Chapter 7 Dams and Dam Sites; Tunnels and sites Earth Works; Reservoir Engineering Geology

DAMS

what is dam?
Purpose of dam? Discuss and come with solution?

Dams
Dam is a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across a river valley to store flowing water. Dams are made from a variety of materials such as rock, steel and wood
Storage of water is utilized for following objectives:

Hydropower Irrigation Water for domestic consumption Drought and flood control For navigational facilities Other additional utilization is to develop fisheries

Structure of Dam
Upstream
MWL Max. level NWL Normal water level

Crest

Down stream
Spillway (inside dam)

Free board

Sluice way

Gallery

Heel

Toe

 Heel: contact with the ground on the upstream side Toe: contact on the downstream side Abutment: Sides of the valley on which the structure of the dam rest Galleries: small rooms like structure left within the dam for checking operations. Diversion tunnel: Tunnels are constructed for diverting water before the construction of dam. This helps in keeping the river bed dry. Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release the excess water of the reservoir to downstream side Sluice way: An opening in the dam near the ground level, which is used to clear the silt accumulation in the reservoir side.

TYPES OF DAMS
Gravity Dams:
Reservoir Force These dams are heavy and massive wall-like structures of concrete in which the whole weight acts vertically downwards

As the entire load is transmitted on the small area of foundation, such dams are constructed where rocks are competent and stable.

Bhakra Dam is the highest Concrete Gravity dam in Asia and Second Highest in the world.

The construction of this project was started in the year 1948 and was completed in 1963 .

It is 740 ft. high above the deepest foundation as straight concrete dam being more than three times the height of Qutab Minar. Length at top 518.16 m (1700 feet); Width at base 190.5 m (625 feet), and at the top is 9.14 m (30 feet) Bhakra Dam is the highest Concrete Gravity dam in Asia and Second Highest in the world.

Buttress Dam:
Buttress Dam Is a gravity dam reinforced by structural supports Buttress - a support that transmits a force from a roof or wall to another supporting structure

This type of structure can be considered even if the foundation rocks are little weaker

Arch Dams:
These type of dams are concrete or masonry dams which are curved or convex upstream in plan This shape helps to transmit the major part of the water load to the abutments Arch dams are built across narrow, deep river gorges, but now in recent years they have been considered even for little wider valleys.

Earth Dams:
They are trapezoidal in shape Earth dams are constructed where the foundation or the underlying material or rocks are weak to support the masonry dam or where the suitable competent rocks are at greater depth. Earthen dams are relatively smaller in height and broad at the base They are mainly built with clay, sand and gravel, hence they are also known as Earth fill dam or Rock fill dam

Cont..

Cont...
The geological services required for the engineering of a large dam are in the following areas; The safety of the dam on its foundations; The watertightness of the reservoir basin; The availability of natural materials for its construction The engineering geologist is a key member of an engineering team, since he will ensure the feasibility of the project, continuing through the design stage and terminating only when construction has either proved that geological conditions revealed are in conformity with the premises adopted in design, or

 he has made possible proper evaluation of any conditions not foreseen in the earlier stages. The safety, viability and cost of a dam are all dependent upon geology. Most rocks have adequate strength but their weakness is in the orientation and dip of discontinuities relative to the loading from the dam, as well as the infilling material in, and depth of, weathering in such discontinuities. It is necessary to investigate both the regional geology and the specific local geology to ensure a global picture is developed.

Geology Terminology
Bedding planes - The planes marking the termination of one sedimentary deposit and the beginning of another; they usually constitute a weakness along which the rock tends to break. Foliation - In rocks that have been subjected to heat and deforming pressures during regional metamorphism, some new materials such as muscovite and biotite mica, talc and chlorite may be formed by recrystallisation. These new minerals are arranged in parallel layers of flat or elongated crystals - the property of foliation.

 Joints - These are fractures along which no movement has occured. All rocks are jointed to some extent and weathering occurs in these joints. They offer pathways for water, any clay infilling offering little resistance to sliding. Faults - These are fractures along which movement has occured. They may range from rather inconspicious zones hundreds of metres wide and many kilometres long. The movement may have formed a zone that is so crushed and chemically altered as to be unable to support any weight. The presence of faults may be recognised from such physical features as;

 Offset of beds, dykes or veins; Slickensides; Gouge; Brecciation or crushing; Topographic features like escarpments, linear trenches or sag valleys.

Gabbros, Andesites, Dolerite and Basalt: These types of rock cannot be trusted for dams and reservoirs. Porphyritic rocks need careful grouting. What is grouting ? Discuss

Grout
Grout is a liquid, either a uniform chemical substance or an aqueous suspension of solids that is injected into rocks or unconsolidated materials through specially drilled boreholes to improve bulk physical properties and/or to eliminate seepage of groud water. There are three basic types; Portland cement-base slurries Chemical Grouting solutions Organic resins, including epoxy resins. Portland based are the most widely used.

Cont..
In dam foundations three kinds of grouting programs are identified: Shallow blanket or consolidation grouting over critical portions Curtain grouting from a gallery or concrete grout cap Off pattern, special purpose grouting to improve strength

Amphibolites Gneiss, mica schists and associated rocks are considered to be satisfactory for sustaining bearing pressure and for water-tightness. However, gneiss and particularly mica schist are less favourable due to the mica which may slipping. facilitate

Cont...
Where gneiss and mica schists are associated, a very weak zone of disintegrated rock may be found at the junction of these two rocks.

Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic and intrusive igneous rocks are to an extent unpredictable. The usual types of dams constructed are gravity, buttress and rock fill. Grouting of the foundations is generally essential. Limestone dam sites vary widely in their suitability. Thickly bedded horizontally lying lime stones which are relatively free from solution cavities afford excellent dam sites. On the other hand, thin bedded, highly folded, or cavernous lime stones are likely to present serious foundation or abutment problems involving bearing capacity and

water tightness. Concrete dams have been constructed on Jurassic limestone at Castillon , where slips and leakage problems have occurred.

Sand stone
These have been surmounted by an extensive grouting scheme. Generally sandstones do not deteriorate rapidly on exposure to the surface with the exception of shaly sandstone. As a foundation rock sandstone is not susceptible to plastic deformation, even with poorly cemented sandstones. However, sandstones are susceptible to erosion due to the scouring and plucking action from the overflow of dams and so have to be adequately protected by suitable hydraulic structures.

 Sandstones are frequently interbedded with shales. The sandstone-shale contact may allow seepage of water and may cause potential sliding. Severe uplift pressures may also develop beneath beds of shale in a dam due to the swelling characteristics of shales. Clays Clay formations are often thick and massive and are frequently associated with thin seams of sandstone or limestone. Earth dams or rockfill dams are usually constructed on clay foundations because clays lack the load bearing properties necessary to support concrete dams.

 Gravel, Sands and Boulder Clays Gravels, sands and boulder clay of glacial origin are notoriously variable in composition both laterally and vertically. As a result dam sites in glaciated areas are among the most difficult to appraise on the basis of surface evidence. Generally, earth dams are constructed in areas of glacial deposits. Crushing Strength In general the compressive load from a dam on to its foundations will not exceed 10 MPa. The strength of a rock will depend upon its - Quality ,The degree of weathering ,Presence of micro-cracks

Cont..

Cont..
The strength of a rock mass will depend upon The number of cracks and joints The nature of their infilling material Whether there are any rock-to-rock contacts across the joints Planarity and continuity of seams and foliations

Rock strength
Rock type Siltstone Greywacke Shale Sandstone Limestone Dolomite Granite Basalt Dolerite Gneiss Strength (MPa) 24-120 20-30 35-110 40-200 50-240 50-150 90-230 200-350 240-320 80-330

Cont...
When the crest chord-height ratio is under 3 and the rock is capable of withstanding high pressures, not being able to fail by shearing, thin arch or thin cupola dams are the most successful and the most economical. Soundness of the foundation is of paramount importance for all arch

Cont..
When the crest chord-height ratio is under 3 and the rock is capable of withstanding high pressures, not being able to fail by shearing, thin arch or thin cupola dams are the most successful and the most economical. Soundness of the foundation is of paramount importance for all arch Dams in narrow valleys Narrow valleys have a chord-height ratio of between 3 and 6. Gravity arch dams are normally constructed in narrow valleys providing that the foundations are suitable.

Cont..
If the narrow valley is filled with permeable and compressible material, for example from a glacial origin, the dam engineer has two choices: To increase the depth of excavation to bedrock If the depth of material is economically unfeasible to remove, then redesigning the dam to an earthfill or rockfill design may be the only option. More and more thick arch dams with a

 thickness of less than the gravity section will be constructed in the future as more confidence is gained in:  The reliability of new models confirm and even supplant the mathematical analyses. The experience of strengthening weak foundations to carry heavier unit pressures which are to be sustained compared with the gravity section.

Geologic Conditions Promoting Foundation Failure

Brittle, fractured sandstones rest on a weak shale layer dipping upstream.

Horizontally layered limestone rest on a weak shale layer which extends downstream to a steep slope in the valley floor.

Fractured crystalline rocks lie above a flat fault containing sheared, gougy materials of very low strength.

Intersecting strong conjugate joints have attitudes that promote easy mass shear dislocations.

Sedimentary rocks dipping downstream are intersected by a fault dipping upstream and containing materials of low strength. Folded rocks containing thin, weak layers of shale present a potential for foundation failure.

Reservoir
Reservoirs What is reservoirs? Discuss for 5min. Its Purpose ?

Cont..
There are a range of factors that influence the feasibility and economics of a proposed reservoir site. The most important of these is generally the location of the dam. After that, consideration must be given to the run-off characteristics of the catchment area, the watertightness of the proposed reservoir basin, the stability of the valley sides, the likely rate of sedimentation in the new reservoir, the quality of the water and, if it is to be a very large reservoir, the possibility of associated seismic activity. Once these factors have been assessed, they

cont...
must be weighed against the present land use and social factors. The maximum elevation to which the water in a reservoir basin rises during ordinary operating conditions is referred to as the top water or normal pool level. For most reservoirs, this is fixed by the top of the spillway. Conversely, minimum pool level is the lowest elevation to which the water is drawn under normal conditions, this being determined by the lowest outlet.

Cont..
Between these two levels, the storage volume is termed the useful storage, whereas the water below the minimum pool level, because it cannot be drawn upon, is the dead storage. During floods, the water level may rise above top water level but this surcharge cannot be retained since it is above the elevation of the spillway.

the most important aspect of storage in reservoir design is the relationship between capacity and yield. The yield is the quantity of water that a reservoir can supply at any given time. The maximum possible yield equals the mean inflow less evaporation and seepage loss. In any consideration of yield, the maximum quantity of water that can be supplied during a critical dry period (i.e. during the lowest natural flow on record) is of prime importance and is defined as the safe yield.

Investigation of Reservoir Sites

consideration must be given to the amount of rainfall, run-off, infiltration and evapotranspiration that occurs in the catchment area, as well as to the geological conditions. The Leakage from a reservoir takes the form of sudden increases in stream flow downstream of the dam site with boils in the river and the appearance of springs on the valley sides. It may be associated with major defects in the geological structure, such as solution channels, fault zones or buried channels through which large and essentially localized flows take place.

Problematic foundation materials In foundations in unconsolidated material excavation of natural deposits may reveal inadequate localized or widespread foundation materials that require special treatment or total removal. Unacceptable or inadequate materials rich in organic substances such as topsoil, swamp muck or peat, loose deposits of sand or silt, talus accumulations and plastic, active, sensitive, or swelling clays. Poor foundation conditions in rocks are associated with close fracturing, weathering or hydrothermal alteration, or poorly indurated sedimentary rocks.

Pressures Associated with Dams and Reservoirs Construction of a dam and filling of the reservoir behind it create load stresses on the floor and sides of a valley that did not exist previously

Seepage - Introduction
Seepage under an embankment is much more dangerous than that for a concrete dam, since embankments are usually built on soft material which is liable to be scoured out and it is also vulnerable to influx of water; whereas a concrete dam is usually built on rock which is not worn away so rapidly by the scouring action of water; and even then a defective dam will not necessarily be endangered by passage of water through it or even under it.

Basic seepage problems

Stored water behind dams, gives rise to three basic seepage problems, which can lead to difficulties and in serious cases to total failure: Piping occurs when water picks up soil particles and moves them through unprotected exits, developing unseen channels or pipes through a dam or its foundation. Heave or slope failures caused by seepage forces. Excessive loss of water.

Con..
Three basic methods for controlling seepage are: Use of filters to prevent piping and heave Seepage reduction Drainage

 All structures undergo some settlement, regardless of their construction or of the quality of their foundations. Structures made of soil or founded on soil settle so much that their performance is affected and their safety is compromised. Concrete dams are almost always based on strong rock foundations where settlement of the dam is kept to a minimum otherwise the dams would crack leading to serious structural faults. Embankment dams can be founded on soft compressible materials and are able to withstand large settlements.

Settlement

Causes of settlement
Bearing capacity failure or instability, including landslides. Failure or deflection of the foundation structure. Elastic or distortion of the soil (Expansive soils) or rock. Consolidation (compression) of the soil or rock. Shrinkage due to desiccation. Change in density due to shock or vibration. Chemical alteration of constituents, including decay.

Cont...
Underground erosion. Collapse of underground openings such as caves or mines. Structural collapse due to weakening of cementation upon saturation Total settlement Tilting Distortion

Settlement is of two types

first immediate settlement (short term), which results from the elasticdeformation of the ground (using the word elastic in a very general sense)

Where, s = plate settlement; B = width of foundation and S = settlement of foundation. and then consolidation settlement (long term)which is the result of the long-term compaction or consolidation of the ground under the load imposed by the structure. Settlement of each layer may then be calculated from the formula: Sc= mv zH

 where mv= coefficient of volume compressibility for the layer (m2N1); H = thickness of the layer (m); z= average effective vertical stress imposed on the layer as a result of the foundation loading (N m2) and Sc= consolidation settlement (m). The total settlement (St) at any time t may be expressed by the formula: St= Si+ U Sc where U is the degree of consolidation (given as a percentage) at time t,

1.Which one of the following ground conditions are

recommended for dam sites? A. sand stone with shale interbeded B.Cavernous lime stone C. mica schist D. all E. none 2. Which types of dam will be used when the foundation rocks are little weaker? 3. Which types of dam is used at the narrow valley George? 4. What is the d/f b/n Abutment and spillways?

Summary questions

5. What are advantage and disadvantages of dam? 6. What are the Basic seepage problems ?
7. All structures undergo some settlement, regardless of their construction or of the quality of their foundations(True or False.

8.What are geological services required for the engineering of a large dam ? 9.

Tunnels and Tunnelling

What is tunnelling? Under ground path/space? Why tunnelling? Chalenges in tunnelling? Supports in tunnelling

 Geology is the most important factor that determines the nature, form and cost of a tunnel. For example, the route, design and construction of a tunnel are largely dependent on geological considerations. Estimating the cost of tunnel construction, particularly in areas of geological complexity, is uncertain. Prior to tunnel construction, the subsurface geology is explored by means of pits, adits (drifts), drilling and pilot tunnels. Exploration adits driven before tunnelling proper commences are not usually resorted to unless a particular section appears to be especially

 Dangerous or a great deal of uncertainty exists. Core drilling aids the interpretation of geological features already identified at the surface. A pilot tunnel is probably the best method of exploring tunnel locations and should be used if a major-sized tunnel is to be constructed in ground that is known to have critical geological conditions. It also drains the rock ahead of the main excavation. If the inflow of water is excessive, the rock can be grouted from the pilot tunnel before the main excavation reaches the water-bearing zone.

Cont...
Geophysical investigations can give valuable assistance in determination of subsurface conditions, especially in areas in which the solid geology is poorly exposed. Seismic refraction has been used in measuring depths of overburden in the portal areas of tunnels, in locating faults, weathered zones or buried channels, and in estimating rock quality. Seismic testing also can be used to investigate the topography of a river bed and the interface between the alluvium and bedrock when tunnels are excavated beneath rivers.

 Geological and geotechnical investigations provide early information on the tunnel feasibility and on the ground characteristics to be used for design. They mainly refer to the developments of geological models and the increased use of geophysical methods in underground

DESIGN METHODS
Three main issues to be addressed for the design of soft ground tunnels: - stability of the opening during construction, with particular attention to tunnel face stability; -Evaluation of the ground movements induced by tunnelling and of the incidence of shallow underground works on surface settlements; - design of the tunnel liner system to be installed to ensure the short and long term stability of the structure.

Problems during tunnelling

Surface Settlements-it has its own mathematical design Horizontal Surface Displacements-similar Inflow into Tunnels With regard to groundwater, planning and construction of a tunnel must take account of the following: amounts and locations of water inflow into the tunnel during construction; effect on surface structures of the possible withdrawal of support by water table lowering during tunnel construction;

Cont..
affect of the interaction between water in the finished tunnel, if it is to be an aqueduct,and the prevailing external hydrogeological regime; and effect of hydrostatic pressure on the tunnel lining.

Cont...
Resistivity techniques have proved useful in locating water tables and buried faults, particularly those that are saturated. Resistivity logs of drillholes are used in lateral correlation of layered materials of different resistivities and in the detection of permeable rocks. Ground probing radar offers the possibility of exploring large volumes of rock for anomalies in a short time and at low cost, in advance of major subsurface excavations.

Geological Conditions and Tunnelling

Large planar surfaces form most of the roof in a formation that is not inclined at a high angle and strikes more or less parallel to the axis of a tunnel. In tunnels in which jointed strata dip into the side at 30 or more, the up-dip side may be unstable. Joints that are parallel to the axis of a tunnel and that dip at more than 45 may prove especially treacherous, leading to slabbing of the walls and fallouts from the roof. The effect of joint orientation in relation to the axis of a tunnel is given in Table below

Cont..
effect of joint strike and dip orientation in tunnelling

Water in Tunnels
Correct estimation of the water inflow into a projected tunnel is of vital importance, as inflow influences the construction programme (Cripps et al., 1989). One of the principal problems. created by water entering a tunnel is that of face stability. Secondary problems include removal of excessively wet muck and the placement of a precision-fitted primary lining or of ribs.

Cont..
The value of the maximum inflow is required and so are the distribution of inflow along the tunnel section and the changes of flow with time. The greatest groundwater hazard in underground work is the presence of unexpected water-bearing zones, and therefore, whenever possible, the position of hydro geological boundaries should be located. Obviously, the location of the water table, and its possible fluctuations, are of major consequence.

 Most of the serious difficulties encountered during tunnelling operations are directly or indirectly caused by the percolation of water towards the tunnel. As a consequence, most of the techniques for improving ground conditions are directed towards its control. This may be achieved by using drainage, compressed air, grouting or freezing techniques.

Gases in Tunnels
Naturally occurring gas can occupy the pore spaces and voids in rock. This gas may be under pressure, and there have been occasions when gas under pressure has burst into underground workings, causing the rock to fail with explosive force (Bell and Jermy, 2002). Wherever possible the likelihood of gas hazards should be noted during the geological survey, but this is one of the most difficult tunnel hazards to predict. If the flow of gas appears to be fairly continuous, then the entrance to the flow may be sealed with concrete. Often, the supply of gas is exhausted quickly, but cases have been reported where it

Cont..
continued for up to 3 weeks. Many gases are dangerous. For example, methane, CH4, which may be encountered in Coal Measures, is lighter than air and can readily migrate from its point of origin. Not only ismethane toxic, it also is combustible and highly explosive when 515% is mixed with air.Carbon dioxide, CO2, and carbon monoxide, CO, are both toxic.

Temperatures in Tunnels
Temperatures in tunnels are not usually of concern unless the tunnel is more than 170 mbelow the surface. When rock is exposed by excavation, the amount of heat liberated depends on the virgin rock temperature, VRT; the thermal properties of the rock; the length of time of exposure; the area, size and shape of exposed rock; the wetness of rock; the air flow rate; the dry bulb temperature; and humidity of the air.

Cont..
In deep tunnels, high temperatures can make work more difficult. Indeed, high temperatures and rock pressures place limits on the depth of tunnelling. The moisture content of the air in tunnels is always high and, in saturated air, the efficiency of labour declines when the temperature exceeds 25C, dropping to almost zero when the temperature reaches 35C. Conditions can be improved by increased ventilation, by water spraying or by using refrigerated air. Air refrigeration is essential when the virgin rock temperature exceeds 40C.

Cont..
The rate of increase in rock temperature with depth depends on the geothermal gradient that, in turn, is inversely proportional to the thermal conductivity, k, of the material involved:

Read for your self !!

Excavation of tunnel and design and its roof Chapter 9- Construction materials