not
connected, and the resulting radiation-generated base current is multiplied by the
current gain (beta) of the transistor to yield a large current from collector to
emitter. The radiation–current characteristics have a nonlinearity of about 2%
because beta varies with collector current. The response time is about 10 ms.

Figure 2.25 Voltage–current characteristics of irradiated silicon p–n junction

For 0 irradiance, both forward and reverse characteristics are normal. For
1 mW/cm2 , open-circuit voltage is 500 mV, and short-circuit current is 0:8 mA.
For 10 mW/cm2 , open-circuit voltage is 600 mV, and short-circuit current is
8 mA.
c02_1 12/02/2008 86

86 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

Silicon p–n junctions are also manufactured as photo Darlington transistors,

photo FETs, photo unijunction transistors, and photo silicon-controlled rectifiers
(SCRs). Photon couplers are LED–photodiode combinations that are used for
isolating electric circuits. For example, they are used for breaking ground loops
and for preventing dangerous levels of current from leaking out of equipment
and entering the heart of a patient (Section 14.9). Modern photojunction sensors
have become so sensitive and with rapid response times so that in many
applications they have replaced photomultipliers.

PHOTOVOLTAIC SENSORS
The same silicon p–n junction can be used in the photovoltaic mode. Figure
2.25 shows that there is an open-circuit voltage when the junction receives
radiation. The voltage rises logarithmically from 100 to 500 mV as the input
radiation increases by a factor of 104. This is the principle of the solar cell that
is used for direct conversion of the sun’s radiation into electric power.

SPECTRAL RESPONSE
All of the aforementioned silicon sensors have the spectral response shown in
Figure 2.21(c). There is no response above 1100 nm because the energy of the
photons is too low to permit them to jump the band gap. For wavelengths
shorter than 900 nm, the response drops off because there are fewer, more-
energetic photons per watt. Each photon generates only one hole–electron
pair.
Because none of the common sensors is capable of measuring the radiation
emitted by the skin (300 K), which has a peak output at 9000 nm, special
sensors have been developed, such as the InSb sensor shown in Figure 2.21(c).

2.17 OPTICAL COMBINATIONS

In order to specify the combinations of sources, filters, and sensors, instrument

designers require radiometric units that must be weighted according to the
response curve of each element. The total effective irradiance, Ee, is found by
breaking up the spectral curves into many narrow bands and then multiplying
each together and adding the resulting increments (Stimson, 1974). Thus
X
Ee ¼ Sl Fl Dl Dl (2.30)

where
Sl ¼ relative source output
Fl ¼ relative filter transmission
Dl ¼ relative sensor responsivity
c02_1 12/02/2008 87

PROBLEMS 87

Figure 2.21(d) shows several results of this type of calculation. One of the
examples shown is an efficient system capable of making measurements in
the dark without stimulating the eye. Such a device can be used for tracking
eye movements. It can be formed from a tungsten source, a Kodak 87
Wratten filter, and a silicon sensor. If GaAs provides enough output, it can
replace both the tungsten source and the Kodak 87 Wratten filter (Borah,
2006).

PROBLEMS

2.1 For Figure P2.1, plot the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage
v o =v i as a function of the displacement xi of a potentiometer with a total
displacement xt for ranges of Rm, the input resistance of the meter. Show that
the maximal error occurs in the neighborhood of xi =xt ¼ 0:67. What is the
value of this maximal error?

Figure P2.1

2.2 The practical limitation for wire spacing in potentiometer construction is

between 20 and 40 turns/mm. Find the resolution limitation for a translational
and a rotational potentiometer. Propose a way to increase the resolution of a
rotational potentiometer.
2.3 Discuss some of the possible problems involved in elastic-resistance strain-
gage sensors and their solutions.
2.4 The electromotive force E for a thermocouple is given by (2.21). Calculate
and plot E for conditions in which the reference source is at 0 C and
temperature varies from 0 C to 50 C. The thermocouple material is copper
constantan with a ¼ 38:7 mV/ C and b ¼ 0:082 mV/ C2 . How significant is the
second term in your calculations? Note that these calculated curves are not
exactly satisfied in the practical situation. Thus an experimental calibration
must be measured over the range of interest.
2.5 Using the results of Problem 2.4, calculate the sensitivity a at 37 C for the
copper–constantan thermocouple.
c02_1 12/02/2008 88

88 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

2.6 Calculate the value of the thermistor temperature coefficient a for T ¼

300 K and b ¼ 4000 K.
2.7 For the LVDT shown in Figure 2.6(c), sketch the voltages c–e, d–e, and c–d
as the core is displaced through its normal range.
2.8 For Example 2.1, what size shunting capacitor should be added to extend
the low-corner frequency to 0.05 Hz, as is required to detect pulse waveforms?
How is the sensitivity changed?
2.9 Design a charge amplifier for a piezoelectric sensor that has 500 pF
capacitance. It should pass frequencies from 0.05 to 100 Hz so that it can
detect carotid pulses, and it should not drift into saturation.
2.10 Sketch typical thermistor v–i characteristics with and without a heat sink.
Explain why there is a difference.
2.11 Calculate and sketch a curve for the radiant output of the skin at 300 K at
2000, 5000, 10,000, and 20,000 nm.
2.12 Sketch an optical system using curved mirrors instead of lenses that could
replace the system shown in Figure 2.20(b).
2.13 Sketch the circuit for a photo Darlington transistor, which is two
cascaded emitter–follower transistors. Estimate its linearity and response time.
2.14 For the solar cell shown in Figure 2.25, what value load resistor would
receive the maximal power?
2.15 For the photomultiplier shown in Figure 2.24, when RL is high enough for
adequate sensitivity, the stray capacity–RL product produces a time constant
that is too long. Design a circuit that is 10 times faster and has no loss in
sensitivity.
2.16 For Figure 2.21(d), plot the relative combination product for GaP, HbO,
CdS.

REFERENCES

Alihanka, J., K. Vaahtoranta, and S.-E Bj€orkqvist, Apparatus in medicine for the monitoring and/
or recording of the body movements of a person on a bed, for instance of a patient. United
States Patent 4,320,766, 1982.
Anonymous, Manual on the Use of Thermocouples in Temperature Measurement. Publication
470A. Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1974.
Borah, J., ‘‘Eye movement, measurement techniques for.’’ In J. G. Webster (ed.), Encyclopedia of
Medical Devices and Instrumentation, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 2006, Vol. 3, pp. 263–286.
Bowman, L., and J. D. Meindl, ‘‘Capacitive sensors.’’ In J. G. Webster (ed.), Encyclopedia of
Medical Devices and Instrumentation. New York: Wiley, 1988, pp. 551–556.
Cobbold, R. S. C, Transducers for Biomedical Measurements. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1974.
Conway, J. M., K. H. Norris, and C. E. Bodwell, ‘‘A new approach for the estimation of body
composition: Infrared interactance.’’ Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 1984, 40, 1123–1130.
Dechow, P. C., and Q. Wang, ‘‘Strain gages.’’ In J. G. Webster (ed.), Encyclopedia of Medical
Devices and Instrumentation. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 2006, Vol. 6, pp. 282–290.
Doebelin, E. O., Measurement Systems: Application and Design, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1990.
Fraden, J., ‘‘Noncontact temperature measurements in medicine.’’ In D. L. Wise (ed.), Bio-
instrumentation and Biosensors. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1991, pp. 511–550.
c02_1 12/02/2008 89

REFERENCES 89

Fraden, J., Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and Applications. 2nd ed. Woodbury,
NY: American Institute of Physics, 1997.
Geddes, L. A., and L. E. Baker, Principles of Applied Biomedical Instrumentation, 3rd ed. New
York: Wiley, 1989.
Hennig, E. M., ‘‘Piezoelectric sensors.’’ In J. G. Webster (ed.), Encyclopedia of Medical Devices
and Instrumentation. New York: Wiley, 1988, pp. 2310–2319.
Hokanson, D. E., D. S. Sumner, and D. E. Strandness, Jr.. ‘‘An electrically calibrated plethysmo-
graph for direct measurement of limb blood flow.’’ IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 1975, BME-
22, 25–29.
Hooper, B. A., ‘‘Endoscopes.’’ In J. G. Webster (ed.), Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and
Instrumentation, 2nd ed., New York: Wiley, 2006, Vol. 3, pp. 177–189.
Kesavan, S. K., and N. P. Reddy, ‘‘Linear variable differential transformers.’’ In J. G. Webster
(ed.), Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and Instrumentation. 2nd ed., New York: Wiley, 2006,
Vol. 4, pp. 252–257.
Korites, B. J., Microsensors. Rockland, MA: Kern International, 1987.
Lawton, R. W., and C. C. Collins, ‘‘Calibration of an aortic circumference gauge.’’ J Appl. Physiol.,
1959, 14, 465–467.
Li, Y., and X.-L. Su, ‘‘Piezoelectric sensors,’’ in J. G. Webster (ed.), Encyclopedia of Medical
Devices and Instrumentation, 2nd ed., New York: Wiley, 2006, Vol. 5, pp. 359–367.
Lion, K. S., Elements of Electronic and Electrical Instrumentation. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975.
Lion, K. S., Instrumentation in Scientific Research. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959.
Mendelson, Y., ‘‘Optical sensors.’’ In J. G. Webster (ed.), Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and
Instrumentation, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 2006, Vol. 5, pp. 160–175.
Melo, P. L., ‘‘Thermistors.’’ In J. G. Webster (ed.), Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and
Instrumentation, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 2006, Vol. 6, pp. 320–340.
Modell, M. D., and L. T. Perelman, ‘‘Fiber optics in medicine.’’ In J. G. Webster (ed.),
Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and Instrumentation, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 2006,
Vol. 3, pp. 301–315.
Northrop, R. B., Noninvasive Instrumentation and Measurement in Medical Diagnosis. Boca
Raton: CRC Press, 2002.
Nyce, D. S., Linear Position Sensors Theory and Application, Hoboken: Wiley, 2004.
Pallás-Areny, R., and J. G. Webster, Sensors and Signal Conditioning, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley,
2001.
Patel, A., M. Kothari, J. G. Webster, W. J. Tompkins, and J. J. Wertsch, ‘‘A capacitance pressure
sensor using a phase-locked loop.’’ J. Rehabil. Res. Devel., 1989, 26(2), 55–62.
Qi, H., ‘‘Thermography’’ In J. G. Webster (ed.), Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and Instrumen-
tation, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 2006, Vol. 6, pp. 346–355.
Re, T. J., and M. R. Neuman, ‘‘Thermal contact-sensing electronic thermometer.’’ Biomed.
Instrum. Technol., 1991, 25, 54–59.
Samaras, T., ‘‘Thermometry.’’ In J. G. Webster (ed.), Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and
Instrumentation, 2nd. ed. New York: Wiley, 2006, Vol. 6, pp. 355–362.
Sapoff, M., Thermistors for Biomedical Use. Fifth Symposium on Temperature, Proceedings.
Washington, DC: Instrument Society of America, 1971, 2109–2121.
Servais, S. B., J. G. Webster, and H. J. Monotoye, ‘‘Estimating human energy expenditure using an
accelerometer device.’’ J. Clin. Eng., 1984, 9, 159–171.
Sheingold, D. H. (ed.), Transducer Interfacing Handbook. Norwood, MA: Analog Devices, Inc.,
1980.
Sirohi, R. S., and M. P. Kothiyal, Optical Components, Systems, and Measurement Techniques. New
York: Marcel Dekker, 1991.
Stimson, A., Photometry and Radiometry for Engineers. New York: Wiley, 1974.
Sydenham, P. H., N. H. Hancock, and R. Thorn, Introduction to Measurement Science and
Engineering, New York; Wiley, 1992.
Togawa, T., ‘‘Integrated circuit temperature sensor.’’ In J. G. Webster (ed.), Encyclopedia
of Medical Devices and Instrumentation 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 2006, Vol. 4, pp.
157–162.
c02_1 12/02/2008 90

90 2 BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

Togawa, T., T. Tamura, and P. A. Oberg, Biomedical Transducers and Instruments. Boca Raton:
CRC Press, 1997.
Tompkins, W. J., and J. G. Webster (eds.), Interfacing Sensors to the IBM PC. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1988.
Tsoukalas, D., S. Chatzandrouroulis, and D. Goustouridis, ‘‘Capacitive microsensors for bio-
medical applications.’’ In J. G. Webster (ed.), Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and
Instrumentation, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 2006, Vol. 2, pp. 1–12.
Udd, E. (ed.), Fiber Optic Sensors: An Introduction for Engineers and Scientists. New York: Wiley,
1991.
vanCitters, R. L., ‘‘Mutual inductance transducers.’’ In R. F. Rushmer (ed.), Methods in Medical
Research. Vol. XI. Chicago: Year Book, 1966, 26–30.
Webster, J. G. (ed.), Tactile Sensors for Robotics and Medicine. New York: Wiley, 1988.
Wren, J., ‘‘Thermocouples.’’ In J. G. Webster (ed.), Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and
Instrumentation, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 2006, Vol. 6, pp. 340–346.