Debre Tabor University

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Instrumentation Engineering
Lecture Note
Getinet A.
getinetasimare@gmail.com

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 Chapter Three

Sensor technology

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  Transducer:
 a device that converts energy from one form to another
 Sensor:
 converts a physical parameter to an electrical output (a type of
transducer, e.g. a microphone)
 Actuator:
 converts an electrical signal to a physical output (opposite of a
sensor, e.g. a speaker)

Type of Sensors
• Displacement Sensors
resistance, inductance, capacitance, piezoelectric
• Temperature Sensor
Thermistor, thermocouples
• Electromagnetic radiation Sensors:
Thermal and photon detectors

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 Displacement Measurements
Used to measure directly and indirectly the size,
shape, and position of the organs.
Displacement measurements can be made
using sensors designed to exhibit a
resistive,
inductive,
Capacitive
Or piezoelectric change as a function of
changes in position.

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 Resistive sensors - potentiometers
Measure linear and angular position

2 to 500mm 10 degree and above

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 Properties
 Ranges

Translational: 5mm to 60cm

Rotational: 10 degree to 60rot

Excited by AC or DC
maximum excitation voltage:
Materials:

Wire wound
Conducting plastics
carbon

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  Non linear when loaded

for =0 (unloaded)

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 Resistive sensors – strain gages
Devices designed to exhibit a change in
resistance as a result of experiencing strain
to measure displacement in the order of
nanometer.
When a thin wire is stretched the electrical
resistance is increased due to 3 effects
The length increases
The diameter is decreased
Piezo resistive effect

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 
  a simple wire: , L(length meter)
For
differential change in R

volume change

very small

So if
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  A change in R will result from a change in
(resistivity), or a change in L or A (dimension).
The gage factor, G, is used to compare various
strain-gage materials  Where the three pars

(Is Poisson’s ratio)

Semiconductor has larger G but more sensitive to
temperature.

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 Cont’d…

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 Cont’d…


Note that the gage factor for semiconductor materials is

approximately 50 to 70 times that of the metals.

Also
 note that the gage factor for metals is primarily a

function of dimensional effects.

For most metals, μ= 0.3 and thus G is at least 1.6,

whereas for semiconductors, the piezo resistive effect is

dominant.

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 Classification of Strain gage
Unbounded
Bonded
Unbonded Strain gage

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 (a) Unbonded strain-gage pressure sensor. The
diaphragm is directly coupled by an armature to an
unbonded strain-gage system. With increasing
pressure, the strain on gage pair B and C is
increased, while that on gage pair A and D is
decreased,
(b) Wheatstone bridge with four active elements.
R1 = B, R2 = A, R3 = D, and R4 = C when the
unbonded strain gage is connected for translational
motion. Resistor Ry and potentiometer Rx are used
to initially balance the bridge, vi is the applied
voltage and vo is the output voltage on a voltmeter
or similar device with an internal resistance of Ri.
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  
With increasing pressure, the strain on gage pair B

and C is increased, while that on gage pair A and D

is decreased.
Initially before any pressure is applied

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 Properties
pro:
linear behavior in elastic region(ideal)
small temperature coefficient
excitation: AC or DC
accurate
small displacement
contra:
small gage factor: GF = 2 to 4
sensible to shock
critical mechanic structure

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 Bonded Strain gage
consisting of a metallic wire, etched foil, vacuum
deposited film, or semiconductor bar, is cemented
to the strained surface.

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 Typical bonded strain-gage units (a) Resistance
-wire type, (b) Foil type, (c) Helical-wire type.
Arrows above units show direction of maximal
sensitivity to strain.
To offset temperature use dummy gage wire
that is exposed to temperature but not to strain
Rugged, cheap, low mass, available in many
configurations and sizes

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 Semiconductor Strain gages
Exist in three types or
forms:
1. Bonded
2. Unbonded
3. Integrated
Integrated Pressure
strain gages sensor
with high sensitivity
Integrated cantilever-
beam force sensor

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 Example

  

Consider the measurement of a stress level of 700N/cm2 =7MPa(this is

about a weight of 70kg on a steel rod of 1cm2) in steel with a single

active gage of 120Ω and a gage factor of 2.0. If a bridge circuit of all equal

arms is used, the maximum allowable bridge voltage for 30-mA gage

current is given by the following mathematical representation.

Eex = R*I = (240)(0,030) = 7.2 V

The strain ε = σ/E = 7x/210 x = 33µm/m, (33µε )

so that

dR = (GF)(ε)(R) = (2)(33 x )(120) = 8.4mΩ

For the given bridge arrangement,

eo ≈ Eex dR/4R = (7.2)(8.4 x )/480= 130µV (note2)

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  

Based on limitations of the gage alone, the smallest detectable
strain depends on the thermal or Johnson-noise voltage generated
in every resistance because of the random motion of its electrons.
Thus if this voltage were measured by a hypothetical noise-free

oscilloscope with a bandwidth of ∆f Hz, the measured RMS voltage

would be

: thermal noise RMS voltage generated by a resistor (V)

k : Boltzmann's constant = 1,38 x 10-23( J/K )
T : absolute temperature of resistor (K)
R : resistance (Ω)
∆f : bandwidth (Hz)
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 Inductive Sensors
 An inductance L can be used to measure
displacement by varying any three of the coil
parameters:  n: number of turns of coil
 G: Geometric form factor (length and
width)
 µ: Permeability of the medium (core)
Each of these parameters can be changed by
mechanical means.
Types
 Self-inductance
Mutual Inductance
Differential Transformer
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 Self Induction
Changing the geometric form factor or the
movement of a magnetic core within the coil
 The change in inductance for this device is not
linearly related to displacement.
These devices have low power requirements and
produce large variations in inductance makes them
attractive for radio telemetry applications.

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 Mutual Induction
employs two separate coils and
uses the variation in their mutual
magnetic coupling to measure
displacement.
Measures cardiac dimensions,
monitoring infant respiration,
and ascertaining arterial
diameters
Measures changes in dimension
of internal organs
(kidney, major blood vessels, and
left ventricle).

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 The induced voltage in the secondary coil is a
function of the geometry of the coils (separation
and axial alignment), The number of primary- and
secondary turns, and the frequency and amplitude
of the excitation voltage.
The induced voltage in the secondary coil is a
nonlinear function of the separation of the coils.
In order to maximize the output signal, a
frequency is selected that causes the secondary
coil (tuned circuit) to be in resonance.
The output voltage is detected with standard
demodulator and amplifier circuits.
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 Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
Widely used in physiological research and clinical medicine
to measure pressure, displacement, and force.
 Composed of a primary coil (terminals a-b) and two
secondary coils (c-e and d-e) connected in series.
 The two secondary coils are connected in opposition in
order to achieve a wider region of linearity.
 The primary coil is sinusoidally excited, with a frequency
between 60 Hz and 20 kHz.
 A change of phase by 180 degree when the core passes
through the center position, and saturation on the ends.

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 The alternating magnetic
field induces nearly equal
voltages Vce and Vde in the
secondary coils.
The output voltage is Vcd =
Vce-Vde. When the slug is
symmetrically placed, the
two secondary voltages are
equal and the output signal
is zero.

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 Properties
Linear over a large range: 0.25%
Very sensitive
0.5 to 2mV/0.01mm/V(much bigger than strain
gages)
Displacement range 0.1 to 250mm
Very precision
Long life time, small hysteresis

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 Capacitive sensor
   capacitance between two parallel plates of area A
The
separated by distance x is:

In principle it is possible to monitor displacement by

changing any of the three parameters. However, the
method
that is easiest to implement and that is most commonly
used is to change the separation between the plates.
The sensitivity K of a capacitive sensor to changes in plate
separation Δx is found by differentiating.
Note that the sensitivity increases as the plate separation
decreases.

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 The capacitance between two plates is determined
by three things
Size of the plates: capacitance increases as the
plate size increases (Area)
 Gap Size: capacitance decreases as the gap
increase.
Material between the plates (the dielectric):
Dielectric material will cause the
capacitance to increase or decrease depending
on the material.

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 A possible arrangement for a single capacitive
displacement sensor

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 Variable differential capacitor

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   When using a capacitor bridge, output
voltage is proportional to the distance x.
 Frequencies used to excite the bridge are
between 50KHz and 100KHz.
 The displacement range is mm to 10 mm
with capacitance values from about 1 to
100pF.
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 Linear bridge capacitive position sensor

 
The other
capacitances are
derived for the
identical equations.
Note that the
opposite capacitors
are nearly equal: C1
=C3 and C2 =C4.

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 Piezoelectric Sensors
used to measure physiological displacements and record heart sounds.

 
Principle:
 Piezoelectric materials generate an electric potential when
mechanically strained, and conversely an electric potential can cause
physical deformation of the material.
The principle of operation is that, when an asymmetrical crystal
lattice is distorted, a charge reorientation takes place, causing a
relative displacement of negative and positive charges. The displaced
internal charges induce surface charges of opposite polarity on
opposite sides of the crystal.
 Surface charge can be determined by measuring the difference in
voltage between electrodes attached to the surfaces.
F q: generated charge(C)
k: piezoelectric constant (C/N)
F:applied force(N)

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 The
   voltage generated can be computed as:
e: generated voltage(V)
C: capacitance of the piezoelectric sensor(F)
d: thickness of the sensor(m)
A: area of the sensor ()
: dielectric constant (F/m)
Typical values for k are 2.3 pC/N for quartz and 140 pC/N for
barium titanate.
 For a piezoelectric sensor of 1cm2 area and 1 mm thickness with
an applied force due to a 10-g weight, the generated voltage e is
0.23 mV and 14 mV for the quartz and barium titanate crystals,
respectively. K: the proportional constant (C/m)
q: generated charge (C)
x: deflection(m)
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37
 Properties
Pro
Good for medium to high frequencies
High sensitivity
No external power supply for the sensor

Contra
Temperature sensitivity
No static measurements
High output impedance
Difficult amplification
Applications are mostly vibration sensors and
38 accelerometers