Chapter 10:

Operational Amplifiers
 10.1 Introduction
An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a very high gain differential amplifier with
high input impedance and low output impedance. Typical uses of the operational
amplifier are to provide voltage amplitude changes (amplitude and polarity), oscillators,
filter circuits, and many types of instrumentation circuits. An op-amp contains a number
of differential amplifier stages to achieve a very high voltage gain.
 10.1 Introduction
Single-ended input operation results when the input signal is connected to one input
with the other input connected to ground. Figure 10.2 shows the signals connected for
this operation. In Fig. 10.2 a, the input is applied to the plus input (with minus input at
ground), which results in an output having the same polarity as the applied input signal.
Figure 10.2 b shows an input signal applied to the minus input, the output then being
opposite in phase to the applied signal.
 10.1 Introduction
In addition to using only one input, it is possible to apply signals at each input—this
being a double-ended operation. Figure 10.3 a shows an input, Vd, applied between the
two input terminals (recall that neither input is at ground), with the resulting amplified
output in phase with that applied between the plus and minus inputs. Figure 10.3 b shows
the same action resulting when two separate signals are applied to the inputs, the difference
signal being Vi1 - Vi2.
 10.1 Introduction
 Double-Ended Output
Whereas the operation discussed so far has a single output, the op-amp can also be operated with
opposite outputs, as shown in Fig. 10.4 . An input applied to either input will result in outputs
from both output terminals, these outputs always being opposite in polarity. Figure 10.5 shows
a single-ended input with a double-ended output. As shown, the signal applied to the plus input
results in two amplified outputs of opposite polarity.
 10.1 Introduction
Figure 10.6 shows the same operation with a single output measured between output terminals
(not with respect to ground). This difference output signal is Vo1 - Vo2. The difference output is also
referred to as a floating signal since neither output terminal is the ground (reference) terminal. The
difference output is twice as large as either Vo1 or Vo2 because they are of opposite polarity and
subtracting them results in twice their amplitude [e.g., 10 V − (−10 V)=20 V]. Figure 10.7 shows a
differential input, differential output operation. The input is applied between the two input
terminals and the output taken from between the two output terminals. This is fully differential
operation.
 10.1 Introduction
 Common-Mode Operation
When the same input signals are applied to both inputs, common-mode operation results, as
shown in Fig. 10.8. Ideally, the two inputs are equally amplified, and since they result in
opposite-polarity signals at the output, these signals cancel, resulting in 0-V output. Practically,
a small output signal will result.
 10.1 Introduction

 Common-Mode Rejection
A significant feature of a differential connection is that the signals that are
opposite at the inputs are highly amplified, whereas those that are common to
the two inputs are only slightly amplified—the overall operation being to
amplify the difference signal while rejecting the common signal at the two
inputs. Since noise (any unwanted input signal) is generally common to both
inputs, the differential connection tends to provide attenuation of this unwanted
input while providing an amplified output of the difference signal applied to the
inputs. This operating feature is referred to as common-mode rejection.
 10.1 Introduction
Construction of op-amp
Note the op-amp has two inputs
and one output.

Characteristics of op-amp
• amplifying the differential signal while rejecting the common signal at the two inputs
• very high gain differential amplifier
• high input impedance (typically a few meg-Ohms)
• low output impedance (less than 100 ).

Differential input signal: highly amplified

Common input signal:

rejection/slightly amplified
 10.2 Differential Amplifier Circuit

(1) A fundamental building block of analog ICs.

(2) Two possible inputs and two possible outputs
(3) Identical transistor characteristics of the differential-pair
(4) Amplifying differential-mode input voltage Vd=Vi1-Vi2 , rejecting differential-mode input voltage Vc=(Vi1+Vi2)/2
(5) High gain, high input impedance, and low output impedance

Differential Inputs

Common Inputs
 10.2 Differential Amplifier Circuit

A number of input signal combinations are possible:

If an input signal is applied to either input with the other input connected to ground, the
operation is referred to as “single-ended.”
If two opposite-polarity input signals are applied, the operation is referred to as “double-ended.”
If the same input is applied to both inputs, the operation is called “common-mode.”
10.2 Differential Amplifier Circuit
1. DC Bias

2. AC operation

• Differential-mode operation Vo=AdVd

• Common-mode operation Vo=AcVc

 10.2 Differential Amplifier Circuit
 Differential-mode operation

single-ended

AC equivalent circuit
 10.2 Differential Amplifier Circuit
 Differential-mode operation
for which the single-ended voltage gain
Single-Ended AC Voltage Gain
magnitude at either collector is

With RE very large (ideally infinite)

so that

If we also assume that

then

and the output voltage magnitude

at either collector is

AC equivalent circuit
EXAMPLE 10.2 Calculate the single-ended output voltage Vo1.

The collector dc current is then

so that

The ac voltage gain magnitude

 10.2 Differential Amplifier Circuit
 Differential-mode operation
Double-Ended AC Voltage Gain

where
 10.2 Differential Amplifier Circuit
 Common-Mode Operation of Circuit

The output voltage magnitude is then

voltage gain
 10.2 Differential Amplifier Circuit
 Use of Constant-Current Source
A good differential amplifier has a very large difference gain Ad , which is much larger than the common-
mode gain Ac . The common-mode rejection ability of the circuit can be considerably improved by making
the common-mode gain as small as possible (ideally, 0).
the larger RE, the smaller is Ac. One popular method for increasing the ac value of RE is using a constant-
current source circuit.
 10.2 Differential Amplifier Circuit
 Use of Constant-Current Source
EXAMPLE 10.4 Calculate the common-mode gain for the differential amplifier of the below figure.
 10.3 Differential And Common-mode
Operation

Differential Operation

Common-mode Operation

CMRR: Any signal that is common to both inputs will be cancelled. A measure of the ability to cancel
out common signals is called CMRR (common-mode rejection ratio).
 Use of Constant-Current Source

-To provide operating point as well as increasing common-mode

rejection ability (provide a large value of the emitter resistance to
reduce Ac).
- To be used as active load to improve the differential gain

Use of BiFET, BiMOS, and CMOS Differential

Amplifier Circuits

-BiFET: a differential amplifier by both BJT and JFET

-BiMOS: a differential amplifier by both BJT and MOSFET
-Combine BJT and MOS transistors on the same semiconductor chip
-The advantages of the MOSFET high input impedance and the BJT
high gain can be combined and utilized in the same circuit

-CMOS: a differential amplifier by complementary type MOSFET

-Low power dissipation
 FET differential amplifier circuit
1.MOSFET circuit composition
T1 and T2 parameters are the same, the
structure is symmetrical
Source terminal shared current source branch

2. Working principle（Double-ended
input, double-ended output）

Q point

Obtain VGSQ

Verify whether it works

in the saturation region
 FET differential amplifier circuit
2. Working principle
Dynamic: Only input differential mode signal （vi1 and vi2 are equal in size
but opposite in phase）

vO = vO1-vO2 0 Amplify the differential mode signal

 FET differential amplifier circuit
2. Working principle
Dynamic: Only input common mode signal （vi1 and vi2 are equal in size and phase）

vO = vO1-vO2= 0 reject common mode signals

AC path
 FET differential amplifier circuit
2. Working principle

Principle of suppressing zero drift

Temperature changes and power supply

voltage fluctuations will cause the two
drain currents to change, and the change
trend is the same.

The effect is equivalent to adding a

common mode signal to the two input
terminals.
 FET differential amplifier circuit
3. Calculation of main indicators
（1）Differential mode vi1= -vi2
<A> Double-ended input,
double-ended output

The increase in i D 1 is equal to the

decrease in iD2(or vice versa)
The current flowing through the
source common branch remains
unchanged, and the source s potential
does not change
Hence vs=0
Double-ended output connected to load
 FET differential amplifier circuit
3. Calculation of main indicators
（1）Differential mode vi1= -vi2
<A> Double-ended input,
double-ended output
The left and right circuits are completely
symmetrical, equivalent to one-half of the grounded
load
① voltage gain

Equal the one-sided voltage gain

 FET differential amplifier circuit
3. Calculation of main indicators
（1）Differential mode vi1= -vi2
<A> Double-ended input,
double-ended output
Single-side small signal equivalent
circuit（ = 0）

If   0

where
 FET differential amplifier circuit
3. Calculation of main indicators
（1）Differential mode vi1= -vi2
<A> Double-ended input,
double-ended output

② input impedance

The equivalent resistance seen between

the two gate terminals. The gate and source
of the two transistors are connected in series,
but since the gate is insulated, the input
resistance tends to be infinite.

③ output impedance or
 FET differential amplifier circuit
3. Calculation of main indicators
（1）Differential mode vi1= -vi2
<B> Double-ended input,
single-ended output

③ output impedance

or
 FET differential amplifier circuit
3. Calculation of main indicators
（1）Differential mode vi1= -vi2
<C> single-ended input
Equivalent transformation

According to the superposition principle, the

equivalent double-ended differential mode input
vid/2 and the common mode signal vic.
If only differential mode signals are considered,
it is equivalent to double-ended input differential
mode signals.
The differential mode index is the same as the
double-ended input
 FET differential amplifier circuit
3. Calculation of main indicators
（2）common mode vi1= vi2=vic

AC path

vi1 and vi2 are equal in size and phase.

id1 and id2 increase or decrease by the same
amount at the same time.
The changing current flowing through the
source common branch is twice that of
unilateral, and the common source s potential
will change significantly.
Essentially different from differential mode
input.
 FET differential amplifier circuit
3. Calculation of main indicators
（2）common mode vi1= vi2=vic

AC path
<A> double-ended output

Common mode gain

Exchange double components for

the ability to reject zero drift
 FET differential amplifier circuit
3. Calculation of main indicators
（2）common mode vi1= vi2=vic
<B> single-ended output
In common mode, the single-ended outputs
on both sides are exactly the same

Is there any difference

where between single-ended input
and double-ended input in
Improved ability to suppress zero drift
common mode?
If   0，Then also consider the influence of rds No
( in parallel with Rd )
 FET differential amplifier circuit
3. Calculation of main indicators

（3）Common Mode Rejection

Double-ended output, ideal situation

Single-ended output

the stronger the ability to suppress zero drift

Total output voltage at single-ended output

(both Avd1 and Avc1 have

negative signs)
 BJT differential amplifier circuit
1. circuit composition
2. working principle
Q point:
 BJT differential amplifier circuit
2. working principle
Dynamic: Only input differential mode signal
（vi1 and vi2 are equal in size
but opposite in phase）

vO = vO1-vO2 0
Amplify the
differential mode
signal
 BJT differential amplifier circuit
2. working principle
Dynamic: Only input common mode signal

v i 1 and v i 2 are equal in

size and phase. vO1 and vO2
are equal in size and phase. In fact, it also has strong common-
v O = v O1 -v O2 = 0, double- mode signal rejection when single-
ended no signal output ended output
 BJT differential amplifier circuit
2. working principle
Differential mode

<A> Double-ended input,

double-ended output

<B> Double-ended input,

single-ended output

<C> Single-ended input is equivalent to double-

ended input
<D> input impedance

（The most obvious difference with MOS tube）

 BJT differential amplifier circuit
2. working principle
Common mode

<A> double-ended output

<B> single-ended output

<C> input impedance

Other indicators are similar to the MOSFET differential amplifier circuit

 10.5 Op-Amp Basics

Ideal

Ideal features of op-amp:

Practical
• Ad = ∞, Ac=0
• Ri = ∞
• Ro = 0

Virtual Short: Vd=0

Virtual Open: Id=0

Practical features of op-amp:
• very high gain Ad for differential input Vd
• high input impedance Ri (typically a few meg-Ohms)
• low output impedance Ro (less than 100 ).
 10.5 Op-Amp Basics
in
vn
ip vo
vp

Main features in linear application state

1、Virtual Open: ip=in=0

2、Virtual Short: vp=vn

transfer characteristic
 10.5 Op-Amp Basics
(1) Inverting constant gain amplifier• The signal input is a p p l i e d t o t h e
inverting (–) input
• The non-inverting input (+) is grounded
• The resistor Rf is the feedback resistor.
The non-inverting input pin is at ground. The
inverting input pin is also at 0V for an AC signal
due to virtual short concept. The inverting input
is at virtual ground.

Ro→0
 10.5 Op-Amp Basics
(2) Noninverting constant gain amplifier

Ro→0
 10.5 Op-Amp Basics
(3) Unity follower →Voltage buffer
A voltage buffer circuit provides a means of isolating an input signal
from a load by using a stage having unity voltage gain, with no phase or
polarity inversion, and acting as an ideal circuit with very high input
impedance and low output impedance.
 10.6 Op-Amp Specifications—DC Offset
Parameters
Even when the input voltage is zero, there will be an output called offset. The
following can cause this offset:
• Input offset voltage (VIO)
• Input offset current (IIO)

• Total offset voltage may due to both input offset voltage and input offset
current

• Input bias current (IIB)

In experiments and actual applications, adjusting circuits for zero-input

zero-output is employed.
 10.7 Op-Amp Specifications—Frequency
Parameters
An op-amp is a wide-bandwidth amplifier. The following affect the bandwidth of the op-amp:
• Gain
• Slew rate

• The plot shown is for an open loop gain (AOL or AVD).

• The op-amp’s high frequency response is limited by
internal circuitry.
• In the open loop, the op-amp has a narrow
bandwidth.
• The bandwidth widens in closed-loop operation, but
then the gain is lower.

f1 is called the gain-bandwidth

 Summary of Chapter 10

• Characteristics of Differential Amplifier

• Differential mode operation
• Common mode operation
• CMRR
• Characteristics of Op-Amp.
• Ideal assumptions (Virtual short and Virtual open)
• Practical
• Linear applications of Op-Amp
•Inverting and nun-inverting amplifier
•Unity follower
 Important Conclusions and Concepts
1. Differential operation involves the use of opposite-polarity inputs.
2. Common-mode operation involves the use of the same-polarity inputs.
3. Common-mode rejection compares the gain for differential inputs to that for common inputs.
4. An op-amp is an operational amplifier.
5. The basic features of an op-amp are:
•Very high input impedance (typically megohms)
•Very high voltage gain (typically a few hundred thousand and greater)
•Low output impedance (typically less than 100 Ω)
6. Virtual ground is a concept based on the practical fact that the differential input voltage
between plus (+) and minus ( ̶ ) inputs is nearly (virtually) 0 V—when calculated as the output
voltage (at most, that of the voltage supply) divided by the very high voltage gain of the op-amp.
7. Basic op-amp connections include:
•Inverting amplifier
•Noninverting amplifier