Institut Universitaire et Stratégique de l’Estuaire

Estuary Academic and Strategic Institute(IUEs/Insam)

Sous la tutelle académique des Universités de Buéa, de Douala et de Dschang

Field NETWORK AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Specialty: TELECOMMUNICATIONS
TEL 122: PHYSICS AND COMPUTER SCIENCE II
Module: Electromagnetism
Credit: 2, (30hrs)
Module prerequisites: Physics, electrostatics, electromagnetic field theory

GENERAL OBJECTIVE
At the end of the course the student will be able to understand the operations in electromagnetism
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter the student will be able to
 define and explain a magnetic field.
 describe the shape of magnetic fields around a magnet and between two magnets.
 discuss the magnetic effect of an electric current.
 describe the shape of magnetic fields around current-carrying wires in different situations.
 explain why a current-carrying wire experiences a force in a magnetic field.
 calculate the size of this force.
 calculate the force between parallel wires carrying a current.
 draw a diagram of a simple DC motor and explain how it works.
 calculate the size of the force on a current carrying conductor passing through the magnetic
field using the formula F = BIL and F = BIL sin Ɵ.
 demonstrate experimentally that current is induced in a straight wire when moved through a
magnetic field.
 show experimentally that size of the induced current in a straight carrying conductor depends
on the length of the wire, the strength of the field, and speed of the wire in the magnetic field.

COURSE OUTLINE
1. Field theory
2. Maxwell equations
3. Electromagnetic waves
 CHAPTER I
MAGNETISM
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
At the end of the course the student will be able to understand the operations in electromagnetism
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter the student will be able to

Magnetic Field and Force Due To Current

Whenever a current passes through a conductor a magnetic field is produced. This can be shown
by placing a directional compass near a straight current-carrying wire or conductor. A compass
placed near a current carrying conductor will always point in the direction of the magnetic field
lines produced. However, a magnetic material like iron, cobalt or nickel when placed in the
presence of the magnetic field will always experience a force acting on it.

Magnets and Magnetic Field

The idea of magnetism was first discovered by the Chinese as early as 2500 BC. They
found that certain minerals can attract pieces of iron. When these minerals were allowed to be
suspended (hung) freely they will always point in the north to south direction. Nowadays, we
call these objects magnets. A bar magnet has two poles: the South Pole and North Pole.
There are many examples of the uses of magnets in today’s world. Magnets are used in
dynamos, motors, radios, TV, refrigerator, door locks and tape recorders among others.
A magnetic field is a region where a magnet exerts a force. This region is made up of
lines of forces. This means that, if a magnetic material like iron, cobalt or nickel is placed in the
magnetic field, it will experience a force acting on it.
The pattern a magnet makes can be shown using iron filings or a directional compass.

N S

Figure 1 The magnetic field lines around a bar magnet.

You will note from the diagram that, the magnetic field starts from the North Pole and
enter into the South Pole. The magnetic field is the strongest at the poles where the field lines
are closer together.
When magnets are placed closer to each other, their magnetic fields interact with each other.
Very simple experiments can show us that, when like poles (N-N or S-S) are held closer to each
other, they tend to repel. However, unlike poles (N-S or S-N) attract each other. This brings us to

Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.

the law of magnetism
 N S N N

Neutral point

Figure 2 The magnetic fields around unlike poles facing each other are almost
uniform in strength. However, between like poles, there is a neutral point where
the combined field strength is zero.

You will have learnt in electricity that when a current passes through a conductor, it produces heat
and light energies. We will now learn how electricity produces some magnetic effects. The
connection between electricity and magnetism has many important applications in today’s world.

In electromagnetism (this unit) the current we are referring to is the conventional

current which flows from the positive terminal of the power supply.

Consider a directional compass is allowed to settle in its normal north-south direction. When a wire
is placed over the compass and a current is allowed to flow, the compass needle deflects. It is
noticed that the compass needle is deflected at 900 to the wire (i.e. east-west direction). When the
current is switched off, the current needle returns to its original north- south direction. This shows
us that a wire carrying a current has a magnetic effect.

Directional Directional
N compass N compass
S S

(a) (b)

Figure 3 (a) No current in the wire (b) Current passing through the wire.

The magnetic effect can further be investigated using a vertical current – carrying wire. The wire
passes through a hole in a piece of cardboard (which is placed horizontally). When iron fillings
are sprinkled on the cardboard and tapped gently, they arrange themselves in a circular pattern.
 directional
compass
iron
fillings

card

straight current
wire direction

Figure 4 The magnetic field around a straight wire.

This circular pattern represents the magnetic field around the wire. A compass needle can also
be used to find the direction of the magnetic field. It is found that if the direction of the
current is reversed, the direction of the magnetic field is also reversed.

The direction of a magnetic field around a wire carrying a current is given by Fleming’s
Right Hand Grip Rule. This rule states that, if you grip a straight wire with your right hand,
then your extended thumb points in the direction of the current. Your fingers wrapped around
the wire will point in the direction of the magnetic field lines.

Figure 5 Applying the right hand grip rule to find the direction of the magnetic field around a wire.
The characteristics of the magnetic field produced by a current flowing in a straight wire.
 The magnetic field lines form a circular pattern.
 The magnetic field strength increases when current increases.
 The magnetic field strength is stronger near the wire and weaker further away.
 When the direction of the current is reversed, the direction of the magnetic field is reversed
too.
We can view the direction of the current as represented by a point or as a cross :

 A point represents the current flow in an upward direction out of the paper. It can be seen as
looking at a sharp point (or tip) of an arrow coming towards you.
 A cross represents the current flow in a downward direction into the paper, like looking
at the tail end of an arrow away from you.

a) b)
Current in upward
Current in downward
direction
(out of page) direction (into page)

wire wire

Figure 6 (a) Current in upward direction. (b) Current in downward direction.

Force Due To Current in a Magnetic Field

We have learnt earlier that, when a current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced.
However, if the current carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic field a force is produced that
will act on the conductor.

The conductor experiences a force because

because the magnetic field around the conductor interacts with the
magnetic field of the magnet. This causes weaker and stronger effects on two sides of the conductor.
Thus, the conductor will move in the direction of the weaker field.

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 Figure 7 A force acts on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field.

The force causes the wire to move at right-angles (900) to the magnetic field. If you reverse the
direction of the current in the wire, the direction of the force reverses. This means that the wire will
move in the opposite direction.

You must note that, the direction of the current, the magnetic field and the force must always be at
right – angles to each other. What we are trying to talk about here are three physical quantities:
current, magnetic field and the force. We will try to see how these quantities relate to each other in
terms of their directions.

From figure 7 above, at least the direction of two quantities (current and magnetic field, current and
force or force and magnetic field) must be known to predict the direction of the third quantity. The
third quantity can be predicted using the Fleming’s Left Hand Rule as illustrated on the next page.

Figure 8 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule indicates the link between

force, field and current directions.

The rule can be used as follows:

 The thumb and the first two fingers must be held at right angles(900) to each other
 The thumb gives the direction of the force
 The first finger gives the direction of the magnetic field and
 The second finger gives the direction of the current.

For example, in figure 7, if the directions of the current and the magnetic field are known, then
using the Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, we can very easily predict or identify the direction of the
force. In this case, the direction of the force is out of the page or moving upwards.

When you apply the rule, you must always remember:

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  The magnetic field direction is always from the North Pole to the South Pole.
 The current direction is always from the positive terminal of the battery.
 The rule applies when the current, magnetic field and force are at right angle to each
other.
In our previous discussions, we have seen that when a current carrying conductor is placed in an
external magnetic field, it will experience a force. We will now learn some factors that affect this force.
One of the factors that affect the size of the force is the length of the conducting wire in the
magnetic field.
The second factor is the size or the magnitude of the current. The greater the current, the greater is the
force.
The third factor is the strength of the magnetic field. This means that, if the magnetic field strength
increases, the size of the force also increases. This can be achieved by using a bigger or stronger
magnet with a stronger magnetic field.
The fourth factor is the angle (θ) to which the wire or the conductor is allowed to cut the magnetic field
lines. If the wire cuts the magnetic field lines at right angles, it will produce maximum force. However,
if the wire passes through the magnetic field lines at some other angle other than right angle, it will
produce minimum force. Also, note that if the wire moves parallel (180o) to the direction of the field
lines, the force produce will be zero.
All the four factors that affect the size of the force are linked by the equation:

Here, the magnetic force F (in Newton) acting on a wire of length L (in metre) carrying a
current I (in Ampere) in a magnetic field of strength B (in tesla) and is the angle between
the wire and the direction of the magnetic field. Note: The magnetic field strength B is also
called the magnetic flux density

Examples
1. A 20cm length of a wire carries a current of 4A in a magnetic field strength of 3T.
Calculate the force at
a) right angles and
b) at 300 to the field.
Exercise
A 25cm wire, placed at 60o to a magnetic field, experiences a 3N force when a current of 1.5A flows.
Calculate the magnetic field intensity.

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If we now increase the length of the wire by having more turns or coils instead of a single straight wire,
then the equation becomes:
F nBILsinθ
Where n represents the number of turns in a coil in the magnetic field and L is the length which is the
circumference of a single turn of a coil of wire.
Example
Figure 10 shows a rectangular coil of wire carrying a current of 0.26A that has 150 turns. The
coil is parallel to a magnetic field of flux density 0.36T.

a) Will the coil rotate clockwise or anticlockwise to the observer?

b) What is the size of the force on the side AB?

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 END OF CHAPTER QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by the term magnetic field?
2. What sort of materials when placed in a magnetic field will experience a force?
3. Draw the magnetic field patterns of the magnets shown below.

4. Sketch the magnetic field pattern of a steady electric current flowing in a long straight wire in
the directions shown:

5. Why does a current carrying conductor experience a force when placed in an external
magnetic field?
6. Use Fleming’s LHR to show direction of force in the diagram below. Use either a dot
(towards you) or a cross (away from you) to indicate the direction of the force on the
conductor.

7. 1. List the factors that affect the size of the force experienced by a current-carrying wire.
2. What happens to the size of the force when the:
a) current through the wire increases?
b) magnetic field cutting across the wire increases?

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 CHAPTER II
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
At the end of the course the student will be able to understand the operations in electromagnetism
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter the student will be able to

ATOMS
The familiar model of an atom is that of a small nucleus composed of protons and neutrons surrounded by
rapidly moving electrons. Typically, the atomic diameter is on the order of l0–10 m while that of the nucleus
is on the order of 10–15 m. Protons and neutrons have about the same mass (1.00728 and 1.00867 amu
respectively) and each is about 1800 times as heavy as an electron. A neutron is electrically neutral, but a
proton has a positive charge (+1.6 x 10–19 coulomb*) which is exactly the opposite of the negative charge
of an electron. In a neutral atom, the number of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of protons
in the nucleus.
The number of protons in the nucleus (the “atomic number”, Z) characterizes a chemical element. Atoms
of a given element all have the same number of protons, yet may have different masses. The atomic mass
number of an atom, A, is given by A = Z + N, where N is the number of neutrons in the nucleus. Since an
element is characterized solely by Z, it follows that atoms of a given chemical element may have a varying
number of neutrons. Subspecies of chemical elements with the same Z but differing N and A are called
isotopes. The atomic weight of an element is the weighted average of the atomic masses of the various
naturally occurring isotopes of the element, and the atomic weight scale is based on a value of exactly 12,
after the carbon isotope that has an atomic mass number of 12

COULOMB’S LAW

The interaction between charged objects is a non-contact force that acts over some distance of
separation. Charge, charge and distance. Every electrical interaction involves a force that highlights the
importance of these three variables. Whether it is a plastic golf tube attracting paper bits, two like-charged
balloons repelling or a charged Styrofoam plate interacting with electrons in a piece of aluminum, there is
always two charges and a distance between them as the three critical variables that influence the strength
of the interaction. In this section of Lesson 3, we will explore the importance of these three variables.

Force as a Vector Quantity

The electrical force, like all forces, is typically expressed using the unit Newton. Being a force, the
strength of the electrical interaction is a vector quantity that has both magnitude and direction. The
direction of the electrical force is dependent upon whether the charged objects are charged with like
charge or opposite charge and upon their spatial orientation. By knowing the type of charge on the two
objects, the direction of the force on either one of them can be determined with a little reasoning. In the
diagram below, objects A and B have like charge causing them to repel each other. Thus, the force on

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object A is directed leftward (away from B) and the force on object B is directed rightward (away from
A). On the other hand, objects C and D have opposite charge causing them to attract each other. Thus, the
force on object C is directed rightward (toward object D) and the force on object D is directed leftward
(toward object C). When it comes to the electrical force vector, perhaps the best way to determine the
direction of it is to apply the fundamental rules of charge interaction (opposites attract and likes repel)
using a little reasoning.

Electrical force also has a magnitude or strength. Like most types of forces, there are a variety of
factors that influence the magnitude of the electrical force. Two like-charged balloons will repel each
other and the strength of their repulsive force can be altered by changing three variables. First, the quantity
of charge on one of the balloons will affect the strength of the repulsive force. The more charged a balloon
is, the greater the repulsive force. Second, the quantity of charge on the second balloon will affect the
strength of the repulsive force. Gently rub two balloons with animal fur and they repel a little. Rub the two
balloons vigorously to impart more charge to both of them, and they repel a lot. Finally, the distance
between the two balloons will have a significant and noticeable effect upon the repulsive force. The
electrical force is strongest when the balloons are closest together. Decreasing the separation distance
increases the force. The magnitude of the force and the distance between the two balloons is said to
be inversely related.

Coulomb's Law Equation

The quantitative expression for the effect of these three variables on electric force is known as Coulomb's
law. Coulomb's law states that the electrical force between two charged objects is directly proportional to
the product of the quantity of charge on the objects and inversely proportional to the square of the
separation distance between the two objects. In equation form, Coulomb's law can be stated as

where Q1 represents the quantity of charge on object 1 (in Coulombs), Q2 represents the quantity of
charge on object 2 (in Coulombs), and d represents the distance of separation between the two objects (in
meters). The symbol k is a proportionality constant known as the Coulomb's law constant. The value of
this constant is dependent upon the medium that the charged objects are immersed in. In the case of air,
the value is approximately 9.0 x 109 N • m2 / C2. If the charged objects are present in water, the value
of k can be reduced by as much as a factor of 80. It is worthwhile to point out that the units on k are such
that when substituted into the equation the units on charge (Coulombs) and the units on distance (meters)
will be canceled, leaving a Newton as the unit of force.

The Coulomb's law equation provides an accurate description of the force between two objects whenever
the objects act as point charges. A charged conducting sphere interacts with other charged objects as
though all of its charge were located at its center. While the charge is uniformly spread across the surface
of the sphere, the center of charge can be considered to be the center of the sphere. The sphere acts as a
point charge with its excess charge located at its center. Since Coulomb's law applies to point charges, the
distance d in the equation is the distance between the centers of charge for both objects (not the distance
between their nearest surfaces).

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Or

Felect = k • Q1 • Q2 / d2

Where k = 9.0 x 109 N.m2/C2

Example
Finding the electric force: two charges
A 1.0 μC
C charge is at x = 1.0 cm, and a -1.5 μC
C charge is at x = 3.0 cm. What force does the positive
charge exert on the negative one?

MAGNETIC FORCE
 |F| = qvBsinӨgives
gives the magnitude
 What about the direction?
 F is perpendicular to v and to B
 Which way?
◆  right-hand rule

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Example
HND 2020

Solution
V=3x106m/s, B=0.3T, Ө=37o, q=1.6x10-19C, mass of proton=1.67x10-27kg
i. |F| = qvBsinӨ
ii. F=ma

MAGNETIC MOMENT
Magnetic moment is the magnetic strength and orientation of a magnet or other object that produces a
magnetic field.
It can be defined as a vector relating the aligning torque on the object from an externally applied magnetic
field vector itself.
ᴦ=mxB
where ᴦ = torque, B=magnetic field, m=magnetic moment.
Moment is measured in Am2
A=ampere and m2=area

Example
HND 2020

Solution
Circumference, S = 2πr so r=S/2π
Current = 17x10-3A, B=0.8T
i. Magnetic moment, m=17x10-3x
ii. ᴦ=mxB

END OF CHAPTER QUESTIONS

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 CHAPTER III
REVIEW OF ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTROKINETICS
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
At the end of the course the student will be able to understand the operations in electromagnetism
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter the student will be able to
Electrostatic Force and Electric Charge
Electrostatic Force (charges at rest):
Electrostatic force can be attractive Electrostatic force can be repulsive Electrostatic
Electrostatic force acts
through empty space Electrostatic
Electrostatic force much stronger than gravity Electrostatic
Electrostatic forces are inverse
proportional to 1/r2) Electrostatic force is proportional to the product of the
square law forces (proportional
amount of charge on each interacting object

Magnitude of the Electrostatic

ectrostatic Force is given by Coulomb's Law:
2
F = K q1q2/r (Coulomb's Law)
where K depends on the system of units
K = 8.99x109 Nm2/C2 (in MKS system)
K = 1/(40) where 0 = 8.85x10-12 C2/(Nm2)
Electric Charge:
electron charge = -e e = 1.6x10-19 C
proton charge = e C = Coulomb
Electric charge is a conserved quantity (net
( electric charge is never created or destroyed
destroyed!)

Vector Forces

The Electrostatic Force is a vector:

vector
The force on q due to Q points along the direction r and is given by

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Vector Superposition of Electric Forces:
If several point charges q1, q2, q3, … simultaneously exert electric forces on a charge Q then

Vectors & Vector Addition

The Components of a vector:

Vector Addition:

The Electric Dipole

An electric "dipole" is two equal and opposite point charges separated by a distance d. It is an electrically
neutral system. The "dipole moment" is defined to be the charge times the separation (dipole moment =
Qd).

Exercise
HND 2020

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The Electric Field

The charge Q produces an electric field which in turn produces a force on the charge q. The force on q is
expressed as two terms:

The electric field at the point q due to Q is simply the force per unit positive charge at the point q:

The units of E are Newtons per Coulomb (units = N/C).

The electric field is a physical object which can carry both momentum and energy. It is the
mediator (or carrier) of the electric force. The electric field is massless.
The Electric Field is a Vector Field:

Example

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Electric Field Lines

Electric field line diverge from (i.e. start) on positive charge and end on negative charge. The direction of
the line is the direction of the electric field. The number of lines penetrating a unit area that is
perpendicular to the line represents the strength of the electric field.

Electric Field due to a Distribution of Charge

The electric field from a continuous distribution of charge is the superposition (i.e. integral) of all the
(infinite) contributions from each infinitesimal dQ as follows:

Charge Distributions:
Linear charge density : x=
= charge/unit length

For a straight line dQ = xdx and

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If (x) = is constant then dQ = dx
dx and Q = L, where L is the length.
Charge Distributions:
Linear charge density : length = charge/unit arc

If () = is constant then dQ = ds

ds and Q = s, where s is the arc length

If (x,y) = is constant then dQ = dA

 and Q = A, where A is the area.

If (x,y,z) = is
is constant then dQ = dV and Q = V, where V is the volume.

Generalize to the Electric Field:

Electric flux through the infinitesimal area dA is equal to

Total Electric Flux through a Closed Surface:

Electric Flux and Gauss' Law

The electric flux through any closed surface is proportional to the net charge enclosed.
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For the discrete case the total charge enclosed is the sum over all the enclosed charges:

For the continuous case the total charge enclosed is the integral of the charge density over the volume
enclosed by the surface S:

Simple Case: If the electric field is constant over the surface and if it always points in the same direction
as the normal to the surface then

The units for the electric flux are Nm2/C.

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Potential Energy & Electric Potential

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The Electric Potential of a Point Charge

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26
Capacitors & Capacitance

Capacitors in Series & Parallel

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Example

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Exercise

Energy Density of the Electric Field

11/1/2022

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Exercise

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Exercise
HND 2020

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 END OF CHAPTER QUESTIONS
The radiation power of the sun is 3.9x1026 W and the distance from the Earth to the sun is 1.5x1011 m.
(a) What is the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation from the sun at the surface of the Earth (outside
the atmosphere)? (answer: 1.4 kW/m2)
(b) What is the maximum value of the electric field in the light coming from the sun? (answer: 1,020 V/m)
(c) What is the maximum energy density of the electric field in the light coming from the sun? (answer:
4.6x10-6 J/m3)
(d) What is the maximum value of the magnetic field in the light coming from the sun? (answer: 3.4 mT)
(e) What is the maximum energy density of the magnetic field in the light coming from the sun? (answer:
4.6x10-6 J/m3)
(f) Assuming complete absorption what is the radiation pressure on the Earth from the light coming from
the sun? (answer: 4.7x10-6 N/m2)
(g) Assuming complete absorption what is the radiation force on the Earth from the light coming from the
sun? The radius of the Earth is about 6.4x106 m. (answer: 6x108 N)
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(h) What is the gravitational force on the Earth due to the sun. The mass of the Earth and the sun are
5.98x1024 kg and 1.99x1030 kg, respectively, and G = 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2. (answer: 3.5x1022 N)

PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERING TUTORIALS

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