LEARNING MATERIAL

FOR

BASIC
ELECTRICAL
(1ST SEMESTER )

Electrical department
B.O.S.E,Cuttack
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
(1st sem Common)

Theory: 2 Periods per Week I.A : 10

Marks Total Periods: 30 Periods End Sem Exam : 40 Marks
Examination: 1.5 Hours TOTAL MARKS : 50
Marks

Topic wise Distribution of Periods and Marks

Sl.No. Topics Periods

1 Fundamentals 05
2 A C Theory 08
3 Generation of Elect. Power 03
4 Conversion of Electrical Energy 07
5 Wiring and Power Billing 04
6 Measuring Instrument 03
Total 30
Objective
1. To be familiar with A.C Fundamental and circuits
2. To be familiar with basic principle and application of energy conversion devices
3. To be familiar with generation of Electrical power
4. To be familiar with wiring and protective device
5. To be familiar with calculation and commercial Billing of electrical power & energy
6. To have basic knowledge of various electrical measuring instruments &
conservation of electrical energy

1. FUNDAMENTALS
Concept of current flow.
Concept of source and load.
State Ohm’s law and concept of resistance.
Relation of V, I & R in series circuit.
Relation of V, I & R in parallel circuit.
Division of current in parallel circuit.
Effect of power in series & parallel circuit.
Kirchhoff’s Law.
Simple problems on Kirchhoff’s law.

2. A.C. THEORY
Generation of alternating emf.
Difference between D.C. & A.C.
Define Amplitude, instantaneous value, cycle, Time period, frequency,
phase angle, phase difference.
State & Explain RMS value, Average value, Amplitude factor & Form
factor with Simple problems.
 Represent AC values in phasor diagrams.
AC through pure resistance, inductance & capacitance
AC though RL, RC, RLC series circuits.
Simple problems on RL, RC & RLC series circuits.
Concept of Power and Power factor
Impedance triangle and power triangle.
3. GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER
Give elementary idea on generation of electricity from thermal , hydro
& nuclear power station with block diagram

4. CONVERSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

(No operation, Derivation, numerical problems)
Introduction of DC machines.
Main parts of DC machines.
Classification of DC generator
Classification of DC motor.
Uses of different types of DC generators & motors.
Types and uses of single phase induction motors.
Concept of Lumen
Different types of Lamps (Filament, Fluorescent, LED bulb) its Construction
and Principle.
Star rating of home appliances (Terminology, Energy efficiency, Star rating
Concept)

5. WIRING AND POWER BILLING

Types of wiring for domestic installations.
Layout of household electrical wiring (single line diagram showing all the
important component in the system).
List out the basic protective devices used in house hold wiring.
Calculate energy consumed in a small electrical installation

6. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Introduction to measuring instruments.
Torques in instruments.
Different uses of PMMC type of instruments (Ammeter & Voltmeter).
Different uses of MI type of instruments (Ammeter & Voltmeter).
Draw the connection diagram of A.C/ D.C Ammeter, voltmeter, energy
meter and wattmeter. (Single phase only).
1.FUNDAMENTALS
Current Flow
Current flow basically means the flow of electric charges with respect to time.
In an electric circuit, when the electric charge is flowing in one direction, the
current will flow in the opposite direction.
The electric current flow starts from the negative terminal to the positive
terminal of a battery, as the electron will flow from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal.
From Ohm's law, the expression for the current is V=IR
Here, V is the voltage of the battery, R is the resistance connected in the
circuit, and I is the current flow in the circuit.
From Ohm's law, the current can be defined as the voltage through the circuit
per unit resistance.
The unit of current is Ampere (A).
When the current flows through the circuit, it causes heating in that device; as
a result, we can get light in an incandescent light bulb. This heating is known as
Joule heating.
Current is of two types:
• DC current, which is created from a Dc voltage source
• AC Current, which is created from an Ac voltage source
In an atom, the number of neutrons and protons are the same. Basically, an
atom is electrically neutral. The electrons near the nucleus are strongly bonded
and the outer electrons are loosely bonded. The loosely bonded electrons may
be detached from the atoms.
Now, when the external voltage applies, the loosely bonded electrons come
out from the orbit and start drifting toward a direction according to the
direction of the applied voltage and electric field. This causes a flow of current
through the circuit.

Current flow

basically means the flow of electric charges with respect to time. In an electric
circuit, when the electric charge is flowing in one direction,
the current will flow in the opposite direction. ... From Ohm's law,
the current can be defined as the voltage through the circuit per unit
resistance.

WHEN DOES CURRENT FLOW IN A CIRCUIT? Current only flows when

a circuit is complete—when there are no gaps in it. In a complete circuit, the
electrons flow from the negative terminal (connection) on the power source,
through the connecting wires and components, such as bulbs, and back to the
positive terminal

What causes current to flow?

An electrical phenomenon is caused by flow of free electrons from one atom

to another. The characteristics of current electricity are opposite to those of
static electricity. Wires are made up of conductors such as copper or
aluminum. ... Current flows from positive to negative and electron flows from
negative to positive.

Why does current flow from positive to negative?

As the electrons always move towards the positive attractor, the

holes will tend to flow to the negative. ... Hole flow is usually called
conventional current, and flows from positive to negative. Electron flow goes
in the reverse direction, from negative to positive voltages

What is current explain?

Current is a flow of electrical charge carriers, usually electrons or electron-

deficient atoms. ... Electric current can be either direct or alternating.
Direct current (DC) flows in the same direction at all points in time, although
the instantaneous magnitude of the current might vary.

What is current and voltage?

V. Definition. Current is the rate at which electric charge flows past a point in a
circuit. In other words, current is the rate of flow of electric charge. Voltage,
also called electromotive force, is the potential difference in charge between
two points in an electrical field.

What is current and its types?

There are two types of electrical current: direct and alternating. In a
direct current, abbreviated DC, the electrons move in one direction. ... Finally,
the unit of current is the ampere, which is defined as one coulomb of charge
passing a given point in one second.

What is AC or DC?

In direct current (DC), the electric charge (current) only flows in one direction.
Electric charge in alternating current (AC), on the other hand, changes
direction periodically. The voltage in AC circuits also periodically reverses
because the current changes direction.

What is Ohm's law in electricity?

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points. ... More
specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant,
independent of the current.

Ohm's Law Formula

Voltage= Current× Resistance. V= I×R. V= voltage, I= current and R= resistance.

The SI unit of resistance is ohms and is denoted by Ω This law is one of the
most basic laws of electricity.

What is Ohm's law used for?

Ohm's Law is a formula used to calculate the relationship between voltage,

current and resistance in an electrical circuit. To students of electronics, Ohm's
Law (E = IR) is as fundamentally important as Einstein's Relativity equation (E =
mc²) is to physicists.

Source and Load

Source and Load. ... The source is a voltage or current source, and the load is a
resistor. The source is a sensor and the load is an amplifier. The source is signal
(waveform) generator that produces various waveforms (sinusoids, saw tooth,
square wave, etc.), and the load is an oscilloscope to display such waveforms.
It is often needed to concatenate two circuits in series (cascade), by connecting
the output port of the first circuit, considered as the source, to the input port
of the second circuit, considered as the load. Here are some examples:

 The source is a voltage or current source, and the load is a resistor.

 The source is a sensor and the load is an amplifier.
 The source is signal (waveform) generator that produces various
waveforms (sinusoids, saw tooth, square wave, etc.), and the load is an
oscilloscope to display such waveforms.

What is a load in a circuit?

An electrical load is an electrical component or portion of a circuit that

consumes (active) electric power. This is opposed to a power source, such as a
battery or generator, which produces power. In electric
power circuits examples of loads are appliances and lights.

What is the load in electrical wiring?

At the second device, the line is the power source coming in from the first
device; the load is the wire going out to the third device on the circuit, and so
on. ... The load side is where the power leaves the device (or electrical box)
and travels down the circuit.

What are the three types of electrical loads?

There are three types of electrical loads. They vary according to their leading
or lagging time relationship between voltage and current. The three load
types are resistive, inductive, and capacitive.

What is an example of an electrical load?

Anything which will consume current called load. Examples are everywhere
including light bulb, washing machine, television, computer, hand dryer, iron
etc. all load cause resistance to electricity thats why they are called load.

Relation of v i & r in series circuit

The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance is described by

Ohm's law. This equation, i = v/r, tells us that the current, i, flowing through
a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage, v, and inversely proportional to
the resistance, r.

Series and parallel circuits

Components of an electrical circuit or electronic circuit can be connected in
series, parallel, or series-parallel. The two simplest of these are
called series and parallel and occur frequently. Components connected in
series are connected along a single conductive path, so the same current flows
through all of the components but voltage is dropped (lost) across each of the
resistances. In a series circuit, the sum of the voltages consumed by each
individual resistance is equal to the source voltage. [1][2] Components connected
in parallel are connected along multiple paths so that the current can split up;
the same voltage is applied to each component.[1]
A circuit composed solely of components connected in series is known as
a series circuit; likewise, one connected completely in parallel is known as
a parallel circuit.
In a series circuit, the current that flows through each of the components is the
same, and the voltage across the circuit is the sum of the individual voltage
drops across each component.[1] In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each of
the components is the same, and the total current is the sum of the currents
flowing through each component.[1]
Consider a very simple circuit consisting of four light bulbs and a 12-
volt automotive battery. If a wire joins the battery to one bulb, to the next
bulb, to the next bulb, to the next bulb, then back to the battery in one
continuous loop, the bulbs are said to be in series. If each bulb is wired to the
battery in a separate loop, the bulbs are said to be in parallel. If the four light
bulbs are connected in series, the same amperage flows through all of them
and the voltage drop is 3-volts across each bulb, which may not be sufficient to
make them glow. If the light bulbs are connected in parallel, the currents
through the light bulbs combine to form the current in the battery, while the
voltage drop is 12-volts across each bulb and they all glow.
In a series circuit, every device must function for the circuit to be complete. If
one bulb burns out in a series circuit, the entire circuit is broken. In parallel
circuits, each light bulb has its own circuit, so all but one light could be burned
out, and the last one will still function.
Series circuit

Here, we have three resistors (labeled R 1, R2, and R 3) connected in a long chain
from one terminal of the battery to the other. (It should be noted that the
subscript labeling—those little numbers to the lower-right of the letter “R”—
are unrelated to the resistor values in ohms. They serve only to identify one
resistor from another.)
The defining characteristic of a series circuit is that there is only one path for
current to flow. In this circuit, the current flows in a clockwise direction, from
point 1 to point 2 to point 3 to point 4 and back around to 1.
Parallel Circuit Configuration

Now, let’s look at the other type of circuit, a parallel configuration:

Again, we have three resistors, but this time they form more than one
continuous path for current to flow. There’s one path from 1 to 2 to 7 to 8 and
back to 1 again. There’s another from 1 to 2 to 3 to 6 to 7 to 8 and back to 1
again. And then there’s a third path from 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 to 5 to 6 to 7 to 8 and
back to 1 again. Each individual path (through R 1, R2, and R3) is called a branch.
The defining characteristic of a parallel circuit is that all components are
connected between the same set of electrically common points. Looking at the
schematic diagram, we see that points 1, 2, 3, and 4 are all electrically
common. So are points 8, 7, 6, and 5. Note that all resistors, as well as the
battery, are connected between these two sets of points.
And, of course, the complexity doesn’t stop at simple series and parallel either!
We can have circuits that are a combination of series and parallel, too.

Power in a series Circuit

The power dissipated in a series circuit depends on the supply voltage applied to
the circuit and the current flow in the circuit. The current flow depends on the total
resistance of the circuit. The power dissipated in each individual component
depends on the resistance of the component.
Example
In the above circuit diagram, if the values are:

If the values are

VT = 20V
R1 = 50Ω
R2 = 20Ω
R3 = 100Ω
The total resistance can be calculated as follows:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
RT = 50 + 20 + 100
RT = 170Ω
What is the total power dissipated?
You could calculate the current flow and then calculate the power. Instead you could use substitution to get the
formula.
In the formula, P = VI substitute the I with VT/RT to give the formula
PT = VT x VT/RT which is the same as
PT = VT2/RT
PT = 202/170
PT = 0.235W or 235mW
Power in a Parallel Circuit

In general, if the power consumed would depend on the circuit structure. But for a simple
case, such as two resistors connected in series versus the same resistors connected
in parallel (with identical voltage sources in both), the power dissipated in
the parallel combination will be greater.

The current through a parallel branch is inversely proportional to the amount of resistance of
the branch.

The total power is equal to the sum of the power dissipated by the individual
resistors. Like the series circuit, the total power consumed by the parallel circuit
is:

Example. Find the total power consumed by the circuit in figure

Given:

SOLUTION
 when two bulbs are connected in series. The same current flows through both bulbs as it did
for the single bulb, and the voltage drops half over each bulb. As power is V2/R, with half the voltage,
each bulb consumes (glows) with a quarter brightness of the single bulb. However, there are two of
them, so the total power consumed is P/2.

Kirchhoff’s Law

Kirchhoff's current law (1st Law) states that current flowing into a node (or a
junction) must be equal to current flowing out of it. This is a consequence of charge
conservation. Kirchhoff's voltage law (2nd Law) states that the sum of all voltages around
any closed loop in a circuit must equal zero.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that” the algebraic sum of all the currents
at any node point or a junction of a circuit is zero”.

ΣI=0
 Considering the above figure as
per the Kirchhoff’s Current Law

i1 + i2 – i3 – i4 – i5 + i6 = 0 ……… (1)

The direction of incoming currents to a node is taken as positive while the

outgoing currents is taken as negative. The reverse of this can also be taken,
i.e. incoming current as negative or outgoing as positive. It depends upon
your choice.

The equation (1) can also be written as

I1+i2+i6=i3+i4+i5

Sum of incoming currents = Sum of outgoing currents

According to the Kirchhoff’s current law, The algebraic sum of the currents
entering a node must be equal to the algebraic sum of the currents leaving
the node in an electrical network.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of the voltages (or
voltage drops) in any closed path of network that is transverse in a single
direction is zero or in other words, in a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all
the EMFs + the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops (product of current (I)
and resistance (R)) is zero.

ΣE+ΣV=0
The above figure shows closed circuit also termed as a mesh. As per the
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Here, the assumed current I causes a positive voltage drop of voltage when
flowing from the positive to negative potential while negative potential drop
while the current flowing from negative to the positive potential.

Considering the other figure shown below and assuming the direction of the
current i
It is seen that the voltage V1 is negative in both the equation (2) and the
equation (3) while V2 is negative in the equation (2) but positive in the
equation (3). This is because of the change in the direction of the current
assumed in both the figures. In the figure A, the current in both the source
V1 and V2 flows from negative (-ive) to positive (+ive) polarity while in figure
B the current in the source V1 is negative to positive but for V2 is positive to
negative polarity.

For the dependent sources in the circuit, KVL can also be applied. In case of
the calculation of a power of any source, when the current enters the source,
the power is absorbed by the sources while the source delivers the power if
the current is coming out of the source.

It is important to know some of the terms used in the circuit while applying
KCL and KVL like node, Junction, branch, loop, mesh. They are explained
with the help of a circuit shown below
 Node
A node is a point in the network or circuit where two or more circuit elements
are joined. For example, in the above circuit diagram A and B is the node
points.
Junction

A junction is a point in the network where three or more circuit element are
joined. It is a point where the current is divided. In the circuit above B and D
are the junctions.
Branch

The part of a network, which lies between the two junction points is called a
Branch. In the above circuit DAB, BCD and BD are the branches of the
circuit.
Loop

A Closed path of a network is called a loop. ABDA, BCDB is loop in the above
circuit diagram shown.

Mesh
Most elementary form of a loop which cannot be further divided is called a
mesh.
2. A.C. THEORY
2.1 Generation of alternating emf.
A voltage can be developed in a coil of wire in one of the three ways:

1. By changing the flux through the coil.

2. By moving the coil through the magnetic field.
3. By altering the direction of the flux with respect to the coil.
The first one is that voltage is said to be induced emf and in accordance with
Faraday's law, its magnitude at any instant of time is given by the formula as

shown below:
e = N(dΦ/dt) x 10 -8 volts
where N is the number turns in a coil
dΦ/dt = rate at which the flux in maxwells changes through the coil
Please take note that in this method of developing an emf, there is no physical
motion of coil or magnet; the current through the exciting coil that is
responsible for the magnetism is altered to change the flux through the coil
in which the voltage is induced. For the second and third method mentioned
above, there is actual physical motion of coil or magnet, and in altered
positions of coil or magnet flux through the coil changes. A voltage
developed on these ways is called a generated emf and is given by the
equation:

e = Blv x 10-8 volts

where B is the flux density in lines per square inch

l is the length of the wire, in., that is moved relative to the flux
v is the velocity of the wire, in.per sec., with respect to the flux
The figure above illustrates an elementary a-c generator. The single turn coil may be
moved through the magnetic field created by two magnet poles N and S. As you can
see, the ends of the coil are connected to two collectors upon which two stationary
brushes rest on it. For the clockwise rotation as shown, the side of the coil on north
pole N is moving vertically upward to cut the maximum flux under north pole N,
while the other side of the coil on south pole S is moving vertically downward to cut
the maximum flux under south pole S. After the coil is rotated one quarter of a
revolution to the position as shown below:

Rotated 90 degree
the coil sides have no flux to be cut and no voltage is generated. As the coil proceeds
to rotate, the side of the coil on south pole S will cut the maximum flux on north pole
N. Then, the side of the coil previously on north pole N will cut the maximum flux on
south pole S. With this change in the polarity that are cut by the conductors, reversal
in brush potential will occur. There are two important points that would like to
emphasize in connection with the rotation of the coil of wire through a fixed
magnetic field:
1. The voltage changes from instant to instant.

2. The electrical polarity (+) and minus (-) changes with alternating positions under
north and south poles.

In actual, ac generator rotate a set of poles that is placed concentrically within a

cylindrical core containing many coils of wires. However, a moving coil inside a pair
of stationary poles applies equally well to the rotating poles construction; in both
arrangements there is a relative motion of one element with respect to the other.

2.2 Difference between D.C. & A.C.

Electricity flows in two ways: either in an alternating current (AC) or in a direct

current (DC). Electricity or "current" is nothing but the movement of electrons
through a conductor, like a wire. The difference between AC and DC lies in the
direction in which the electrons flow. In DC, the electrons flow steadily in a single
direction, or "forward." In AC, electrons keep switching directions, sometimes
going "forward" and then going "backward."

Alternating current is the best way to transmit electricity over large distances.

Comparison chart

Alternating Current Direct Current

Amount of energy that

Safe to transfer over Voltage of DC cannot
can be carried
longer city distances travel very far until it
and can provide more begins to lose energy.
power.

Cause of the direction Rotating magnet along the

Steady magnetism
of flow of electrons wire.
along the wire.

Frequency The frequency of

The frequency of direct
alternating current is 50Hz
current is zero.
or 60Hz depending upon
the country.

Direction It reverses its direction

It flows in one direction
while flowing in a circuit.
 in the circuit.

Current It is the current of It is the current of

magnitude varying with constant magnitude.
time
Flow of Electrons Electrons keep switching Electrons move steadily in
directions - forward and one direction or 'forward'.
backward.
Obtained from A.C Generator and mains. Cell or Battery.
Passive Parameters Impedance Resistance only
Power Factor Lies between 0 & 1. it is always 1.
Types Sinusoidal, Trapezoidal, Pure and pulsating.
Triangular, Square.

2.3 Define Amplitude, instantaneous value, cycle, Time period, frequency,

phase angle, Phase difference

.What is AC waveform

A waveform is a representation of how alternating current (AC) varies with time.

The most familiar AC waveform is the sine wave, which derives its name from
the fact that the current or voltage varies with the sine of the elapsed time.

Amplitudes

The first characteristic of AC power is its "amplitude". Amplitude is the maximum

value of current or voltage. It is represented by either of the two peaks of the
since wave. This voltage level is also referred to as the peak voltage, and can be
either positive or negative.

In an electrical circuit operating on alternating current (ac), amplitude is

measured as the Voltage (V) level and is expressed as +V and V, depending on
the direction of the current.

Amplitudes are always positive numbers, An amplitude cannot be negative since

it is defined as a half the distance, which cannot be negative,
 between the maximum value and the minimum value .

Frequency

Alternating current (ac) frequency is the number of cycles per second in an ac sine
wave. Frequency is the rate at which current changes direction per second. It is
measured in hertz (Hz), an international unit of measure where 1 hertz is equal to
1 cycle per second.

The relation between the frequency and the period, T, of a repeating event or
oscillation is given by F=1/T

50 Hz and 60 Hz power sources are most often used in international power systems.

if frequency increases, the secondary voltage or emf increases. And secondary

voltage decreases by the reduction of supply frequency. ... But with
high frequency there is increase in transformer losses like core loss and conductor
skin effect.

The equipment in your home, factory or office is designed to operate at 50hz within a
tight tolerance so it’s very important to keep the frequency of our power supply stable.

Cycle

Cycle = One complete wave of alternating current or voltage. Alternation = One

half of a cycle.
Time Period

Time Period = the time required to produce one complete cycle of a waveform.

The formula for time is: T (period) = 1 / f (frequency). λ = c / f = wave speed c (m/s)
/ frequency f (Hz). The unit hertz (Hz) was once called cps = cycles per second.

Phase

When the two quantities have the same frequency, and their maximum and
minimum point achieve at the same point, then the quantities are said to have in
the same phase.

Phase Difference

The two alternating quantities have phase difference when they have the same

frequency, but they attain their zero value at the different instant. The angle
between zero points of two alternating quantities is called angle of phase
differences.

Consider the two alternating currents of magnitudes Im1 and Im2 are shown

vectorially. Both the vector is rotating at the same angular velocity of ω radians per

seconds. The two current obtains the zero value at different instants. Therefore, they
are said to have the phase difference of angle φ.
The quantity which attains its +ve maximum value before the other is called a
leading quantity, whereas the quantity which reaches its maximum positive value

after the other, is known as a lagging quantity. The current Im1 is leading the
current on Im2 or in other words, current Im2 is the lagging current on Im1.
2.4 State & Explain RMS value, Average value, Amplitude
factor & Form factor with Simple problems.
Average value:
The average value is defined as “the average of all instantaneous values during one
alternation”. That is, the ratio of the sum of all considered instantaneous values to
the number of instantaneous values in one alternation period.
Whereas the average value for the entire cycle of alternating quantity is zero.
Because the average value obtained for one alteration is a positive value and for
another alternation is a negative value. The average values of these two alternations
(for entire cycle) cancel each other and the resultant average value is zero.
Consider the single cycle alternating current wave in Figure 1

The instantaneous value at t=1 is i1

At t = n is, in

The average value for one alternation (0 to π) is

RMS (Root Mean Square) value:

The Root Mean Square (RMS) value is “the square root of the sum of squares of
means of an alternating quantity”.
It can also express as “the effect that produced by a certain input of AC quantity
which is equivalent to an effect produced by the equal input of DC quantity”.
Consider one example, the heat produced by a resistor when one ampere direct
current (DC) passed through it, is not an equal amount of heat produced when one
ampere of alternating current (AC) passed through the same resistor. Since the AC
current is not constant value rather than it is varying with the time. The heat
produced by AC quantity (equal amount of DC quantity) is nothing but RMS value of
an alternating parameter or quantity.

Here, i1,i2,…in are mean values

RMS Voltage Equation

Then the RMS voltage (VRMS) of a sinusoidal waveform is determined by

multiplying the peak voltage value by 0.7071, which is the same as one divided by
the square root of two ( 1/√2 ).

Amplitude factor. For an ac wave, the ratio of the peak value to the rms value.

Form Factor

Form Factor is the ratio between the average value and the RMS value and is
given as. For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Form Factor will always be equal to
1.11.

1. Find the instantaneous value of the sine value at 90⁰ point having an
amplitude 10V and time period360⁰.
2.
a)5
b)10
c)15
d)20
View Answer
Answer:B

Explanation: The equation for sine wave A is v(t) = 10sinωt. The value at 90⁰ in this
wave is v (t) = 10sin90⁰ = 10V.
2. The value of the sine wave at some particular instant is called?
a) peak value

b) peak to peak value

c) instantaneous value

d) average value

Answer:((C)
The value of the sine wave at some particular instant is called instantaneous
value. This value is different at different points along the waveform.

3. The maximum value of the wave during positive half cycle or maximum value of
the wave during negative cycle is called?

a) instantaneous value

b) peak value

c) peak to peak value

d) average value

Answer:((b)
The maximum value of the wave during positive half cycle or maximum value of
the wave during negative cycle is called peak value. Since the values of these two
are equal in magnitude, a sine wave is characterized by a single peak value.

4. The total area under the complete curve divided by the distance of the curve is
called?
a) peak to peak value

b) RMS value

c) average value

d) effective value

Answer:(c)
The total area under the complete curve divided by the distance of the curve is
called average value. The average value of a sine wave over on e complete cycle
is always zero.

5. The value from positive to negative peak of the sine wave is called?

a) effective value

b) average value

c) peak value

d) peak to peak value

Answer:(d)
The value from positive to negative peak of the sine wave is called peak to peak
value of a sine wave.

6. The RMS value of sine wave is?

a)0.707Vp
b)0.607Vp
c)0.807Vp
d) 0.907Vp

Answer: a

7. A wire is carrying a direct current of 20A and a sinusoidal alternating current of

peak value 20A. Find the rms value of the resultant current.

a)24
b)24.5
c)25
d) 25.5

Answer:(b)
Direct current = 20A, sinusoidal alternating current of peak value = 20A. The rms
value of the combined wave=√(202+202/2) =24.5A.
8. The form factor of the sinusoidal waveform is?

a)1.11
b)2.22
c)3.33
d) 4.44

Answer:(a)
Form factor of any waveform is defined as the ratio of the rms value to the average
value of the wave. Form factor = Vrms/Vav =(Vp/√2)/0.637Vp=1.11.

2.5 Represent AC values in phasor diagrams.

Instantaneous value
The instantaneous value is “the value of an alternating quantity (it may ac voltage or
ac current or ac power) at a particular instant of time in the cycle”. There are
uncountable number of instantaneous values that exist in a cycle.
Instantaneous current is the amount of charge passing through through a conductor
at the moment. ... The difference usually arises in AC circuits where the
average current is always zero but instantaneous current isn't over a cycle.
I=Imax Sine (ωt )
The instantaneous value is “the value of an alternating voltage at a particular instant
of time in the cycle”.
There are uncountable number of instantaneous values that exist in a cycle.

V=Vmax Sine (ωt )

As the single vector rotates in an anti-clockwise direction, its tip at
point A will rotate one complete revolution of 360o or 2π representing one
complete cycle. If the length of its moving tip is transferred at different
angular intervals in time to a graph as shown above, a sinusoidal waveform
would be drawn starting at the left with zero time. Each position along the
horizontal axis indicates the time that has elapsed since zero time, t = 0.
When the vector is horizontal the tip of the vector represents the angles at
0o, 180o and at 360o.
Likewise, when the tip of the vector is vertical it represents the positive
peak value, ( +Am ) at 90o or π/2 and the negative peak value, ( -Am ) at
270o or 3π/2. Then the time axis of the waveform represents the angle
either in degrees or radians through which the phasor has moved. So we
can say that a phasor represent a scaled voltage or current value of a
rotating vector which is “frozen” at some point in time, ( t ) and in our
example above, this is at an angle of 30o.
Sometimes when we are analysing alternating waveforms we may need to
know the position of the phasor, representing the Alternating Quantity at
some particular instant in time especially when we want to compare two
different waveforms on the same axis. For example, voltage and current.
We have assumed in the waveform above that the waveform starts at
time t = 0 with a corresponding phase angle in either degrees or radians.
But if a second waveform starts to the left or to the right of this zero point or
we want to represent in phasor notation the relationship between the two
waveforms then we will need to take into account this phase
difference, Φ of the waveform.
2.6 AC through pure resistance, inductance & capacitance

The circuit containing only a pure resistance of R ohms in the AC circuit is known
as Pure Resistive AC Circuit. The presence of inductance and capacitance does
not exist in a purely resistive circuit. The Alternating current and voltage both
move forward as well as backwards in both the direction of the circuit.

In the pure resistive circuit, the power is dissipated by the resistors and
the phase of the voltage and current remains same i.e., both the
voltage and current reach their maximum value at the same time. The
resistor is the passive device which neither produce nor consume
electric power. It converts the electrical energy into heat.

In an AC circuit, the ratio of voltage to current depends upon the supply

frequency, phase angle, and phase difference. In an AC resistive circuit,
the value of resistance of the resistor will be same irrespective of the
supply frequency.

I=V/Z In AC Circuit
Z= impedance

Here Z=R SO I=V/R

The value of current will be maximum when ωt= 90 degrees or sinωt = 1

Putting the value of sinωt in equation (2) we will get

Phase Angle and Waveform of Resistive Circuit

From equation (1) and (3), it is clear that there is no phase difference
between applied voltage and the current flowing through a purely
resistive circuit, the i.e. phase angle between voltage and current is zero.
Hence, in an AC circuit containing pure resistance, current is in phase with
the voltage as shown in the waveform figure below.
Power in Pure Resistive Circuit
The three colors red, blue and pink shown in the power curve or the
waveform indicate the curve for current, voltage and power respectively.
From the phasor diagram, it is clear that the current and voltage are in
phase with each other that means the value of current and voltage attains
its peak at the same instant of time, and the power curve is always
positive for all the values of current and voltage.

As in DC supply circuit, the product of voltage and current is known as the

Power in the circuit similarly the power is same in the AC circuit also, the
only difference is that in AC circuit the instantaneous value of voltage and
current is taken into consideration. Therefore, the instantaneous power in
a purely resistive circuit is given by the equation shown below

Instantaneous power, p= vi

The average power consumed in the circuit over a complete cycle is given
by

As valve of cosωt is zero

Putting the value of cosωt in equation (4) the value of power will be given
by

Purely inductive circuit

A pure inductive coil is that which has no ohmic resistance and hence no
I2R loss. A pure inductance is practically not attainable, though it is nearly
approached by a coil wound with such thick wire that its resistance is
negligible.

Whenever an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive circuit a

back EMF is produced due to self-inductance of the coil. The back EMF, at
every step, opposes the rise or fall of current through the coil. As there is
no ohmic voltage drop, the applied voltage has to overcome this self-
induced EMF only.

I=V/Z In AC Circuit

Z= impedance

Here Z=XL SO I = V/ XL
In a purely inductive circuit, during the first quarter cycle, what so ever energy (or
power) is supplied by the source that is stored in the magnetic field set-up around
the coil. In the next quarter cycle, the magnetic field collapses and the energy (or
power) stored in the magnetic field is returned to the source. Hence, no power is
consumed in a purely inductive circuit.

Inductive Reactance
The opposition offered to the flow of an alternating current by the
inductance of the circuit is known as inductive reactance. In fact, it is a
Property of all inductors. It is denoted by XL.

XL =ωL=2πfL ohms
Where, f = frequency in Hz;
L = inductance in henrys.
The unit of inductive reactance is ohm. The inductive reactance of a given
inductor is directly proportional to the frequency of applied voltage. It
means inductive reactance increases linearly with frequency.
Purely capacitive circuit

When an alternating voltage is applied to a purely capacitive circuit,

the capacitor is charged first in one direction and then in the opposite
direction.

I=V/Z in AC Circuit

Z= impedance
Here Z=XC SO I = V/ XC

In the purely capacitive circuit, during the first quarter cycle, what so
ever energy (or power) is supplied by the source is stored in the
electric field set-up between the capacitor plates. In the next quarter
cycle, the electric field collapses and the energy (or power) stored in
the electric field is returned to the source. This process is repeated in
every alternation. Hence, no power is consumed in the purely capacitive
circuit.

Capacitive Reactance

Capacitive reactance is the opposition offered to the flow of alternating

current by the capacitance of a capacitor. In fact, it is a property of all the
capacitors. It is denoted by XC.

XC =1/ωC = 1/2πfC ohms

Where, f = frequency in Hz; C = capacitance in farad.
The unit of capacitive reactance is ohm.
2.7 AC though RL, RC, RLC series circuits.

AC through R-L circuit

AC Through R-C Circuit

AC through R-L-C Circuit

2.9 Concept of Power and Power factor

Power factor

In AC circuits, the power factor is the ratio of the real power that is used to do work
and the apparent power that is supplied to the circuit. The power factor can get
values in the range from 0 to 1. When all the power is reactive power with no
real power (usually inductive load) - the power factor is 0.
it may be

Cosine angle between voltage and current PF = |cos φ|

or R/Z

Power

1. Apparent power(s)

It is the product of voltage and current only

S=VI - unit is volt ampear(VA)

 2. Active Power(P or W)

It is the power which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance

P= VI cos φ or (I )2 R
unit is watts or kw

3.Reactive power(Q)

It is the power devloped in the inductive reactance of the ciecuit

P= VI Sin φ
Unit is VAR or KVAR

2.10 Impedance triangle and power triangle.

Power tringle
Impedance triangle

Impedance triangle R-L circuit

Impedance triangle R-c circuit

Impedance triangle R-L-C circuit

Voltage tringle
 3.GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER

HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

Hydro Electric Power – The power obtained from Energy of Falling water is
Known as hydro Electric Power.

HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT:

The power Plant Which generates Electrical Energy by utilizing the

potential energy of water at high level called hydro electric power plant i.e. the
potential energy stored in water is converted to kinetic energy again that Kinetic
Energy is converted to Mechanical energy by allowing water through hydraulic
turbine runner & finally mechanical energy is used to run generators OR
alternator,
ELEMENTS OF HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT:

• Storage reservoir

It stores water during excess flow periods (Rainy Seasons) &

supplied the same during least flow of periods i.e. (dry seasons)

It can be either natural i.e. lake or artificial made by construction

dam across the river.

• Dam :– It is the most expensive & important part which is built up

concrete or stone masonry earth or rock fill. It is not only raise the water
surface by creating artificial head but provide pondage or storage.

• Fore bay :- It serves as regulating reservoir storing water temporary

during light load period & providing same during increased load period
i.e. it is either a pond behind the diversion dam or an enlarge section of
canal spread out to accommodate required with of intake.

• Spillway :- These are constructed to discharge the over flow water to the
downstream. When the reservoir is full. Generally it acts as safety valve
during flood situation.

e. Intake :- Generally intake includes head works i.e. structure at the intake
the conduits & tunnel or flumes which are res possible for diverting &
preventing entry of debris & ice into the turbines. These structures includes
booms, screams, rocks or sluices.

SURGE TANK:

Surge tank regulates & maintains required pressure in the penstock.

Because during light load pressure in the penstock becomes more even if which
can burst the penstock but surge tank reduces the pressure by raising water level
inside it. Similarly during the low pressure additional water flows provided by
it. So search tank stabilize the velocity & pressure in the penstock.

VALVE & GATES:

Generally these are fitted at Entrance to the turbine during in section &
repairing these are shut off.

TAIL RACE :

The water from turbine is discharged to the tail race generally tail race
may be same stream or another one but design & size of tail race should be
search that water are free exist.

PRIME MOVERS / WATER TURBINES:

In hydro power plant water turbines are used as prime movers which
convert kinetic Energy of water into mechanical energy which is further utilized
to drive the alternators generating electric at energy.

SELECTION OF SIDE FOR HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT :

These are some factors which are taken in to consideration for the
selection of site for hydro electric power plant i.e.

• Availability of water :

Hydro electric power plant should be built where there adequate water
available at goof head or huge quantity of water is flowing across a given
point

WATER STORAGE:

For continuous supply of water. The water storage in suitable reservoir at

height or building of dam across the river is essential so convient
accommodation for the erection of a dam per Reservoir must be available.
WATER HEAD:

It has a considerable effect on the cost & economy of power generation

i.e. an increasing effective head reduces the quantity of storage water & handle
by pen stock screens & turbine resulting reduction in cost.

DISTANCE FROM LOAD CENTRE:

Generally these plant locate far away from load center so roots &
distances affects on economical transmission.

AVAILABILITY OF LAND:

The land available most be cheap & rocky to with stand large building &
machinery.

Merits :-
• No fuel is required by such plant because water is the source of energy.
• It is highly reliable & cheapest & operation & maintenance
• No. Stand by loss & variable load demand can meet easily
• Good longer life & robust.
• Efficiency does not fall with age & it has neat & clean environment due
to absence of smoke & ask.
• In addition to generation of provides irrigation flood control on
navigation.
Demerits :-
• It covers large area.
• Constructional cost is very high along with it requires long transmission
line as it far away from load centre.
• Its O/P is uncertain
STEAM POWER PLANT OR THERMAL POWER PLANT :

The power plant which generates electrical energy from the combustion of coal
called steam power plant

ELEMENTS OF THERMAL POWER PLANT :

• STEAM GENERATING EQUIPMENT:

• Boiler:- It is a major part of thermal power plant which convert water

into steam. It is of two types fire tube boilers & water tube boilers in fire
tube boilers the tubes containing hot gasses of combustion surrounded
with water while in water tubes water inside the tube while hot gasses
outside.
• Boiler furnace:- Boiler furnace is a chamber in which fuel is burnt to
liberate the heat energy it also provides support & enclosures for
combustion equipment i.e. burner.

• Super heater & re-heater :- A superheated is a device which removes

the last traces of moisture from saturated steam leaving a boiler tubes &
also increase its temp. above the saturation temp.

Re-heater :-

It re-super heat the partly expanded steam from the turbine

resulting dryness of steam up to last stage of turbine

• Economizer & Airpre–heater :-

Those are such devices which recover the heat from the flue gases on
their way to chimney & raise the temp. of feed water. & air supplied for
combustion.

• CONDENSER:

Steam after explanation through prime movers goes through

condenser which condenses the exhaust steam & also removes air & other
unwanted gases from steam while passing through them.

It is up two types.

• Jet or contact condenser

& surface condenser

• EVAPORATOR :-

These are employed for feeding pure water to steam power plant by
evaporating raw water.
 • FEED WATER HEATER :-

These heat the feed water by means of bled steam before supply to
the boiler which dissolves improve efficiency.

PRIME MOVER:-

It converts the stored energy in steam into rotational mechanical

energy. It is either reciprocating or turbines. Now raises only steam
turbine are use as prime movers.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF STEAM POWER PLANT :-

The working of thermal power plant can be summarized as be follows.

FUEL & ASH CKT :-

Generally heavy amount of fuel i.e. coal is stored in coal storage his again
transfer to boiler furnace through coal handling plant. Where gates
pulverization. After combustion the resulting ash get transfer to ash storage to
ash handling plant.

AIR & FLUE GAS CKT :-

Here, atmospheric air is drawn by forced draught fan or induced draught

fan through air preheated in which air is heated by heat of flue gases passing to
chimney & finally air is passed to furnace. Similarly, flue gas after passing
through boiler & super heater drawn by induced draught fan via dost collector
(Precipitator). Economizer & Airpre heater) Finally Exhausted to the
atmosphere to the chimney.
FEEDWATER & STEAM CKT:-

Generally steam coming from boiler is wet & having high pressure,
which again dried & further super heated by super heater & supply to steam
turbine through main valve where it gives heat energy & passes through
condenser.

Now, the condensate steam is extracted from the condenser to the low
pressure feed water by condensate extraction pump.

Where is gets heats up at low pressure & pump to high pressure water
heater through deaerator & finally to boiler through economizer where it get
again heat of by heats of flue gas passing it on the way of chimney.

Here the function deaerator reduces dissolved oxygen in the condensate

steam.

Generally a small part of steam & water is passing through different

components are lossed. So water is added to feed water as make up water by
makeup water treatment.

COOLING WATER CKT :-

The cooling water is supply from the natural source of supply i.e. river,
lake canal etc through screens to remove the matter that might choke condenser
tube. The circulation of cooling water maintenance low pressure in condenser.

SELECTION OF SITE FOR THERMAL POWER PLANT :-

There are different factors which govern the site selection.

• Near to the load center :-

It locates near the load center resulting low transmissions cost & loss.

• Supply of water :-
 Large quantity of water is required

• To raise steam in boilers.

• For cooling

• For carrying disposal of Ash.

• For drinking

• Availability of coal :-

It required huge amount of coal so plants are located near the coal mines
to avoide the transport of coal & ash.

• Load requirement :-

Land is requires not only for setting of plant but also other purposes for
staff colony, coal storage ash disposal etc.

TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES:-

These facilities most be available for trans potation of heavy equipment

& fuels i.e. near railway station.

Merits :-

• The fuel (i.e. coal) used is quite cheap.

• Cheaper in initial cost in comparison to the other plant.

• Less space is required in comparison to hydropower plant.

• Such plant con be installed at any place where as hydro electric plants can
only be developed at source of water.

• A portion of steam raised can be used as process steam in various

industries like paper mill, sugar mill, chemical o re etc.
Demerits :-

• High maintenance & operating cost.

• Pollution of atmosphere due to fumes & residues

• Consumption of huge amount of water.

• Handling of coal & disposal of ash in quite difficult

• Troubles from smoke & heat from the plant.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:-

The power plant which generates electricity by utilizing the vast energy
released from nuclear fission reaction is known as nuclear power.

NUCLEAR FISSION :-

The nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus is splited in to small

nucleus is splited in to small nuclei with liberation of vast energy by
bombardment of neutron is known as Nuclear Fission Reaction.

Eg- chemical reaction

235
92U + 0n1 56Ba139 +36Kr94+30n1 + Energy

235
92U + 0n1 106
92MO +50Sn
128
+ 20n1 + Energy.

Note :-

1 kg of natural uranium give energy equivalent to combustion of 10.500 kg of

coal i.e.

0.7/100 x 3 x 106 x 0.5 Joule

NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION :-

It may be defined as a fission reaction where the neutrons from a previous

step continuity propagate & repeat the reaction i.e.

Components of the nuclear power plant :-

• Nuclear Reactor :-

It is the main part of nuclear power plant which is very similar to boiler
of thermal power plant it has following component.

• Reactor core :-

It contains a number of fuel rods made of U235, U 234, U233 etc. as uranium
gets oxidised rapidly so fuel rods clad with aluminum stainless steel or
zirconium.

• Moderator :

The moderator moderate or reduces the neurons speed to a value that

increase the probability or fission reactor. The elements which are used as
moderator in nuclear reactor are hydrogen deuterium He , Li, oxygen
,carbon heavy water etc.

• Control Rods:

The control rods which are made of Boron-10 cadium or Hafnium are
inserted in to nuclear reactor from the top of reactor vessels. The control
rods control rate of the nuclear fission reaction by absorbing neutrons. It
can be inserted or taken out as according to requirement i.e. if we need
increased rate of reaction we have to taken out & vice verse.
• Coolant :-

It is the medium through which heat generated in the reactor is transferred

to the heat exchanger & it also keeps the reactor at desired temp.

• The material like air He, H & CO2 amongst the gases light or heavy water
amongst the liquid or molten sodium or lithium amongst the metal used
as coolant.
 • Heat Exchanger :-In heat Exchanger the gas is heated or steam is
generated by utilizing heat from nuclear reactor, here heat is connected by
heat exchanger tube by circulation.

• Steam turbine :- The Steam produce in heat exchanger is transferred to

steam turbines through steam valve where heat energy is converted in to
mechanical energy.

• Condenser : The exhausted steam from steam turbine is condensed by

condenser & again feed to heat exchanger by feed water pump.

• Alternator :- It is coupled to steam turbine & it generate electricity by

converting mechanical energy to convert in to electrical energy.

SELECTION OF SITE FOR NUCLEAR POWER PLANT :

The factor to be considered while selecting a site for nuclear power plant
for economical deficient generation.

Availability of water supply :-

• It requires more water i.e. two times of thermal power plant of same
rating. So it located near the river, sea side or lake.

• Distance from populated area:-

Generally these are located for away from populated area due to danger
of radio activity.

• Nearness to load center :-

Those plants can be located near the load center because of absence of
transportation.

• Availability of space for disposal of water :-

 Their should have adequate space & arrangement for the disposal of radio
activity waste.

• Types of land :

The land should be strong enough to support the heavy reactor i.e. 10,000
tones weight with imposed boarding pressure around 50 tones /m2

Merits :-

• It requires very small fuel.

• It requires less area as compared to in other plant

• In addition to generating power it powder variable Fissel material.

• It can be located at load center resulting reduction in primary distribution

cost.

• It has most economical & flexible O/P.

• The operating cost quite low after installation.

Disadvantages:

• The initial cost is very high as compared to any other plant.

• It required greater technical known – how forits irrection &

commissioning of the plant.

• It bi-product is also radio activity causing dangerous pollution.

• The fuel is used is very expensive & difficult to recover.

• High maintenance charges

• Heavy amount of water is needed.

 4.CONVERSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

DC Machine
A DC Machine is an electro-mechanical energy conversion device.
There are two types of DC machines; one is DC generator, and another
one is known as DC motor. A DC generator converts mechanical power
(ωT) into DC electrical power (EI), whereas, a DC motor converts d.c
electrical power into mechanical power. The AC motor is invariably
applied in the industry for conversion of electrical power into mechanical
power, but at the places where the wide range of speeds and good
speed regulation is required, like in electric traction system, a DC motor
is used.

Basic Structure of Electrical Machines

The rotating electrical or DC machine has mainly two parts; one
is Stator, and another one is Rotar. The stator and rotor are separated
from each other by an air gap. The stator is the outer frame of the
machine and is immovable. The rotor is free to move and is the inner
part of the machine.

Both the stator and the rotor are made of ferromagnetic materials. Slots
are cut on the inner periphery of the stator and the outer periphery of the
rotor. Conductors are placed in the slots of the stator or rotor. They are
interconnected to form windings.

The windings in which voltage is induced is called the Armature

windings. The winding through which a current is passed to produce the
main flux is called the Field windings. To provide main flux in some of
the machine permanent magnets is also used.

Main parts of DC machines.

1) Yoke or Frame or Magnetic frame
2) Poles and Pole shoe
3) Armature
4) Armature winding and Field winding
5) Commutator
6) Brushes
7) Shaft
1) Yoke:
The yoke make by cast steel for large machines and cast iron for a small
machine. It uses to protect the internal parts of the DC machine and
gives mechanical support to the poles. The yoke provides a return path
for magnetic flux. In the yoke, the laminations are not required, but the
modern machines uses the laminations in yoke.

2) Poles and Pole shoe:

The pole core use to provide housing to the field winding. When field
winding excites, it behaves like a magnet. The pole shoes provide
mechanical support to the field winding and due to a large area, it
reduces the magnetic reluctance. The pole and pole shoe make by cast
steel. Pole is not necessary to laminate. The pole shoe is always
laminated because it is close to the armature.

3) Armature:
Armature core provides housing to the armature winding. It completes
low reluctance path for magnetic flux. The armature slots are skew at
some angle to reduce the mechanical vibration. Armature core is made
with silicon steel. It is laminated to reduce the eddy current losses. In a
DC machine, open slots are use to reduce leakage flux, inductance, and
leakage reluctance.

4) Armature winding and Field winding:

There are two types of armature windings; Lap winding and Wave
winding.

Lap winding is known as complete winding because, after completion of

winding, all slots does fill with armature winding. Wave winding is known
as incomplete winding because, after completion of winding, all slots
does not fill with armature winding. Some slots remain empty. These
slots do fill with dummy coils. The dummy coils only use in wave winding
to fill empty slots and give mechanical balance. It is not used in lap
winding.

In lap winding, due to unbalance flux and unbalance voltage, the

circulating current is more. It causes more copper loss and heat. The
circulating current can minimise by using the equalizer ring. In wave
winding, circulating current does not exist.

The field winding connects with DC supply. Whenever the field winding
is energies, it produces the magnetic flux and poles behaves like a
magnet.

5) Commutator:
In case of a generator, the commutator uses to convert AC voltage into
DC voltage. The commutator uses as a rectifier. In the case of the
motor, the commutator use to produce unidirectional torque. To reduce
wear and tear, the commutator make by hard drawn copper. The
number of armature slots is equal to the number of commutator
segments.

6) Brush:
Brushes use to carry the current or give the current to the armature
conductors through the commutator. The brushes make by copper or
carbon materials for small machines. Electro-graphite brushes use for
large machines. Carbon-graphite brushes use for large current low
voltage machines.

7) Shaft:
The shaft use to transfer mechanical power. In case of DC motor,
mechanical power is transfer from DC machine to load. In the case of a
DC generator, mechanical power is transfer from Prime mover to the DC
generator.

Classification of DC generator

The DC generator converts the electrical power into electrical power.

The magnetic flux in a DC machine is produced by the field coils
carrying current. The circulating current in the field windings produces a
magnetic flux, and the phenomenon is known as Excitation. DC
Generator is classified according to the methods of their field excitation.

By excitation, the DC Generators are classified as

Separately excited DC Generators
Self-excited DC Generators.
There is also Permanent magnet type DC generators.
The self-excited DC Generators are further classified as Shunt
wound DC generators; Series wound DC generators and Compound
wound DC generators. The Compound Wound DC generators are
further divided as long shunt wound DC generators, and short shunt
wound DC generators.

The field pole of the DC generator are stationary, and the armature
conductor rotates. The voltage generated in the armature conductor is of
alternating nature, and this voltage is converted into the direct voltage at
the brushes with the help of the commutator.

Permanent Magnet type DC Generator

In this type of DC generator, there is no field winding is placed around
the poles. The field produced by the poles of these machines remains
constant. Although these machines are very compact but are used only
in small sizes like dynamos in motorcycles, etc. The main disadvantage
of these machines is that the flux produced by the magnets deteriorates
with the passage of time which changes the characteristics of the
machine.
Separately Excited DC Generator

A DC generators whose field winding or coil is energised by a separate

or external DC source is called a separately excited DC Generator. The
flux produced by the poles depends upon the field current with the
unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles. i.e. flux is directly
proportional to the field current. But in the saturated region, the flux
remains constant.
 Ia = IL where Ia is the armature current and IL is the line
current.
Terminal voltage is given as

If the contact brush drop is known, then the equation (1) is written as

The power developed is given by the equation shown below

Power output is given by the equation (4) shown above.

Self Excited DC Generator
Self-excited DC Generator is a device, in which the current to the field
winding is supplied by the generator itself. In self-excited DC generator,
the field coils mat be connected in parallel with the armature in the
series, or it may be connected partly in series and partly in parallel with
the armature windings.

The self-excited DC Generator is further classified as

Shunt Wound Generator

In a shunt wound generator, the field winding is connected across the
armature winding forming a parallel or shunt circuit. Therefore, full
terminal voltage is applied across it. A very small field current Ish, flows
through it because this winding has many turns of fine wire having very
high resistance Rsh of the order of 100 ohms.

The connection diagram of shunt wound generator is shown below.

Shunt field current is given as

Where Rsh is the shunt field winding resistance.

The current field Ish is practically constant at all loads. Therefore, the
DC shunt machine is considered to be a constant flux machine.

Armature current is given as

Terminal voltage is given by the equation shown below.

If the brush contact drop is included, the equation of the terminal

voltage becomes

Series Wound Generator

A series-wound generator the field coils are connected in series with
the armature winding. The series field winding carries the armature
current. The series field winding consists of a few turns of wire of thick
wire of larger cross-sectional area and having low resistance usually of
the order of less than 1 ohm because the armature current has a very
large value.
Its convectional diagram is shown below.
Series field current is given as

Rse is known as the series field winding resistance.

Terminal voltage is given as

If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is

written as

The flux developed by the series field winding is directly proportional to

the current flowing through it. But it is only true before magnetic
saturation after the saturation flux becomes constant even if the
current flowing through it is increased.

Compound Wound Generator

In a compound-wound generator, there are two field windings. One is
connected in series, and another is connected in parallel with the
armature windings. There are two types of compound-wound generator.

 Long shunt compound-wound generator

 Short shunt compound-wound generator
Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator
In a long shunt wound generator, the shunt field winding is parallel
with both armature and series field winding. The connection diagram of
long shunt wound generator is shown below.

Shunt field current is given as

Series field current is given as

Terminal voltage is given as

If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is

written as
Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator
In a Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator, the shunt field
winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding only. The
connection diagram of short shunt wound generator is shown below.

Series field current is given as

Shunt field current is given as

Terminal voltage is given as

If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is

written as

In this type of DC generator, the field is produced by the shunt as well as

series winding. The shunt field is stronger than the series field. If the
magnetic flux produced by the series winding assists the flux produced
by the shunt field winding, the generator is said to be Cumulatively
Compound Wound generator.

If the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux, the generator is said
to be Differentially Compounded.

Applications of Separately Excited DC Generators

1. Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output, they
are generally used for testing purpose in the laboratories.
2. Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with
any variation in field excitation. Because of this property they are
used as supply source of DC motors, whose speeds are to be
controlled for various applications. Example- Ward Leonard
Systems of speed control.
Applications of Shunt Wound DC Generators
1. They are used for general lighting.
2. They are used to charge battery because they can be made to
give constant output voltage.
3. They are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.
4. They are also used for small power supply (such as a portable
generator).
Applications of Series Wound DC Generators
1. They are used for supplying field excitation current in DC
locomotives for regenerative breaking.
2. This types of generators are used as boosters to compensate
the voltage drop in the feeder in various types of distribution
systems such as railway service.
3. In series arc lightening this type of generators are mainly used.
Applications of Compound Wound DC Generators
1. Cumulative compound wound generators are generally used for
lighting, power supply purpose and for heavy power services
because of their constant voltage property. They are mainly made
over compounded.
2. Cumulative compound wound generators are also used for driving
a motor.
3. For small distance operation, such as power supply for hotels,
offices, homes and lodges, the flat compounded generators are
generally used.
4. The differential compound wound generators, because of their
large demagnetization armature reaction, are used for arc welding
where huge voltage drop and constant current is required.

Classification of DC motor.
A DC motor (direct current motor) has a lot of applications in today’s
field of engineering and technology. From electric shavers to
automobiles – DC motors are everywhere. To cater to this wide range of
applications – different types of DC motors are used depending on the
applicaition.
The types of DC motor include:
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor)
 Separately Excited DC Motor
  Self Excited DC Motor
 Shunt Wound DC Motor
 Series Wound DC Motor
 Compound Wound DC Motor
 Short shunt DC Motor
 Long shunt DC Motor
 Differential Compound DC Motor

Separately Excited DC Motor

As the name signifies, the field coils or field windings are energised by a
separate DC source as shown in the circuit diagram shown below.
Self Excited DC Motor
As the name implies self-excited, hence, in this type of motor, the
current in the windings is supplied by the machine or motor itself.
Self-excited DC Motor is further divided into shunt wound, and
series wound motor. They are explained below in detail.
Series Wound Motor
In the series motor, the field winding is connected in series with the
armature winding. The connection diagram is shown below.

Series Wound Motor

By applying the KCL in the above figure

Where,

Ise is the series field current

The voltage equation can be obtained by applying KVL in the above

figure

The power equation is obtained by multiplying equation (8) by I we get

Power input = mechanical power developed + losses in the armature +

losses in the field

Comparing the equation (9) and (10), we will get the equation shown
below.

Shunt Wound
Motor
This is the
most
common
types of DC
Motor. Here
the field
winding is
connected in parallel with the armature as shown in the figure below.
The current, voltage and power equations for a shunt motor are written
as follows.

By applying KCL at the junction A in the above figure.

The sum of the incoming currents at A = Sum of the outgoing currents at

A.

Where,
I is the input line current
Ia is the armature current
Ish is the shunt field current
Equation (1) is the current equation.
The voltage equations are written by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
for the field winding circuit.

For armature winding circuit the equation will be given as

The power equation is given as

Power input = mechanical power developed + losses in the

armature + loss in the field.
Multiplying equation (3) by Ia we get the following equations.

Where,
VIa is the electrical power supplied to the armature of the motor.
Compound Wound Motor
Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Motor
In case of long shunt compound wound DC motor, the shunt field
winding is connected in parallel across the series combination of
both the armature and series field coil, as shown in the diagram
below.
Voltage and Current Equation of Long Shunt Compound
Wound DC Motor
Let E and Itotal be the total supply voltage and current supplied to the
input terminals of the motor. And Ia, Ise , Ish be the values of current
flowing through armature resistance Ra, series winding resistance Rse
and shunt winding resistance Rsh respectively.
Now we know in shunt motor,

And in series motor

Therefore, the current equation of a compound wound DC motor is given

by

And its voltage equation is,

Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Motor

In case of short shunt compound wound DC motor, the shunt field
winding is connected in parallel across the armature winding only. And
series field coil is exposed to the entire supply current, before being split
up into armature and shunt field current as shown in the diagram below.

Here also let, E and Itotal be the total supply voltage and current supplied
to the input terminals of the motor. And Ia, Ise, Ish be the values of current
flowing through armature resistance Ra, series winding resistance Rse
and shunt winding resistance Rsh respectively.

But from the diagram above we can see,

Since the entire supply current flows through the series field winding.
And like in the case of a DC shunt motor,

Equation (2) and (3) gives the current equation of a short shunt
compound wound DC motor.

Now for equating the voltage equation, we apply Kirchoff’s law to the
circuit and get,

Types of Single Phase Induction Motors

As mentioned above that, due to the rotating magnetic field of the
stator, the induction motor becomes self starting. There are many
methods of making a single phase induction motor as self starting
one.

Based on the starting method, single phase induction motors are

basically classified into the following types.

1. Split-phase motor
2. Capacitor start motor
3. Permanent capacitor run motor
4. Capacitor start capacitor run motor
5. Shaded pole motor

The rotating magnetic field is produced when there are minimum

two alternating fluxes, having a phase difference between them.

The resultant of these two fluxes produces a rotating flux which

rotates in space in one particular direction. So in all the above
methods or say types of induction motors, the additional flux other
than main flux should have a certain phase difference with respect
to main or stator flux.
If the phase difference is more, starting torque will be more. So the
starting torque of the motor depends on the rotating magnetic field
and thereby, additional means (whether it is an auxiliary winding or
anything).

Once the motor picks up the speed, this additional winding is

removed from the supply. This is the basic principle followed by all
these types of single phase induction motors.

Split Phase Induction Motor

This is one of the most widely used types of single phase induction
motors. The essential parts of the split phase motor include main
winding, auxiliary winding and a centrifugal switch.

This is the simplest arrangement to set up a rotating magnetic field

by providing two winding on the same stator core as shown in
figure.

The auxiliary or starting winding carries a series resistance such

that its impedance becomes highly resistive in nature.

It is not wound identical to the main winding but contains fewer

turns of much smaller diameter as compared to main winding.
This will reduce the amount of start current lags the voltage. The
main winding is inductive in nature in such that current lags the
voltage by some angle. This winding is designed for the operation
of 75 % of synchronous speed and above.

These two windings are connected in parallel across the supply.

Due to the inductive nature, current through main winding lags the
supply voltage by a large angle while the current through starting
winding is almost in phase with voltage due to resistive nature.

Hence there exists a phase difference between these currents and

thereby phase difference between the fluxes produced by these
currents. The resultant of these two fluxes produce rotating
magnetic field and hence the starting torque.

The centrifugal switch is connected in series with the starting

winding. When the motor reaches 75 to 80 percent of synchronous
speed, the centrifugal switch is opened mechanically and thereby
auxiliary winding is out of the circuit. Therefore, the motor runs only
with main winding.

Split phase motors give poor starting torque due to small phase
difference between main and auxiliary currents. Also, the power
factor of these motors is poor. These are mainly used for easily
started loads such as blowers, fans, washing machines, grinders,
etc.

Capacitor Start Induction Motor

This motor is similar to the split phase motor, but in addition a

capacitor is connected in series to auxiliary winding. This is a
modified version of split phase motor.

Since the capacitor draws a leading current, the use of a capacitor

increases the phase angle between the two currents (main and
auxiliary) and hence the starting torque. This is the main reason for
using a capacitor in single phase induction motors.
The operation of this motor is similar to the split phase motor where
the starting torque is provided by additional winding.

Once the speed is picked up, the additional winding along with
capacitor is removed from the circuit with the help of centrifugal
switch. But, the difference is that the torque produced by this motor
is higher than split phase motor due to the use of capacitor.

Due to the presence of a capacitor, the current through auxiliary

winding will leads the applied voltage by some angle which is more
than that of split case type.

Thus, the phase difference between main and auxiliary currents is

increased and thereby starting torque.

These motors have very high starting torque up to 300% full load
torque. However the power factor is low at rated load and rated
speed.

Capacitor Start and Capacitor Run Induction Motor

These motors are also called as two-value capacitor motors. It
combines the advantages of capacitor start type and permanent
capacitor type induction motors.

This motor consists of two capacitors of different value of

capacitance for starting and running. A high value capacitor is used
for starting conditions while a low value is used for running
conditions.
It is to be noted that this motor uses same winding arrangement as
capacitor-start motor during startup and permanent capacitor motor
during running conditions. The schematic arrangement of this motor
is shown in figure below.

Shaded Pole Induction Motor

This motor uses entirely different technique to start the motor as
compared with other motors so far we have discussed now.

This motor doesn’t use any auxiliary winding or even it doesn’t have
a rotating field, but a field that sweeps across the pole faces is
enough to drive the motor. So the field moves from one side of the
pole to another side of the pole.

Although these motors are of small ratings, inefficient and have low
starting torque, these are used in a variety of applications due to its
outstanding features like ruggedness, low initial cost, small size and
simple construction.
This part where shading coil is placed is generally termed as
shaded part of the pole and remaining portion is called as un-
shaded part as shown in figure.

Let us discuss how the sweeping action of the field takes place.

When an alternating supply is given to the stator coils, an

alternating flux will be produced. The distribution of flux in the pole
face area is influenced by the presence of copper shading band.

Let us consider the three instants, t1, t2, and t3 of alternating flux
for an half cycle of the flux as shown in figure.
 1. At instant t= t1, the rate of change of flux (rising) is very high.
Due to this flux, an emf is induced in the copper shading band
and as the copper shading band is shorted, current circulates
through it. This causes current to create its own field.According
to Lenz’s law, the current through copper shading band
opposes the cause, i.e., rise of supply current (and hence rise
of main flux). Therefore the flux produced by shading ring
opposes the main flux. So there is weakening of flux in the
shaded part while crowding of flux in un-shaded part. So the
axis of overall flux shifts to non-shaded part of the pole as
shown in the figure.
2. At instant t=t2, the rate of rise of flux is almost zero, and hence
very little emf is induced in the shaded band. It results
negligible shaded ring flux and hence there is no much affect
on distribution of main flux. Therefore, the distribution of flux is
uniform and the overall flux axis lies at the center of the pole
as shown in figure.
3. At instant t=t3, the rate of change of flux (decreasing) is very
high, and induces emf in copper shading band. The flux
produced by the shading ring is now opposes the cause
according to Lennz’s law. Here, the cause is decreasing flux,
and opposing means its direction is same as that of main flux.
Hence, this flux strengthens the main flux. So there will be
crowding of flux in the shaded part compared to the non
shaded part. Due to this overall flux axis shifts to the middle of
shaded part.This sequence will repeat for negative cycle too
and consequently it produce moving magnetic field for every
cycle from non shaded part of the pole to shaded part of the
pole. Due to this field, motor produces the starting torque. This
starting torque is low about 40 to 50 percent of full load torque.
Therefore, these motors are used in low starting torque
applications such as fans, toy motors, blowers, hair dryers,
photocopy machines, film projectors, advertising displays,

Applications of Single Phase Induction Motor

 Pumps.
 Compressors.
 Small fans.
 Mixers.
 Toys.
 High speed vacuum cleaners.
 Electric shavers.
 Drilling machines.

Concept of Lumen
The lumen (symbol: lm) is the SI derived unit of luminous flux, a measure of the total
quantity of visible light emitted by a source per unit of time. Luminous flux differs
from power (radiant flux) in that radiant flux includes all electromagnetic waves emitted,
while luminous flux is weighted according to a model (a "luminosity function") of
the human eye's sensitivity to various wavelengths. Lumens are related to lux in that one
lux is one lumen per square meter.
The lumen is defined in relation to the candela as
1 lm = 1 cd ⋅ sr.

Working of Incandescent Bulbs

An incandescent bulb works on the principle of incandescence, a general
term meaning light produced by heat. In an incandescent type of bulb, an
electric current is passed through a thin metal filament, heating the filament until
it glows and produces light.

Incandescent bulbs typically use a tungsten filament because of tungsten’s high

melting point. A tungsten filament inside a light bulb can reach temperatures as
high as 4,500 degrees Fahrenheit. A glass enclosure, the glass “bulb”, prevents
oxygen in the air from reaching the hot filament. Without this glass covering and
the vacuum it helps create, the filament would overheat and oxidize in a matter or
moments.

After the electricity has made its way through the tungsten filament, it goes down
another wire and out of the bulb via the metal portion at the side of the socket. It
goes into the lamp or fixture and out a neutral wire.

This is an elegantly simple system and it works quite well at producing light. It’s
perfect for a wide range of applications, cheap and easy to manufacture, and is
compatible with either AC or DC current.
Construction of Fluorescent Lamp
fluorescent tube light consists of
1. a lime glass tube
2. drop of mercury
3. argon gas
4. phosphor coating
5. electrode coils
6. mounting assemblies
7. aluminum cap
Before going through the working principle of a fluorescent lamp,
we will first show the circuit of a fluorescent lamp in other words
circuit of tube light.
Here we connect one ballast, and one switch and the supply is
series as shown. Then we connect the fluorescent tube and a starter
across it.

 When we switch ON the supply, full voltage comes across the

lamp and as well as across the starter through the ballast. But
at that instant, no discharge happens, i.e., no lumen output
from the lamp.
 At that full voltage first the glow discharge is established in
the starter. This is because the electrodes gap in the neon bulb
of starter is much lesser than that of the fluorescent lamp.
 Then gas inside the starter gets ionized due to this full voltage
and heats the bimetallic strip. That causes to bend the
bimetallic strip to connect to the fixed contact. Now, current
starts flowing through the starter. Although the ionization
potential of the neon is more than that of the argon but still due to
small electrode gap, a high voltage gradient appears in the neon
bulb and hence glow discharge gets started first in the starter.
 As soon as the current starts flowing through the touched contacts
of the neon bulb of the starter, the voltage across the neon bulb
gets reduced since the current, causes a voltage drop across
the inductor(ballast).
 This high valued surge voltage comes across the fluorescent lamp
(tube light) electrodes and strikes penning mixture (mixture argon
gas and mercury vapor).
 Gas discharge process gets started and continues and hence
current again gets a path to flow through the fluorescent lamp tube
(tube light) itself. During discharging of penning gas mixture
the resistance offered by the gas is lower than the resistance of
starter.
 The discharge of mercury atoms produces ultraviolet radiation
which in turn excites the phosphor powder coating to radiate
visible light.
 Starter gets inactive during glowing of fluorescent lamp (tube light)
because no current passes through the starter in that condition.
Working of Light Emitting Diode
The light emitting diode simply, we know as a diode. When the diode is
forward biased, then the electrons & holes are moving fast across the
junction and they are combining constantly, removing one another out.
Soon after the electrons are moving from the n-type to the p-type silicon,
it combines with the holes, then it disappears. Hence it makes the
complete atom & more stable and it gives the little burst of energy in the
form of a tiny packet or photon of light.

The light emitting diode simply, we know as a diode. When the diode is
forward biased, then the electrons & holes are moving fast across the
junction and they are combining constantly, removing one another out.
Soon after the electrons are moving from the n-type to the p-type silicon,
it combines with the holes, then it disappears. Hence it makes the
complete atom & more stable and it gives the little burst of energy in the
form of a tiny packet or photon of light.
The above diagram shows how the light emitting diode works and the
step by step process of the diagram.

 From the diagram, we can observe that the N-type silicon is in red color
and it contains the electrons, they are indicated by the black circles.
 The P- type silicon is in the blue color and it contains holes, they are
indicated by the white circles.
 The power supply across the p-n junction makes the diode forward
biased and pushing the electrons from n-type to p-type. Pushing the
holes in the opposite direction.
 Electron and holes at the junction are combined.
 The photons are given off as the electrons and holes are recombined.
 5. WIRING AND POWER BILLING

Types of wiring for domestic installations.

5 Different Types of Electrical House Wiring Systems
 Cleat Wiring. This wiring comprises of PVC insulated wires or ordinary
VIR that are braided and compounded. ...
 Casing and Capping Wiring. ...
 Batten Wiring. ...
 Lead Sheathed Wiring. ...
 Conduit Wiring.
Layout of household electrical wiring (single line diagram)

List of Protective Device

 Fuse Wire or Fuse.
 MCB – Miniature circuit breaker.
 ELCB – Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker.
 ELCB & MCB.
 Earthing or Grounding.
Electrical Energy = Power x Time.

1 uni=1000kw x1hour=1kwr

If one fan consume 80watts ,

Means it consume electric energy 80 watts if it runs for 1 hour.

1HP=746 watts

½ HP = 746/2=373Watts

5 HP=5 x 746Watts

Example

Calculate the amount of electric consumption for the month of January by

the following loads .if one unit cost is Rs2/-per unit.

8 fans 80watts each 8 hours per day

5 tube light ,40 watts each ,6 hours per day

One heater 1000watts 1 hour per day

One 2 hp motor 2 hours per day.

Solution

Energy consume by fans per day =8 x80 x8=5120wh

Energy consume by tube light per day=5 x40 x6=1200wh

Energy consume by One heater per day=1 x1000 x 1=1000wh

Energy consume by One 2 hp motor per day=2 x746 x2=2984wh

Total Energy consume by all loads per day

=5120+ 1200+ 1000+ 2984=10304wh=10304/1000=10.3Kwh

Total Energy consume by all loads for the month of January

=10.3 x 31=319.3Kwh=319.3 units.

Cost Energy consume by all loads for the month of January

=319.3 x2=Rs 638.6/-

 6.MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Electrical, the instruments used to measure the resistance or current,
voltage, frequency, flux, power factor, etc.

Electrical Measurement & Instrument

Electrical Parameter Meter Type

Current Ammeter

Voltage Voltmeter

Frequency Frequency Meter

Flux Flux Meter

Torques in instruments.
In order to ensure proper operation of indicating instruments, the
following three torques are required:
 Deflecting torque.
 Controlling torque.
 Damping torque

Deflecting torque

One important requirement in indicating instruments is the arrangement

for producing operating or deflecting torque (Td) when the instrument is
connected in the circuit to measure the given electrical quantity.

This is achieved by utilizing the various effects of electric current or

voltage. The deflecting torque causes the moving system to move from
its zero position. The deflecting torque is produced by utilizing one or
more of the following effects of current or voltage:

Controlling torque.

The controlling torque (Tc) opposes the deflecting torque and

increases with the deflection of the moving system. The pointer
comes to rest at a position where the two opposing torques are
equal i.e. Td = Tc. The controlling torque performs two functions.

Controlling torque increases with the deflection of the moving

system so that the final position of the pointer on the scale will be
according to the magnitude of an electrical quantity (i.e. current or
voltage or power) to be measured.

Controlling torque brings the pointer back to zero when the

deflecting torque is removed. If it were not provided, the pointer
once deflected would not return to zero position on removing the
deflecting torque. The controlling torque in indicating instruments
may be provided by one of the following two methods:
1. Spring control.
2. Gravity control.

Damping torque

A damping torque is produced by a damping or stopping force

which acts on the moving system only when it is moving and always
opposes its motion. Such a torque is necessary to bring the pointer
to rest quickly. If there is no damping torque, then the pointer will
keep moving to and fro about its final deflected position for some
time before coming to rest, due to the inertia of the moving system.

This damping torque acts only when the pointer is in motion and
always opposes the motion. The position of the pointer when
stationary is, therefore, not affected by damping torque. The
degree of damping decides the behavior of the moving system.

If the instrument is under-damped, the pointer will oscillate about

the final position for some time before coming to rest. On the other
hand, if the instrument is over damped, the pointer will become slow
and lethargic.
The damping torque in indicating instruments can be provided by:

 Air friction damping.

 Fluid friction damping.
 Eddy current damping.
Different uses of PMMC type of instruments (Ammeter &
Voltmeter).
The PMMC has a variety of uses onboard ship. It can be used as:

1) Ammeter:

When PMMC is used as an ammeter, except for a very small current range,
the moving coil is connected across a suitable low resistance shunt, so that
only small part of the main current flows through the coil.

The shunt consists of a number of thin plates made up of alloy metal, which
is usually magnetic and has a low-temperature coefficient of resistance,
fixed between two massive blocks of copper. A resistor of the same alloy is
also placed in series with the coil to reduce errors due to temperature
variation.

2) Voltmeter:

When PMMC is used as a voltmeter, the coil is connected in series with a

high resistance. Rest of the function is same as above. The same moving
coil can be used as an ammeter or voltmeter with an interchange of above
arrangement

3) Galvanometer:

The galvanometer is used to measure a small value of current along with

its direction and strength. It is mainly used onboard to detect and compare
different circuits in a system.

5) Ohm Meter:

The ohm meter is used to measure the resistance of the electric circuit by
applying a voltage to a resistance with the help of battery. A galvanometer
is used to determine the flow of current through the resistance. The
galvanometer scale is marked in ohms and as the resistance varies since
the voltage is fixed, the current through the meter will also vary.

Draw the connection diagram of A.C/ D.C

Ammeter, voltmeter, energy meter and wattmeter.
(Single phase only).
connection diagram of A.C Ammeter, voltmeter
connection diagram of DC Ammeter, voltmeter

Connection diagram of energy meter

Connection diagram of 1-phase wattmeter .