INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS

 In virtually every engineering application there is the

need to measure some physical quantities, such as
displacements, speeds, forces, pressures, temperatures,
stresses, flows, and so on. These measurements are
performed using physical devices called sensors, which
are capable of converting a physical quantity to a more
2. SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS readily manipulated electrical quantity.
 Often the active element of a sensor is referred to as a
transducer. Most sensors, therefore, convert the change
of a physical quantity (e.g. pressure, temperature) to a
corresponding and usually proportional change in an
electrical quantity (e.g. voltage, current, charge). Often
the direct output from a sensor needs additional
manipulation before the electrical output is available to2
the user.

 Sensors: Element which produces a signal relating to the  The most commonly used sensors and transducers,
which are specially suitable for automation and control
quantity being measured. E.g. Electrical resistance
purposes, make extensive use of electrical signal.
thermometer
 Transducers may be parts of complex sensors . For
 Quantity being measured – temperature. Sensor
example, a chemical sensor may have a part which
transforms it to change of resistance converts the energy of a chemical reaction into heat and
 Transducer: element that when subjected to some another part, a thermopile, which converts heat into an
physical change experience a related change. electrical signal. The combination of the two makes a
 is a device which transforms the input signal of one chemical sensor a device which produces an electrical
energy form into an output of another energy form. signal in response to a chemical reaction
 Thus sensors are transducers.
 An example is the mercury-in glass thermometer in
which heat energy is converted into mechanical energy,
forcing the mercury to move along the glass as it
expands or contracts. 3 4

1
 What is the difference between sensors and transducers?
 Sensor is a device that when exposed to a physical DISPLACEMENT, POSITION & PROXIMITY SENSORS
phenomenon (temperature, displacement, force, etc.)
produces a proportional output signal (electrical).
 However, ideally, a sensor is a device that responds to a
change in the physical phenomenon.  Displacement: concerned with the measurement of the
 On the other hand, a transducer is a device that converts
amount by which the object has moved.
one form of energy into another form of energy. Sensors  Position: the determination of the position of some
are transducers when they sense one form of energy object w.r.t. some reference position.
input and output in a different form of energy.
 Proximity: used to determine when an object has moved
 For example, a thermocouple responds to a temperature
to within some particular critical distance of the sensor.
change (thermal energy) and outputs a proportional
change in electromotive force (electrical energy).
Therefore, a thermocouple can be called as a sensor and
or a transducer. 5 6

POTENTIOMETER
CONT…
 A potentiometer is a variable electrical resistance. A
length of resistance material has a voltage applied over  When used as a measurement transducer, a linear
its ends. A slider moves along it (either linear or rotary) potentiometer is normally required.
and picks off the voltage at its position or angle. The
 Use of the term linear assumes that the resistance
tracks may be made from carbon , resistance wire or
measured between one of the ends of the element and
piezo resistive material. The latter is the best because it
the contactor is a direct linear function of the contactor
gives a good analogue output. The wire wound type
position in relation to that end.
produces small step changes in the output depending on
 Linearity is never achieved, however, and deviation
how fine the wire is and how closely it is coiled on the
track. limits are usually supplied by the manufacturer.

7 8

2
 CONT…
 A voltage Vs is applied across the two ends A and B of
the resistance element and an output voltage V0 is
measured between the point of contact C of the sliding
element and the end of the resistance element A.
 A linear relationship exists between the output voltage
V0 and the distance AC, which can be expressed by:

9 10

CONT…
EXAMPLE

 Assume, in the above circuit, that:

 Since the load resistance is large compared to

 The voltage across RL can be calculated by:
the other resistances, the output voltage VL will
be approximately:

 If RL is large compared to the other resistances (like

the input to an operational amplifier), the output
voltage can be approximated by the simpler equation:  Due to the load resistance, however, it will
actually be slightly lower: ≈ 6.623 V.
11 12

3
 STRAIN GAUGE CONT…
 Strain gauges are measuring elements which can sense  Strain gauge can be used as Force, torque, pressure,
changes in applied mechanical force by transducing stress, and strain sensor
mechanical force to electrical resistance.  Their resistance changes with not only strain but also
 Resistance of an electrical conductor varies according to temperature.
the following relation

 When subject to strain, its resistance R changes, the

fractional change in resistance ∆R/R being proportional
to the strain ε, i.e.
∆R/R=Gε
 Where G, the constant of proportionality, is termed the
gauge factor. It is normally supplied by the manufacturer
from a calibration made of a sample taken from a batch.13 14

Electrical resistance strain gauge (metal foil strip)

CONT… CONT…
 In practice, the strain measurements rarely involve
quantities larger than a few mill strains (e x 10-3).
 Therefore, to measure the strain requires accurate
measurement of very small changes in resistance. To
measure such small changes in resistance, strain gauges
are almost always used in a bridge configuration with a
voltage excitation source.
 The general Wheatstone bridge, illustrated below,  When 𝑅1 /𝑅2 = 𝑅4 /𝑅3 , the voltage output 𝑉𝑂 will be zero.
consists of four resistive arms with an excitation Under these conditions, the bridge is said to be balanced.
voltage, 𝑉𝐸𝑋 , that is applied across the bridge.  Any change in resistance in any arm of the bridge will
 The output voltage of the bridge, 𝑉𝑂 , will be equal to: result in a non zero output voltage.
𝑅3 𝑅2  Therefore, if we replace𝑅4 in Figure with an active strain
𝑉𝑂 = − 𝑉
𝑅3 + 𝑅4 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐸𝑋 gauge, any changes in the strain gauge resistance will
15 unbalance the bridge and produce a nonzero output 16
voltage 𝑉𝑂 .

4
 CONT…
 Ideally, we would like the resistance of the strain gauge
 If the nominal resistance of to change only in response to applied strain. However,
the strain gauge is strain gauge material, as well as the specimen material
designated as 𝑅𝐺 , then the to which the gauge is applied, will also respond to
strain-induced change in changes in temperature.
resistance,∆𝑅, can be  Strain gauge manufacturers attempt to minimize
expressed as ∆𝑅 = 𝑅𝐺 𝐺𝐹ԑ. sensitivity to temperature by processing the gauge
 Assuming that 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 and material to compensate for the thermal expansion of the
𝑅3 =𝑅𝐺 , the bridge equation specimen material for which the gauge is intended.
above can be rewritten to  While compensated gauges reduce the thermal
express 𝑉0 =𝑉𝐸𝑋 as a sensitivity, they do not totally remove it.
function of strain (see  By using two strain gauges in the bridge, the effect of
Figure). temperature can be further minimized.
18

 Strain gauges
 The next figure below
illustrates a strain gauge attached to flexible
configuration where one gauge cantilever.
is active (𝑅𝐺 + ∆𝑅), and a  During deformation

second gauge is placed tensile and

transverse to the applied compressive forces
strain. on the element
 Therefore, the strain has little
change the
effect on the second gauge, resistance i.e. the
called the dummy gauge. strain thus it can be
a measurement of
 However, any changes in temperature will affect both
displacement or
gauges in the same way. Because the temperature deformation of the
changes are identical in the two gauges, the ratio of flexible element.
their resistance does not change, the voltage 𝑉0 does not
change, and the effects of the temperature change are 19 20

minimized.

5
 LVDT
Linear variable differential transformer
 Consists of three coils symmetrically spaced along an
insulated tube.
 The central coil is the primary coil and the other two
are identical secondary coils which are connected in
series in such away that their outputs oppose each
other.
 When there is an alternating voltage input to the
primary coil, alternating e.m.f.s are induced in the
secondary coils. Since the magnetic core is at the center
the e.m.f induced In each coil is the same.
 However, when the core is displaced from the central
position there is a great amount of magnetic core in one
coil than the other.  There is then a net output from the two coils.
22

LVDT LINEAR RANGE

 Working range: ±2mm to ±400mm

 Because the iron core does not touch the inside of the tube,
it can move without friction, making the LVDT a highly  Non-linearity error: ±0.25%
reliable device. The absence of any sliding or rotating 23  A rotary variable differential transformer(RVDT) can 24
contacts allows the LVDT to be completely sealed against be used for the measurement of rotation.
the environment.

6
 CAPACITIVE SENSOR

 Capacitive sensors consist of two parallel metal plates in

which the dielectric between the plates is either air or
some other medium.
 The capacitance C is given by 𝐶 = ԑ0 ԑ𝑟 𝐴/𝐷, where ԑ0 is
the absolute permittivity, ԑ𝑟 is the relative permittivity of
the dielectric medium between the plates, A is the area of
the plates and D is the distance between them.
 Capacitive devices are often used as displacement
sensors, in which motion of a moveable capacitive plate
relative to a fixed one changes the capacitance.
 The three most common forms are shown in fig below.

25 26

CONT… PNEUMATIC SENSORS

• Fixed plate capacitors can
also be used as sensors, in  Involve the use of compressed air.
which the capacitance value  Displacement or proximity of an object being transformed
is changed by causing the into a change in air pressure.
measured variable to change  Are used for measurement of displacements of fractions of
the dielectric constant of the millimeters in ranges which typically are about 3 to 12mm.
material between the plates
No close by object
in some way.
 Low pressure air is allowed to escape through a port in the
•Eg: moisture content,
humidity values and liquid front of the sensor in doing so it reduces the pressure in the
level nearby sensor output port.
With an object near by
 The air can not escape so readily and the result is that the

Capacitive type sensor as liquid level measurement

27 pressure increases in the sensor output port. 28

7
 VELOCITY AND MOTION SENSORS

 Used to monitor linear and angular velocities and detect

motion.
 Can be obtained by differentiating displacement

 Some sensors give velocity directly

e.g. measuring frequency of pulses gives speed rather

than position
 Some sensors give acceleration directly

 e.g. accelerometers usually measure the force on a

mass

29 30

TACHOGENERATOR CONT…
 A variable reluctance sensor (VRS),  They are passive devices and do not require any external
(Tachogenerator) is used to measure position and speed source of power to generate a signal.
of moving metal components.  The frequency of the signal is directly proportional to the

 This sensor consists of a permanent magnet, a speed of rotation. The amplitude of the signal is affected
ferromagnetic pole piece, a pickup coil, and a rotating by the speed of rotation, the material being sensed and the
toothed wheel. distance, known as the "air gap", between the sensor tip
and the rotating object.
 A variable reluctance sensor is composed of a winding
wound around a cylindrical magnetic material, typically
made of some type of ferrous material that is referred to as
a pole piece.
 A magnet is attached behind the pole piece, creating a
magnetic field through the pole piece and winding.
 This magnetic field projects out from the pole piece front,
also known as the sensor tip. When ferrous material 31 32
passes through and disrupts this magnetic field, electricity
(a sine wave) is generated.

8
 CONT… FORCE SENSORS
 As the gear teeth of the rotating wheel (or other target
features) pass by the face of the magnet, the amount of  Force is proportional to displacement.
magnetic flux passing through the magnet and  Forces are commonly measured by the
consequently the coil varies. measurement of displacement.
 When the gear tooth is close to the sensor, the flux is at a  Eg: A spring balance
maximum. When the tooth is further away, the flux drops  The main types of force sensors are
off.  Mechanical types.
 The moving target results in a time-varying flux that  Hydraulic types.
induces a proportional voltage in the coil.
 Electrical types.
 Subsequent electronics are then used to process this
signal to get a digital waveform that can be more readily
counted and timed.
33 34

MECHANICAL TYPES HYDRAULIC TYPES

 Mechanical types are usually  Hydraulic types are often referred to as hydraulic load
complete measuring systems cells. The cell is a capsule filled with liquid. When the
involving some form of spring capsule is squeezed, the liquid becomes pressurized. The
such as in a simple spring pressure represents the force and may be indicated with
balance or bathroom scale. It is a a calibrated pressure gauge. The capsule is often a short
basic mechanical principle that cylinder with a piston and the pressure produced is
the deflection of a spring is given by P = F/A where F is the force and A the piston
directly proportional to the area.
applied force so if the movement
is shown on a scale, the scale
represents force.

35 36

9
 STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL PIEZO ELECTRIC SENSORS
 A typical load cell consists of a
 Refers to a phenomenon in
metal cylinder with strain gauges which forces applied to a
fixed to it. When the cylinder is segment of material(ionic
stretched or compressed, the crystals) lead to the appearance
strain gauges convert the force of electrical charge on the
surfaces of the segment.
into a change in resistance and
 The source of this phenomenon
hence voltage. is the distribution of electric
 Since temperature change also charges in the unit cell of a
produces a resistance change, the crystal.
 The strain which is induced by
signal conditioning circuit used
the force leads to a physical
has to be able to eliminate the displacement of the charge in
effects due to temperature. the unit cell.
37  Eg: Quartz, Barium titanate 38

CONT… CONT…
 Eg: quartz crystal, in which forces applied along the x  Piezoelectric transducers produce an output voltage
axis of the crystal lead to the appearance of positive and when a force is applied to them.
negative charges on opposite sides of the crystal along
 Piezoelectric transducers are made from piezoelectric
the z axis .
materials.
 These have an asymmetrical lattice of molecules that
distorts when a mechanical force is applied to it.
 This distortion causes a reorientation of electric charges
within the material, resulting in a relative displacement
of positive and negative charges.
 The charge displacement induces surface charges on the
material of opposite polarity between the two sides.
 By implanting electrodes into the surface of the

39
material, these surface charges can be measured as an40
output voltage.

10
 CONT… FLOW MEASUREMENT
 For a rectangular block of material, the induced voltage
is given by:  Rate of fluid flow
 Mass flow rate(more accurate)
 Coriolis flow meter( for liquids)
 Where F is the applied force in g, A is the area of the  Thermal mass flow measurement( for gases) :The principle of
material in mm, d is the thickness of the material and k operation is to direct the flowing material past a heated
is the piezoelectric constant. The polarity of the induced element. Then either by measuring the temperature rise in
the flowing fluid or by measuring the heater power required
voltage depends on whether the material is compressed
 Volume flow rate
or stretched.
 Rate of solid flow
 The piezoelectric constant varies widely between
 Mass flow rate
different materials. Typical values of k are 2.3 for quartz
Conveyor based methods
and 140 for barium titanate. Applying the above


equationfor a force of 1 g applied to a crystal of area 100

𝑚𝑚2 and thickness 1 mm gives an output of 23 μV for
quartz and 1.4 mV for barium titanate. 41 42

VOLUME FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW METERS

 Involves placing a fixed area flow restriction of some type in
 Volume flow rate is an appropriate way of quantifying the pipe carrying the fluid.
the flow of all materials that are in a gaseous, liquid or  These are a range of meters that convert flow rate into a
semi-liquid slurry (where solid particles are suspended in differential pressure.
a liquid host).  ORIFICE PLATE.
 Materials in these forms are carried in pipes, and various  VENTURI METERS
instruments.  NOZZLE METERS
 There are many hundreds of types of flow meters  PITOT TUBES
depending on the make and application. The main types  The working principle for all these is based on the
are: measurement of the pressure drop occurring when the fluid
 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE flows through a constriction.
 INFERENTIAL
 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT
43 44

11
 VENTURI METER: CONT…
 The venturi meter has a converging conical inlet, a  As the fluid enters the diverging section the pressure is
cylindrical throat and a diverging recovery cone. largely recovered lowering the velocity of the fluid. The
 It has no projections into the fluid, no sharp corners and no major disadvantages of this type of flow detection are the
sudden changes in contour. high initial costs for installation and difficulty in
 The converging inlet section decreases the area of the fluid installation and inspection.
stream, causing the velocity to increase and the pressure to  The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that
decrease. The low pressure is measured in the center of the results when a fluid flows through a constricted section of
cylindrical throat as the pressure will be at its lowest pipe. The fluid velocity must increase through the
value, where neither the pressure nor the velocity will be constriction to satisfy the equation of continuity, while its
changing. pressure must decrease due to conservation of energy: the
gain in kinetic energy is balanced by a drop in pressure or
a pressure gradient force.
 An equation for the drop in pressure due to Venturi effect
may be derived from a combination of Bernoulli’s principle
45 46
and the equation of continuity.

CONT… CONT…
 The equation for venturi meter is obtained by applying
Bernoulli equation and equation of continuity assuming 𝐷1 2 𝐷2 2
𝐴1 = 𝜋 𝐴2 = 𝜋
an incompressible flow of fluids through manometer 4 4
tubes. If V1 and V2 are the average upstream and
downstream velocities and ρ is the density of the fluid, 2(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑄 = 𝐴2
then using Bernoulli’s equation we get, 𝜌[1 − 𝛽4 ]

 where β is the ratio of the diameter of throat to that of

 Assuming density of fluid to be constant, the equation of diameter of pipe.
continuity can be written as:  If we assume a small friction lose between two pressure
taps, the above equation can be corrected by introducing
 Where A1 and A2 are Area of pipe and throat empirical factor Cv (coefficient of velocity) and written as,
respectively. Combination of these two equations results
in the following theoretical flow rate. 2(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑣 𝐴2
47 𝜌[1 − 𝛽4 ] 48

12
 ORIFICE METER CONT…
 An orifice meter is essentially a cylindrical tube that
contains a plate with a thin hole in the middle of it.
 The thin hole essentially forces the fluid to flow faster
through the hole in order to maintain flow rate. Nozzle
Orifice
 The point of maximum convergence usually occurs
 The phenomenon, called a
slightly downstream from the actual physical orifice this
vena contracta effect, is
is the reason orifice meters are less accurate than venturi
a result of the inability of
meters, as we cannot use the exact location and diameter
the fluid to turn the sharp
of the point of maximum convergence in calculations.
90° corner.
 Beyond the vena contracta point, the fluid expands again
and velocity decreases as pressure increases. Venturi
2(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
 Orifice meter uses the same principle of continuity 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐴2
𝜌[1 − 𝛽4 ]
equation and Bernoulli principle to calculate the
volumetric flow rate, as shown above for venturi meter.49 𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
50

CONT… CONT…
 For the venturi below with a sharp corner,𝑑𝑗 will be less
than 𝑑ℎ .

 The vena contracta effect is a function of the geometry of

the outlet.
 Some typical configurations are shown in Fig. below along
with typical values of the experimentally obtained
contraction coefficient, 𝐶𝑐 = 𝐴𝑗 /𝐴ℎ , where𝐴𝑗 and 𝐴ℎ are the
areas of the jet in the vena contracta and the area of the 51 52
hole, respectively.

13
 SLUICE GATE CONT…
 Other flow meters based on the Bernoulli equation are
used to measure flow rates in open channels such as flumes 2
and irrigation ditches. 1 𝑍2 1
𝜌 𝑉 + 𝑍1 = 𝜌𝑉 2 + 𝑍2
2 𝑍1 2 2 2

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐶𝑣 𝑍2 b 2𝑔(𝑍1 − 𝑍2 )
𝐶𝑐
 Where 𝐴2 = 𝑍2 𝑏, 𝐶𝑑 =
2
 We apply the Bernoulli and continuity equations between 1−
𝑍2
𝑍1
points on the free surfaces at (1) and (2) to give:
1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑉1 2 + 𝑍1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑉2 2 + 𝑍2
2 2 53  And 𝐶𝑐 = contraction coefficient according for 54

the reduced area at the exit.

PITOT TUBE CON…

 An instrument with a very small area to measure the local  Construction:
or point velocities rather than average across a pipe or
 Two concentric tubes arranged parallel to the flow. The outer
duct. tube of greater diameter is perforated i.e. having small
 Working principle: holes(static holes) perpendicular to the direction of the flow as
 A tube is placed with its end facing into the stream of fluid, then shown. The inner tube has a small opening pointed in to the
the fluid striking on the open end will be brought at rest and its flow. Both these tubes are connected to the manometer as
kinetic energy converted to pressure energy. So the pressure shown. In other form as shown in (a) instead of two concentric
built up in the tube will be greater than that in the free stream tubes static pressure is measured by tapping in the wall of
by the impact pressure or the pressure produced by the loss of main.
KE.
 The difference b/n the pressure in the tube and the static
pressure of the stream is a measure of the impact pressure,
and thus the velocity of the stream.
 Although it gives the point velocity, average velocity can be
measured using the following equation. 55 56
𝑢
= 0.5 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the max velocity i.e. velocity at the center
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥

14
 CONT… ROTAMETERS
 Working equation:  The rotameter remains a widely used insertion meter for
 For incompressible fluid if frictional losses are neglected , and flow rate indication.
fluid does not perform any work, also in horizontal position  As depicted in figure below, the meter consists of a float
𝑍1 = 𝑍2 .
within a vertical tube, tapered to an increasing cross
 Fluid at point 2 is at rest i.e. 𝑢2 = 0
sectional area at its outlet.
 From Bernoulli's equation
 Flow entering through the bottom passes over the float,
2(𝑝𝑡 − 𝑝𝑠 ) which is free to move.
𝑢=
𝜌  The basic principle of the device is based on the simple
 Where
balance between the weight of the float Fw and both the
 𝑢 = fluid velocity
buoyancy forces FB acting on the float in the moving fluid
 𝑝𝑡 = stagnation or total pressure and drag force FD.
 𝑝𝑠 = static pressure  The principle of operation is based on the float indicator
 The value for the pressure drop 𝑝𝑡 − 𝑝𝑠 = ∆𝑝 is given from with in glass tube which is labeled the forces acting on the
the manometer reading 57 float are buoyant force, Gravitational force, viscous force58
∆𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔∆𝑕 and pressure forces

CONT… CONT…

59 60

15
 CONT…
INFERENTIAL TYPE METERS

 Usually this is a rotor which is made to spin and the

speed of the rotor is sensed mechanically or
electronically. The main types are :
 Turbine meter
 Rotary shunt types
 Rotating vane types
 Helical turbine types

 Thus the float’s vertical position, y, gives a direct measure

61 62

for the flow rate which can be read from a graduated scale.

TURBINE METER CONT…

 If a turbine wheel is placed in a pipe containing a flowing  In the turbine-wheel body a
fluid, its rotary speed depends on the flow rate of the fluid. permanent magnet is enclosed so
 By reducing bearing friction and other losses to a that it rotate with the wheel.
minimum, one can design a turbine whose speed varies  The speed can be measured with
linearly with the flow rate. great accuracy by counting the rate
 Thus a speed measurement allows flow rate measurement. at which turbine blades pass a
given point, using a magnetic pick
up to produce voltage pulses.
 By feeding these pulses to an
electronic-pulse rate meter, one can
measure the flow rate, and by
accumulating the total number of
pulse during a timed interval, the
63 total flow is obtained. 64

16
 ROTARY VANE FLOW METER
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT TYPES
 The jet of fluid spins around the rotating vane and the  These types have a mechanical element that makes the
speed of the rotor is measured mechanically or shaft of the meter rotate once for an exact known quantity
electronically. of fluid.
 The quantity of fluid hence depends on the number of
revolutions of the meter shaft and the flow rate depends
upon the speed of rotation.
 Both the revolutions and speed may be measured with
mechanical or electronic devices. Some of the most
common listed below.
 Rotary piston type.
 Vane type.
 Lobe type or meshing rotor.

 Reciprocating piston type

65 66
 Fluted spiral gear.

THE LOBED OR MESHING ROTOR FLOW METER MECHANICAL PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

 The MESHING ROTOR type
consists of two rotors with lobes.  Type of Pressure measurement that are required are:
When fluid is forced in, the rotors
 Absolute (measured w.r.t. vacuum)
turn and operate the indicating
 Differential (a pressure difference is measured)
system.
 Gauge (measured w.r.t barometer)
 The impeller and case are carefully
machined so that accurate fit is  Mechanical movement is produced with the following
maintained. In this way, the elements.
incoming fluid is always trapped  Bourdon Tube, Spring and Piston, Diaphragm,
between the two rotors and is Bellows and capsules.
conveyed to the outlet as a result of  Pressure sensors either convert the pressure into
their rotation. mechanical movement or into an electrical output.
 The number of revolutions of the
rotors is an indication of the 67 68
volumetric flow rate.

17
 BOURDON TUBE
CONT…
 Named after the French engineer and inventor Eugene
Bourdon (1808—1884), which consists of a hollow metal
tube bent like a hook whose end is closed and connected to
a dial indicator needle.
 When the tube is open to the atmosphere, the tube is
undeflected, and the needle on the dial at this state is
calibrated to read zero (gage pressure).
 When the fluid inside the tube is pressurized, the tube
stretches and moves the needle in proportion to the
pressure applied.
 It can also be connected to a secondary device such as an
air nozzle to control air pressure or to a suitable transducer
to convert it into an electric signal.
 Tube made of stainless steel or phosphor bronze 69 70
 Can measure103 to 108 Pa

CONT… PISTON TYPE

 The pressure acts directly on the
piston and compresses the spring. The
position of the piston is directly
related to the pressure.
 A window in the outer case allows the
pressure to be indicated. This type is
usually used in hydraulics where the
ability to withstand shock, vibration
and sudden pressure changes is
needed (shock proof gauge).
 The piston movement may be
connected to a secondary device to
convert movement into an electrical
71
signal. 72

18
 DIAPHRAGMS CONT…
 Diaphragm elements are circular-shaped, convoluted  Movement can be sensed by displacement sensor.
membranes. Their deformation gives the pressure  Electrical: 4 strain gauges used, 2 in radial direction, 2 in
difference. When there is pressure difference b/n the two circumferential direction.
sides then the center of the diaphragm becomes displaced.  Mechanical: The movement is transmitted to a pointer on
 Corrugation in the diaphragm gives greater sensitivity. a dial through a fine mechanical linkage.
 Compared with bourdon tubes these diaphragm elements
have a relatively high activating force. Due to the annular
clamping of the element they are insensitive to vibration.

73 74

CONT…
TEMPERATURE SENSORS

 Changes that are commonly used to monitor

temperature are
 expansion or contraction of solids, liquids,
gases,
 change in electrical resistance of conductors
and semiconductors and
 thermoelectric e.m.f.

75 76

19
 BIMETALLIC STRIPS CONT…
 Two metal strips having different coefficient of expansion
 A bimetallic strip is wound in the form
are rigidly joined together.
of a long helix. One end of the helix is
 When the temperature changes the composite strip bends held rigid. As the temperature varies;
in to curved strip with the higher coefficient metal on the the helix tries to wind or unwind.
outside of the curve.
 In the industrial type, the strip is
 A modification of this bimetallic strip serves as the basis twisted into a long thin coil inside a
for one of the simplest and most commonly encountered tube.
temperature-measuring instruments, the bimetallic
 This causes the free end to rotate.
thermometer.
 The free end is connected to a pointer.
The pointer actually indicates angular
rotation of the helix; however, since the
rotation is linear and a function of
temperature, the scale is marked in
77 units of temperature. 78

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS(RTDS) CONT…

 These work on the principle that the electrical
resistance of a conductor change with temperature.
 RTDs are simple resistive
 The resistance of most metals increases, over a limited elements in the form of
temperature range, in a reasonably linear way with coils of wire of such metals
temperature. as platinum, nickel, or
 If a constant voltage is applied to the conductor then nickel-copper alloys.
the current flowing through it will change with  RTDs are commonly
temperature. categorized by their
 The following law relates the resistance and nominal resistance at 0 °C.
temperature. Typical nominal resistance
Rt = Ro(1 + t) values for platinum thin-
 is the temperature coefficient of resistance. Ro is the film RTDs include 100 and
resistance at 0oC, Rt is the resistance at temperature t. 1000 Ω.
79 80

20
 THERMISTOR
 A special type of resistance sensor
 They are made from a small piece of semiconductor
material(mixtures of metal oxides).
 Available in the form of beads, discs and rods.

 The material is special because the resistance changes a

lot for a small change in temperature(very non-linear)
and so can be made into a small sensor and it costs less
than platinum wire.
 They are only used for a typical range of -20 to 120oC
and are commonly used in small hand held
thermometers for every day use.

R= Ro e (β(1/T-1/To) 81 82

THERMOCOUPLE
THERMOCOUPLE  The basis of thermocouples was established by Thomas
Johann Seebeck in 1821 when he discovered that a
 When two wires with dissimilar electrical properties are
conductor generates a voltage when it is subjected to a
joined at both ends and one junction is made hot and
temperature gradient.
the other cold, a small electric current is produced
proportional to the difference in the temperature. ∆V= s∆T Eq....1
 Measuring this voltage requires the use of a second
 It is important that thermocouples are standard so that
the same e.m.f will always represent the same conductor material that generates a different voltage under
the same temperature gradient.
temperature.
 If the same material is used for the measurement, the
 Thermocouples come in several forms. They may be
voltage generated by the measuring conductor simply
wires insulated from each other with plastic or glass
cancels that of the first conductor.
fibre materials. For high temperature work, the wire
 The voltage difference generated by the two dissimilar
pairs are put inside a tube with mineral insulation. For
industrial uses the sensor comes in a metal enclosure materials can be measured and related to the corresponding
such as stainless steel. temperature gradient.
83 84
 They need a known reference temperature to yield the
absolute readings.

21
 CONT… HOW A THERMOCOUPLE WORKS
 Several types of thermocouples are available, and different  To use a thermocouple, you cannot simply connect it to a
types are designated by capital letters that indicate their voltmeter or other measurement system, because the
composition according to ANSI conventions. For example, a voltage measured is proportional to the temperature
J-Type thermocouple has one iron conductor and one difference between the primary junction and the junction
constantan (a copper-nickel alloy) conductor. You can see a where the voltage is being measured.
complete list of thermocouples in Table below.
 Therefore, to know the absolute temperature at the
Type Conductors – Positive Conductors – Negative thermocouple tip, the temperature where the
B Platinum-30% rhodium Platinum-6% rhodium thermocouple is connected to the measurement device
E Nickel-chromium alloy Copper-nickel alloy must also be known.
J Iron Copper-nickel alloy  Eg: J-Type thermocouple in a candle flame

K Nickel-chromium alloy Nickel-aluminum alloy

N Nickel-chromium-silicon alloy Nickel-silicon-magnesium alloy

R Platinum-13% rhodium Platinum

S Platinum-10% rhodium Platinum 86 87

T Copper Copper-nickel alloy

CONT… CONT…
 The two thermocouple wires are connected to the copper leads of  In order to make a thermocouple conform to some
a data acquisition device. precisely defined e.m.f.–temperature characteristic, it is
 The circuit contains three dissimilar metal junctions: J1, J2, and necessary that all metals used are refined to a high
J3. This results in a Seebeck voltage between J3 and J2 that is degree of pureness and all alloys are manufactured to an
proportional to the temperature difference between J1, which is exact specification. This makes the materials used
sensing the temperature of the candle flame, and J2 and J3. expensive, and consequently thermocouples are typically
 J2 and J3 should be close enough together so that they can be only a few centimeters long.
assumed to be at the same temperature. Because copper wire is
 It is clearly impractical to connect a voltage-measuring
connected to both J2 and J3, there is no additional voltage
contributed between the temperature difference of the J2/J3
instrument at the open end of the thermocouple to
junction and the point where the voltage is measured by the measure its output in such close proximity to the
data acquisition device. environment whose temperature is being measured, and
 To determine the temperature at J1, you must know the therefore extension leads up to several meters long are
temperatures of junctions J2 and J3. You can then use the normally connected between the thermocouple and the
measured voltage and the known temperature of the J2/J3 measuring instrument.
junction to infer the temperature at J1.
88 89

22
 CONT… CONT…
 Cold Junction compensation:
 Thermocouples require some form of temperature reference to
compensate for the cold junctions.
 The most common method is to measure the temperature at the
reference junction with a direct-reading temperature sensor
then apply this cold-junction temperature measurement to the
voltage reading to determine the temperature measured by the
thermocouple. This process is called cold-junction compensation
(CJC).
 Another less-common method is forcing the junction from the
thermocouple metal to copper metal to a known temperature,
such as 0 ºC, by submersing the junction in an ice-bath, and
then connecting the copper wire from each junction to a voltage
measurement device.
 When using the first method, you can simplify computing CJC
90 by taking advantage of thermocouple characteristics. 91

CONT… REFERENCE TABLES

 Thermocouple Law of Intermediate Metals:
 Inserting any type of wire into a thermocouple circuit has no  Standard thermocouple
influence on the output as long as both ends of that wire are reference tables are generated
the same temperature, or isothermal. with the reference junction
held at 0 °C, therefore, to
determine the temperature at
a short length of constantan wire is the thermocouple junction:
inserted just before junction J3 and the
junctions are assumed to be held at
identical temperatures.
 Where VMEAS is the voltage measured by the data acquisition device,
and VTC (TTC – Tref) is the Seebeck voltage created by the difference
between TTC (the temperature at the thermocouple junction) and Tref
(the temperature at the reference junction):
= 92 93
VMEAS = VTC (TTC – Tref) Eq....2

23
 CONT… CONT…
 We can rewrite Eq 2 as shown in Eq 3 where VTC (TTC) is  Thermocouple output voltages are highly nonlinear; the
the voltage measured by the thermocouple assuming a Seebeck coefficient can vary by a factor of three or more
reference junction temperature of 0 °C, and VTC (Tref) is the over the operating temperature range of some
voltage that would be generated by the same thermocouple thermocouples.
at the current reference temperature assuming a reference
 Therefore, you must either approximate the thermocouple
junction of 0 °C:
voltage-versus-temperature curve using polynomials, or
VMEAS = VTC (TTC ) - VTC (Tref ) Eq…3 use a look-up table. The polynomials are in the following
form where v is the thermocouple voltage in volts, T is the
VTC (TTC) = VMEAS + VTC (Tref) Eq…4 temperature in degrees Celsius, and a0 through an are
coefficients that are specific to each thermocouple type:
 In Equation 4, the computed voltage of the thermocouple
assumes a reference junction of 0 °C. Therefore, by
T = a0 + a1v + a2v2 + ... + anvn
measuring VMEAS and Tref , and knowing the voltage-to-
temperature relationship of the thermocouple, you can
determine the temperature at the primary junction of the94 95

thermocouple.

24