Engineering Geology Notes

Q-System
The Q-method is the system for the classification of rock masses with regards to stability
in tunnels and caverns. The method is a simple tool for the description of rock masses and can be
used for guidance in rock support design decision. The method can be used during construction
period, but it is also useful during the planning of an underground opening, for field mapping and
core logging. In addition the method can be used to assemble and systematize empirical data.
Using 6 parameters, a Q-value can be calculated for any rock mass according to the following
formula:

Q = RQD . Jr . Jw

Jn Ja SRF

The Q-method is one of the most frequently used and best documented classification systems for
rock masses. Based on six rock mass parameters, a Q-value for any rock mass can be calculated.
This value gives a description of the rock mass quality which can be related to stability in
underground openings.
CALCULATION OF THE Q-VALUE

The Q-value can be calculated during geological mapping in tunnels and caverns or in the field,
eventually also during core logging. Each of the six parameters is assigned a number according
to a description to be found in tables. During geological mapping it is usually necessary to divide
the area into several sub-areas so that the Q-value within each sub-area will reflect the conditions
for that area. Some variation will occur in the Q-value, even within small sub-areas. In such
cases the variation for each parameter should be given. From this it will be possible to calculate a
maximum and minimum in addition to a mean Q-value for each of the mapped areas. The
variation within a sub-area should not exceed that of a defined support class.

Now let’s discuss how we can calculate the six essential parameters of Q-SYSTEM.

RQD
The sum of the length (between natural joints) of all core pieces more than 10 cm long as a
percentage of the total core length.
(Already Discussed in Mid-Term).

Joint set number (Jn):-

In a given location there will be a few joint directions occurring systematically, usually 2-
4. Most of the joints will be more or less parallel to one of these main directions, and such
parallel joints are called joint set.

Joint Roughness Number (Jr):-

The joint number describes the conditions of joint wall, because we know that the joint
friction is dependent on the character of the joint walls, if they are undulating, planer, rough or
smooth. The description is based on roughness in two scales. The terms rough-smooth refer to
small structures in a scale of centimeters or millimeters. This can be evaluated by running a
finger along the joint wall; small scale roughness will be felt. It is also possible to measure the
roughness by a simple instrument, also called Profilometer.

Joint alteration number (Ja):

In addition to the join roughness number the joint infill will be significant for joint
friction. When considering infill, two things are important, its thickness and its mineral
composition. The mineral type is important for the Ja-value. The minerals are often easy to
identify. Whether or not water will soften the mineral infill is also important and each can be
tested by placing a sample of the mineral in water. Water is also significant when swelling clay is
present. Since a small quantity of water is necessary to cause swelling, a high J a-value is usually
given independent the water situation where swelling clay is abundant.

Joint Water Reduction Factor (Jw):-

Joint water may soften the mineral infill and thus reduce friction; eventually the infill
may be washed out. Water pressure will also reduce the normal force on the joint walls and
because of this the blocks will shear more easily. A determination of the joint water reduction
factor is based on leakage into the cavern.

Water leakage is often easily determined in a tunnel or cavern. However, there may also
be leakages from the invert, and such leakages may be difficult to observe. The surrounding rock
masses may be drained with no visible leakage for sometime after excavation. In a tunnel near
the surface leakage may vary according to the seasons. Leakage will increase in periods with
high precipitation and decrease in dry seasons on in periods with frost. These things must be kept
in mind when determining the joint water reduction factor. Sealing measures, for example
grouting, will reduce leakage.

Stress Reduction Factor (SRF):-

In general, the SRF describes the relation between stress and rock strength around
a cavern. Both stress and strength can be measured, and the SRF can then be calculated from the
relation between the rocks uniaxial strength and the major principal stress or the relation between
the maximum tangential stress and rock uniaxial strength.
Chapter#2 DAMS
A dam is a structure which prevents the flow of water and accumulates it in a reservoir.
Introduction:
Geological considerations play a vital role in location of Dams & Reservoir. Type of dam
is based on valley characteristics & Geology. Foundation requirements also depend on
the type of the dam. Dams intended for more than one purpose are called “Multi-
purpose dams”.
Purpose of Dams
1) Generation of hydroelectricity
2) Irrigation
3) Flood control
4) Water storage or supply
5) Regulating & control of stream load
Gravity Dams
These are heavy concrete dams. Stability is secured by making it of such a size and
shape that it will resist overturning, sliding and crushing at the toe. Gravity Dams use
their triangular shape and the sheer weight of their rock and concrete structure to hold
back the water in the reservoir.

Arch Dams
In Arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. Firm
reliable supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more
important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side
walls composed of sound rock.
Buttress Dams
Buttress dam is a water-tight dam supported at intervals on the downstream side by a
series of buttresses or supports. The dam wall may be flat or curved. A buttress dam is a
good choice in wide valleys where solid rock is rare.
Use multiple reinforced columns to support a dam that has a relatively thin structure.
Because of this, these dams often use half as much concrete as gravity dams.
Earth Dams
Constructed with earth materials. This is large in size and Trapezoidal in shape. Earth
materials used in construction are gravel, sand, silt and clay. Filters are provided to
facilitate drainage and also to release pore-pressure.

Ideal Site for a Dam

Narrow valley with steeper side slopes.
Stable slopes.
Absence of weathered formations, clay and fractured material.
Absence of weak zones.
Reservoir should be water tight.
Easy access and supply of materials for construction site.
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SITE SELECTION
Topography and Geomorphology:
Narrow valley with steep stable slopes.
Bed rock should be available at shallow depth.
Valley status and soundness of its slopes are ascertained.
Impact of Geological structures:
Formations at dam site should be dipping towards upstream or horizontal. This will
reduce the seepage. Shear zones present in the formations results in the weak zones
resulting to crushing of materials. Presence of anticlinal or synclinal structures in the
foundation material increases seepage.
Lithology of the Formations:
Igneous & Metamorphic rocks, granites, quartzite, gneisses & basalt are most suitable.
Sandstones have intergranular porosity. Sandstones have good compressive strength
but presence of interlayer decreases compressive strength.
Foundation Treatments:
Consolidated grouting Entire foundation area is grouted.
Pressure grouting Grout material is pumped under pressure into weak zones which are
drilled to depth.
Grout curtains To block seepage across foundation.
Seepage Problems in Dams:
Seepage is a serious problem to the stability of dams. Seepage may be through dam,
foundation & abutments. Treatment for stopping seepage involves methods of blocking
the seepage paths. Method selected depends on the situation occurring in the site.
Seepage control measurements:
Pressure Grouting (adopted when formations are strong & not fractured).
Consolidation grouting (for weak and fractured formations)
Cut-off trenches
Chemical Grouting
Grout curtains (barrier for seepage)
Down-stream drainage system installation.
Silting of Reservoirs:
Streams flowing through catchments area carry sediment load and deposit in the
Reservoir. Silting reduces storage capacity and also the life of Reservoir. Methods like
dredging can be adopted frequently in places where silting is more than dead storage of
the reservoir.
Exploratory Investigations of Site Location
Phase-I
Information in terms of topographic maps, geological maps, seismo-tectonic & technical
reports are summarized to have preliminary understanding of area. Geological mapping
of the site is done to have idea of formation details. Geological map is integrated with
available aerial photo information and satellite images to produce composite date.
Geophysical investigations like seismic refraction and electrical resistivity are conducted
to have continuous information of both spatial and depth wise data. Tracking of
features like faults is done. Drilling in vertical and horizontal directions is done in order
to have drill hole data (composition and structural variations can be observed depth
wise). From Geophysical logs like resistivity & self-potential, information are obtained.
Field investigations include Standard penetration test, plate-bearing load tests and
water pressure tests in bore holes. Ground water study is conducted and ground water
level contour maps are prepared. Objective of studying the ground water is to visualize
the impact of reservoir-filling on foundations & abutment formations. Channel
modifications after proposed structure starts is to be studied. Erosion status of
catchments area & sediment load & collection over several years after construction are
to be studied.
Phase-II
Different categories of samples like drill-cores, hand-auger borings & excavated pits are
tested for obtaining various strength, elastic moduli, permeability, fracture (RQD value)
parameters. Finally, thickness of overburden, bed rock topography, depth of water
table, areas of potential seepage are identified. Weak zones that need treatment are
identified.

Chapter#3 Tunnels
Tunnels are artificial underground passages opened at both ends constructed for
different purposes. Required for highways, railways, sewerage, water supply, public
utilities and canals.
Terminology
Crown: The uppermost part of the tunnel
Springline : The line at which the tunnel wall breaks from sloping outward to sloping
inward toward the crown
Invert: The bottom (floor) of the tunnel
Heading: The excavated face of the tunnel
Station: The distance measured from the portal (chainage)
Wall: The side of the tunnel
Portal: The tunnel entrance
Drift: A horizontal excavation

Transportation tunnel cross-sections

Crown Top heading

Core (strozze) Springline Bench

Wall

Invert Bottom

Circular Horseshoe Vertical walls arch roof

Geological Considerations
The engineering properties of a rock generally depend not only on the matrix (structure
formed by the minerals) but also imperfections in the structure such as voids (pore
space), cracks, inclusions, grain boundaries and weak particles.
Pore spaces are largely made up of continuous irregular capillary cracks separating the
mineral grains. Physical discontinuities are present in all rock masses as a result of
geological activities. Introduction of defects into the rock mass due to human activities
that alter the properties of the rock material. The mechanical breaks in the rock have
zero or low tensile strengths, increase rock deformability and provide pathways for
water to flow.
Types of support
Steel arches
Steel ribs are used for reinforcement of weaker tunnel sections, and give rigid to semi-
rigid support. The ribs are made from I-beam or H-beam structural steel bent to
conform to the requirements of a particular tunnel cross-section. Timber may be used
for packing between the beams and the rock. However, providing continuous bedding
against the rock may considerably increase the load-bearing capacity of the arches.
Rock bolts
Steel bolts are frequently set in holes drilled into the rock to assist in supporting the
entire roof or individual rock slabs that tend to fall into a tunnel. Rock bolts maintain the
stability of an opening by suspending the dead weight of a slab from the rock above.
Shotcrete
Pneumatically applied mortar and concrete are increasingly being used for the support
of underground excavations. A combination of rock bolts and shotcrete has proved an
excellent temporary support for all qualities of rock. Shotcrete is best known in
tunnelling as an integral component of the NATM (New Austrian Tunnelling Method).
Quick-setting concrete is sprayed onto the bare rock surface immediately after
excavation, and rapidly hardens to form a preliminary support until the final lining of
conventional poured concrete can be installed.
Wire mesh
Wire mesh is used to support small pieces of loose rock or as reinforcement for
shotcrete.
Geological Survey for Tunneling
A geological survey is the systematic investigation of the subsurface and surface of a
given piece of ground for the purpose of creating a geological map, model and feasibility
studies. A geological survey employs techniques from the traditional walk-over survey,
studying outcrops and landforms, to intrusive methods, such as hand auguring and
machine driven boreholes, use of geophysical techniques and remote sensing methods,
such as aerial photography and satellite imagery etc.
Types of Geological Survey
Mainly geological surveys are classified into two types:
 Surface Geological Survey
 Subsurface Geological Survey
 Surface Geological Survey: includes on land geology and geological structures,
landforms, hydrology, outcrop pattern, engineering properties etc.
 Subsurface Geological Survey: includes on underground geology and geological
structures, Geo-hydrogeology, subsurface rock or soil pattern etc.
Classification of Tunnelling Methods based on type of strata:
 Firm ground- reasonable time available for installing conventional support.

 Soft ground- Conventional support cannot be installed.

Tunnelling in Firm ground
Traditional methods Involving drilling and blasting
Full Face Method. In firm soils where full face excavation can hold itself for sufficient
time to allow mucking and supporting operations. In the full-face method, workers
excavate the entire diameter of the tunnel at the same time. This is most suitable for
tunnels passing through strong ground or for building smaller tunnels.
Top Heading and benching. When full face excavation is not possible. Heading should
be sufficient distance ahead of benching.
In this technique, workers dig a smaller tunnel known as a heading. Once the top
heading has advanced some distance into the rock, workers begin excavating
immediately below the floor of the top heading; this is a bench. One advantage of the
top-heading-and-bench method is that engineers can use the heading tunnel to gauge
the stability of the rock before moving forward with the project.
Tunnelling in Soft Strata
Tunnels constructed in soft materials require temporary support immediately or shortly
after excavation. Way to provide support are:
 Suitably spaced bents of wood

 Suitably spaced bents of steel for lagging (covering)

 Liner plates

 Fore poling placed to retain material between adjacent bents

Temporary supports must be designed for higher working stress compared to those in
permanent designs.
Sequence of operation in Rocky Strata (Drill and Blast)
 Marking tunnel profile.

 Setting up and drilling

 Loading explosive and blasting

 Removing the foul gases

 Checking

 Rock bolting and lining

Chapter#4 Roads & Highways

Compaction
Compaction is defined as the process of increasing the unit weight of soil by forcing the
soil solids into a dense state and reducing the air voids.
- This is achieved by applying static or dynamic load to the soil.
- Compaction is measured quantitatively in terms of the dry unit weight γd of the soil
In many situations Soil itself used as a construction material.
Such as:
- Highway embankments
- Railway embankments
- Earth dams
- Highway / Airfield pavements
- Backfilled trenches
- Landfills
The purpose of compaction is to produce a soil having physical properties appropriate
for a particular project.
Purpose of Compaction
1) Increased shear strength:
This means that larger loads can be applied to compacted soil since they are
typically stronger.
2) Reduced compressibility:
This also means that larger loads can be applied to compacted soil since they will
produce smaller settlements.
3) Reduced permeability:
This inhibits soils ability to absorb water, and therefore reduces the tendency to
expand shrink and potentially liquefy.

Compaction of Clayey soils

- When the clay has a higher water content less than saturation, a thick layer of free
water surrounds the particles (low viscosity). Under this condition only a small amount
of pressure is required to force the particles to new positions.
- But a high degree of compaction cannot be produced with this high water content
because the thick layer of free water prevents the particles from being forced close
together.

Standard Proctor Test – Procedure

1. Approximately 5 kg soil is thoroughly mixed with known water content.
2. Weigh the mould without base plate and collar. Fix the collar and base plate.
3. In the mould, compact the weighed soil in 3 layers giving 25 blows per layer with
the 2.5 kg rammer.
4. Weigh only mould and soil (after making soil flush with the mould edges), W.
5. Remove samples from the mould and slice it vertically to obtain a small sample
for water content determination, w.
6. Thoroughly break up the remainder of the material.
7. Increase water content by one or two percentage points and repeat the above
procedure for each increment.
8. Continue this series of determination until there is a decrease in the wet unit
weight of the compacted soil.