Microwave Lab Manual

The Scientific Instrument. Co. Ltd.
INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE
COMMUNICATIONS
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves (E.M. waves) having wavelength

in the micron range. Though microwave frequencies refer to those from 1GHz
6
to 10 GHz but generally used for those wavelengths measured in
centimeters, roughly from 10cm to 1cm(3 to 30 GHz) and the waves having
wavelengths less than 1cm corresponds to higher frequencies(>30 GHz) are
called millimeter waves (mm waves).
MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES
Relationship between the frequency (f) and the wavelength ( λ) of an E.M.
wave is
λ f=c
Where c is velocity of electromagnetic radiation, usually called the speed of
light.
IEEE Microwave Frequency Band:
Designation Frequency range in GHz

HF 0.003 to 0.03
VHF 0.03 to 0.3
UHF 0.3 to 1.0
L-Band 1.0 to 2.0
S-Band 2.0 to 4.0
C-Band 4.0 to 8.0
X-Band 8.0to 12.0
Ku-Band 12.0 to 27.0
K- Band 18.0 to 27.0
Ka-Band 27.0 to 40.0
Millimeter 40.0 to 300
Sub-millimeter 300 and above.
Microwave Lab Manual

1
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF MICROWAVE AND APPLICATIONS

Most of the applications of microwave arise from the characteristic
features and their advantages.
First important characteristic is that the microwave is highly directive
which makes it possible for microwave communication used for telephone
networks, radio broadcasting and television systems.
Like any other energy, microwave energy has a heating effect, it is used in
microwave oven for home cooking, drying machine, drying inks, and in food
processing industries.
Microwaves are capable of energetically interacting with matter and so
used in microwave spectroscopy for structural analysis. Apart from scientific
research the absorption of microwave by molecular resonance is well suited
for various industrial measurements like control of pollution by checking the
concentration of different gases from an exhaust chimney.
MICROWAVE SYSTEMS:
Usually a microwave system consists of a transmitter sub system,
consisting of a microwave oscillator, waveguide, transmission antenna and a
receiver sub system; that includes a receiving antenna, wave guide a
microwave detector, power and frequency meter.
The intermediate region between the transmitter and receiver, as well as
the inner hollow space of the waveguide may be filled up with air or dielectric
medium. The electromagnetic wave traverses with the speed of light through
air but a dielectric medium such as Teflon and even water will slow down the
waves. If the medium has the dielectric constantє, then wavelength (λd) in the
dielectric is given by
λd= λ0/√є
Where λ0 is the free space wavelength.

2
1. REFLEX KLYSTRON CHARACTERISTICS
Objective:
To study the repeller mode characteristics of the Reflex Klystron.
Components & Equipment Required:

S No Name of The Item Specifications Qty
1 Klystron Power Supply Beam Voltage 240-400 V, 1
Repeller Supply 10-270 V
2 Klystron Tube - 1
3 Isolator Min Isolation:20 dB; 1
Min Insertion Loss:0.4 dB
4 Frequency Meter 8.2 to 12.4 GHz 1
5 Variable Attenuator Average Power:2 W; 1
Max. Insertion Loss:0.2 dB
6 Detector Mount IN23 1
7 Wave Guide Stands - 5
8 Frequency :1 KHz; 1
VSWR Meter Range :70 dB Minima in 10 dB
Steps
9 Oscilloscope 30 MHz 1
10 BNC Cable - 2
11 Fan for cooling Reflex - 1
Klystron Tube
Theory:
The Reflex Klystron makes use of velocity modulation and current
modulation to transform a continuous electron beam into microwave power.
Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated and passed through the
cavity resonator. The electron velocity is either accelerated or retarded depending
on the instantaneous ac voltage across the resonator (velocity modulation). The
electrons that leave the resonator and travel towards reflector need different
times to return due to change in their velocities. As a result, returning electrons
group together in bunches (current modulation). As the electron bunches pass
through resonator, they interact with voltage at resonator grids. The bunches
pass the grid during negative ac cycle and the electrons transfer their energy to
the grid. This process is repeated once per ac cycle and sustained oscillations
are obtained.
The frequency of oscillations is primarily determined by the dimensions of
resonant cavity. Hence, by changing the dimensions of resonator (mechanical
tuning of Klystron), frequency of oscillations can be varied. Frequency variation

3
can also be obtained by adjusting the reflector and beam voltages (Electronic
Tuning).The specifications of various Microwave Components and Equipment are
given in Appendix A.
KLYSTRON POWER
SUPPLY
MICRO-
AMMETER
KLYSTRON
TUBE
VSWR
FREQUENCY VARIABLE DETECTOR METER
KLYSTRON ISOL- ATTENUATOR
ATOR
METER MOUNT
MOUNT
OSCILLO-
SCOPE
FIG.1 Set up for Reflex Klystron Characteristics

.
Procedure:
I Carrier Wave Operation
1. Connect the components and equipment as shown in the Fig 1.
2. Set the Variable Attenuator at the maximum attenuation position.
3. Set the Mod-Switch of Klystron Power Supply at CW position, beam
voltage control knob to fully anti clock wise and reflector voltage control
knob to fully clock wise and the Meter Switch to ‘OFF’ position.
4. Rotate the Knob of frequency meter to one side fully.
5. First connect the D.C micro-ammeter with Detector.
6. Switch on the Klystron Power Supply, VSWR Meter and Cooling fan.
7. Switch on beam voltage and rotate the knob slowly clockwise up to 300 V.
Observe beam current value. “The Beam Current should be less than
30 mA”
8. Vary the reflector voltage slowly and watch ammeter. Set the voltage for
maximum deflection in the meter.

4
9. Tune the plunger of Klystron Mount for the maximum output.

10. Rotate the Knob of frequency meter slowly. At some particular position
there will be a dip in micro-ammeter. Note down the frequency meter
reading where output current is lowest. Read frequency directly between
two horizontal lines and vertical marker in case of direct reading type
wave meter and use the frequency chart to find frequency from
micrometer reading.
11. Change the reflector voltage and read the current and frequency for each
reflector voltage.
II Square Wave Operation
1. Connect the equipment and components as shown in the Fig 1.
2. Set Micrometer of variable attenuator at some position.
3. Set the range switch of VSWR meter at 40 dB position, input selector
switch to crystal impedance position, meter switch to narrow position.
4. Set Mod-selector switch to AM-MOD position, beam voltage control knob
to fully anticlockwise position.
5. Switch ‘ON’ the Klystron Power Supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
Wait for few minutes.
6. Switch ‘ON’ the Beam voltage switch and rotate the beam voltage knob
clockwise up to 300 V deflections in meter.
7. Keep the AM-MOD amplitude knob and AM-FRE, knob at the mid-
position.
8. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.
9. Rotate the AM-MOD amplitude knob to get the maximum output in VSWR
meter.
10. Maximize the deflection with frequency knob to get the maximum output in
VSWR meter.
11. If necessary, change the range switch of VSWR meter 30 dB or 50 dB if
the deflection in VSWR meter is out of scale or less than normal scale
respectively. Further the output can also be reduced by variable
attenuator to set the output for any particular value.
III Mode study on Oscilloscope.
1. Set up the components and equipment as shown in Fig 1.
2. Keep position of variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.
3. Set mode selector switch to FM-MOD position, FM amplitude and FM
frequency knob at mid position, keep beam voltage knob fully

5
anticlockwise and reflector voltage knob to fully clockwise and Beam

switch to ‘OFF’ position.
4. Keep the Time/division scale of oscilloscope around 100Hz frequency
(t=0.01sec) measurement and Volt/division to lower scale.
5. Switch ‘ON’ the Klystron Power Supply and Oscilloscope.
6. Switch ‘ON’ Beam voltage and set beam voltage to 300 V by beam
voltage control knob.
7. Keep amplitude knob of FM Modulator to maximum position and rotate the
reflector voltage anticlockwise to get modes on the oscilloscope. The
horizontal axis represents reflector voltage and vertical axis represents
output power.
8. By changing the reflector voltage and amplitude of FM modulation, any
mode of Klystron tube can be seen on Oscilloscope . Model Waveforms
are shown in Fig 2.
Observations:
Carrier Wave Operation
Beam Voltage: - 300 Volts
Micrometer reading Frequency meter

S .No. Repeller Voltage (Volts)
(µA) (α power) reading (GHz)
1 -84 80 9.97
2 -85 84 9.98
3 -87 86 9.99
4 -89 88 10.01
Square wave operation:
S No. Reflector Voltage (in Volts) Amplitude (from display) Frequency (in GHz)
1 -240V 0.84 9.437

2 -162 V 0.82 9.470
3 -118V 0.68 9.482

6
FIG. 2 Mode Study of Reflex Klystron.
Result:
The performance characteristics of reflex klystron tube are
observed.
Inference:
As the repeller voltage increases, frequency and current of the reflex
klystron tube increases.
Questions & Answers:
1. Why pentode tubes are not suitable at high frequencies?
Conventional vacuum tubes such as triodes, tetrodes, and pentodes are
less useful signal sources at frequencies above 1 GHz, because of lead
inductance and inter-electrode capacitance effect, Gain–B.W limitations and
Radiation losses.
2. What do you mean by velocity and density modulations? How do these differ
from frequency and phase modulations?
A simple type of modulation, commonly used in microwave measurements,
is a square wave amplitude modulation produced by modulating the reflector
voltage (i.e. velocity modulation). Another simple modulation used in
microwave communications is small amplitude modulating of reflector voltage
about the centre of mode there by giving nearly linear frequency modulation
characteristics with accompanying amplitude modulation to a degree
dependent upon the excitation of modulated voltage (i.e. density modulation).

7
2. GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
Objective:
To study the I-V characteristics of Gunn diode.

S No Name of the Item Specifications Qty
1 Gunn Oscillator 8.6 to 11.6 GHz 1
2 Gunn Power Supply Min. Output Power: 10 mW 1
3 Isolator Min. Isolation:20 dB; 1

Min. Insertion Loss:0.4 dB
7 Wave Guide Stand - 5
VSWR Meter Range :70 dB Minima in
10 dB Steps
9 PIN Modulator Max. RF Power: 1 W 1
10 BNC Cable - 2
11 Cooling Fan for Gunn - 1
Oscillator
Theory:
The Gunn oscillator is based on negative differential conductivity effect in
bulk semi-conductors which has two conduction bands minimum separated by an
energy gap (greater than thermal agitation energies). A disturbance at the
cathode gives rise to high field region which travels towards the anode. When this
high field domain reaches the anode, it disappears and another domain is formed
at the cathode and starts moving towards anode and so on. The time required for
the domain to travel from cathode to anode (transit time) gives oscillation
frequency.
In a Gunn oscillator, the Gunn diode is placed in a resonant cavity. In this
case the oscillation frequency is determined by cavity dimension rather than by
diode itself.
Although Gunn oscillator can be amplitude-modulated with the bias
voltage, a separate PIN modulator through PIN diode for square wave modulation
is used.
The ideal I-V characteristics of Gunn diode are shown in Fig 2.
8
FIG. 1 Setup for Study of Gunn Oscillator
FIG. 2 Characteristics of Gunn Oscillator.

Procedure:
1. Set the components and equipment as shown in the Fig 1.
2. Initially set the variable attenuator for maximum attenuation.
3. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply as below
Meter switch – ‘OFF’
Gunn bias knob – Fully anticlockwise
Pin bias knob – Fully anti-clockwise
Pin mod frequency – Any position
4. Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below
Meter switch – Normal
Input switch – Low Impedance
Range dB switch – 40 dB
Gain control knob – Fully clockwise

9
5. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.

6. Switch ‘ON’ the Gunn power supply, VSWR meter and Cooling fan.
7. Measure the Gunn diode current corresponding to various voltages from the
panel meter by turning meter switch to voltage and current positions. Do not
exceed the bias voltage above 10Volts.
8. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph as shown in Fig 3.
9. Measure the threshold voltage which corresponds to maximum current.
Observations:
Voltage(volts) Current(mA)
0.2 90
1.0 250
1.5 350
2.0 430
2.5 480
3.0 500
3.5 510
4.0 490
4.5 480
5.0 470
5.5 450
6.0 430
7.0 440

10
FIG. 3 I-V Characteristics of Gunn Diode.
Result:
The I-V characteristics of Gunn diode are obtained.
Inference:
For the given Gunn diode the threshold voltage is 3.5V and the threshold
current is 510mA
The negative resistance of the Gunn diode is observed between I= 510 to
430mA.

1) What are various modes of Gunn diode oscillations and what factors
determine the frequency of oscillations?
A Gunn diode oscillator can be made to oscillate in any of the four
modes i) Transit time mode
ii) Delayed (or) inhibited mode
iii) Quenched mode
IV) Limited space charge accumulation (LSA) mode
The frequency of oscillations mainly depends on external circuit (i.e.
resonant tunable cavity of suitable dimensions.
2) What are the different materials used to manufacture Gunn diode?
A: GaAs, InP and CdTe

11
3. ATTENUATION MEASUREMENT
Objective:
To study the characteristics of fixed attenuator, viz., to determine
i) Input VSWR.
ii) Insertion Loss

S No Name of The Specifications Qty
Item
1 Klystron Power Supply Beam Voltage 240-400 V, 1
2 Klystron Tube - 1
3 Isolator Min Isolation Loss:20 dB; 1
10 dB Steps
9 Slotted line Max Residual VSWR 1.01 W 1
10 BNC Cable - 2
11 Cooling - 1
Fan for Klystron Tube.
Theory:
The attenuators are two port bidirectional devices which attenuate some
power when inserted into the transmission line.
Attenuation A (dB) = 10 log10 (P1/P 2)

Where P1= Power delivered to the load without the attenuator in the line.
P2= Power delivered to the load with attenuator in the line.
The attenuator consists of a rectangular wave guide with a resistive vane inside
it to absorb microwave power according to its position with respect to side wall
of the waveguide. As electric field is maximum at the centre in TE 10 mode, the
attenuation will be maximum if the vane is placed at the centre of the
waveguide. Moving from centre towards the side wall, attenuation decreases. In
the fixed attenuator, the vane position is fixed whereas in variable attenuator,
its position can be changed by the help of micrometer or by other methods.

12
VSWR
METER
PROBE
MICRO
WAVE
FREQUENCY
VARIABLE SLOTTED ATTENUATOR
SOURCE ISOLATOR METER MATCHED
ATTENUATOR LINE LOAD
FIG.1 Set up for VSWR Measurement
V.S.W.R
METER
MICRO-
WAVE FREQUENCY VARIABLE SLOTTED DETECTOR
SOURCE ISOLATOR METER ATTENUATOR LINE MOUNT
DETECTOR
ATTENUATOR MOUNT
FIG. 2 Set up for Insertion Loss and Attenuation Measurement

13
Procedure:
A. INPUT VSWR MEASUREMENT
1. Connect the equipment as shown in the Fig 1.

2. Energize the microwave source for maximum power at any frequency
of operation.
3. Measure the VSWR with the help of tunable probe, slotted line and
VSWR meter as described in the experiment of measurement of low
and medium VSWR.
4. Repeat the above step for other frequencies if required.
B. INSERTION LOSS / ATTENUATION MEASUREMENT
1. Remove the tunable probe, attenuator and matched termination

from the slotted section in the above set up.
2. Connect the detector mount to the slotted line, and tune the
detector mount also for maximum deflection on VSWR meter.
(Detector mount’s output should be connected to VSWR meter as
shown in Fig 2).
3. Set any reference level on the VSWR meter with the help of
variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter. Let it be
P1.
4. For measurement of attenuation of fixed attenuator, carefully
disconnect the detector mount from the slotted line without
disturbing any position obtained up to step 3.Place the test
attenuator to the slotted line and detector mount to the other port of
test attenuator.
5. Record the reading of the VSWR meter. Let it be P 2 .Then the
attenuation value of fixed attenuator will be P1 -P2dB.
Observations:
Using 6dB attenuator:
P1= -52dB, P2= -57dB,
Attenuation = P1-P2= 5dB,

14
Result:
The attenuation provided by the 6 dB fixed attenuator is observed and

noted.
Inference:
For a given 6 dB fixed attenuator, 5 dB attenuation is observed.

1. What do you mean by attenuation?
Attenuation is the ratio of output power to the input power of a
transmission network, provided the network is terminated with a matched load.
2. What are various uses of attenuators?
Attenuators are used for reducing the power input to a particular
stage to prevent overloading, for measuring power gain or loss in dB’s, for
providing isolation between instruments and also for providing signal
generators by means of calibrating their output accurately.

15
4. DIRECTIONAL COUPLER CHARACTERISTICS
Objective:
To study the functioning of Multihole directional coupler by measuring the
following parameters
1. Main-line and auxiliary-line VSWR.
2. Coupling factor and directivity of the coupler.

S No Name of the Item Specifications Qty
1 Klystron Power Supply Beam voltage 240-400V, 1
Repeller supply 10-270 V
2 Klystron Tube - 1
5 Variable Attenuator Average Power:2W; 1
VSWR Meter Range :70 dB Minima in 10
dB Steps
9 Slotted Line Max Residual VSWR 1..01 W 1
10 BNC Cable - 2
11 Tunable Probe Detector:IN23 1
12 MHD Coupler Directivity:35 dB 1
13 Matched Termination Average Power: 2.0 W 2
14 Cooling - 1
Fan for Klystron Tube
Theory:
Directional coupler is a four port device. It consists of two transmission

lines, the main arm and auxiliary arm electromagnetically coupled to each other
as shown in Fig 1. The power entering port 1 in the main-arm divides between
port 2 and port 3, while almost no power comes out in port 4.Power entering port
2 is divided between port 1 and 4 and no power couples to port 3.

16
The coupling factor is defined as
Coupling Factor C (dB) =10 log10(P1/P3 )
When port 4 is terminated with built-in termination and power is entering at

port 1. Where P1 is the power fed to port 1 and P3is the output power at port 3.
The directivity of the coupler is a measure of separation between incident wave

and the reflected wave. It is measured as the ratio of the two power outputs from
the auxiliary line when a given amount of power is successively applied to each
terminal of the main-lines with other port terminated by matched loads.
Directivity D (dB) =10 log10(P 3F/P3R)
Where P3F and P3R are the power measured at port 3 with equal amount of power
fed to port 1 and port 2 respectively.
Main line VSWR is measured, looking into the main-line input terminal when the
matched loads are placed at all other ports.
Auxiliary line VSWR is measured in the auxiliary line looking into the output
terminal when the matched loads are placed at other three terminals.
Main line insertion loss is the attenuation introduced in transmission line due to
the insertion of coupler. It is defined as:
Insertion loss=10 log10P 1/P 2
when power is entering at port 1. Where P2 is the output power at port 2.

17
PORT 3
PORT 4
PORT 1 PORT 2
FIG. 1 Multi Hole Directional Coupler
FIG. 2 Set up for the Measurement of Main Arm and Auxiliary Arm VSWR

18
FIG. 3 Set up for the Measurement of Insertion Loss, Coupling Factor and
Directivity
Procedure:
A. MAIN ARM AND AUXILLARY ARM VSWR MEASUREMENT:
1. Set up the equipment as shown in the Fig 2 with input at port 1.

2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency operation.
3. Measure the VSWR of main arm.
4. Now connect input to port 3 and measure the VSWR of auxiliary arm.

19
B.MEASUREMENT OF COUPLING FACTOR AND INSERTION LOSS:
1. Set up the equipments as shown in the Fig 3.

2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation.
3. Remove the multihole directional coupler and connect the detector mount
to the frequency meter. Tune the detector for the maximum output.
4. Set any reference level of power on VSWR meter with the help of
variable attenuator, gain control knob of VSWR meter, and note down the
reading (let X be the reference level).
5. Insert the directional coupler as shown in Fig 3 with detector to the
auxiliary port 3 and matched termination to port 2, without changing the
position of variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter.
6. Note down the reading on VSWR meter on the scale with the help of
Range dB switch if required. Let it be Y.
7. Calculate coupling factor which will be X-Y in dB.
8. Now carefully disconnect the detector from the auxiliary port 3 and
matched termination from port 2 without disturbing the set-up.
9. Connect the matched termination to the auxiliary port 3 and detector to
port 2 and measure the reading on VSWR meter. Let it be Z.
10. Compute insertion loss =X-Z in dB.
11. Repeat the steps from 1 to 4.
12. Connect the directional coupler in the reverse direction, i.e. port 2 to
Frequency meter side, matched termination to port 1 and detector mount
to port 3, without disturbing the position of the variable attenuator and
gain control knob of VSWR meter.
13. Measure and note down the reading on VSWR meter; let it be YD.
14. Compute the directivity as Y-YD.
Observations:
Main line VSWR =1.06, Auxiliary line VSWR =1.06

Measurement of Coupling Factor and Insertion Loss:
X=56.5dB, Y=54dB, Z=59dB, YD =68dB
Coupling factor: X-Y = 2.5dB
Insertion loss : X-Z = 2.5dB
Directivity : Y-YD= 14dB

20
Result:
Coupling factor, Insertion Loss and Directivity are measured for the given
directional coupler.
Inference:
For a given 3 dB multihole directional coupler, the coupling factor was

found to be 2.5 dB.
1. What factors determine the parameters of directional coupler?

The parameters of directional coupler are mainly determined by the power
division or combining.
2. Write down S-matrix of a directional coupler?

For a four port network,
Where p=S12 =S 34; jq=S14 = S23

p and q are positive and real.

21
5. VSWR MEASUREMENT
Objective:
To determine the standing wave ratio and reflection coefficient.

1 Klystron Power Supply Beam voltage 240-400 V, 1
2 Klystron Tube - 1
8 Frequency :1 KHz;
VSWR Meter Range :70 dB Minima in 1
10 dB Steps
9 BNC Cable - 2
10 Slotted Line Max Residual VSWR 1..01 W 1
11 Tunable Probe Detector: IN23 1
12 Movable Short - 1
14 Cooling - 1
Theory:
The electromagnetic field at any point of transmission line may be considered
as sum of two traveling waves: the incident wave propagating from generator and
the reflected wave propagating towards the generator. The reflected wave is set
up by reflection of incident wave from a discontinuity on the line or from the load
impedance. The magnitude and phase of reflected wave depends upon
amplitude and phase of the reflecting impedance. The presence of two traveling
waves, gives rise to standing wave along the line. The maximum field strength is
found when two waves are in phase and the minimum when the two waves are in
opposite phase. The distance between two successive minimum (and maximum)
is half the guide wavelength on the line.

22
The ratio of electrical field strength of reflected and incident wave is called
reflection coefficient.
The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) is defined as ratio between
maximum and minimum field strength along the line.
Hence VSWR S= Emax

Emin
= E i + Er
Er - Er
Reflection Coefficient
ρ= Er
Ei
= Z-Z0
Z+Z0
Where Z is the impedance at a point on line, Z0 is characteristic impedance.
The above equation gives
ρ = S-1
S+1
Where Emax = Maximum field strength along the line

Emin = Minimum field strength along the line
Ei = Voltage of the incident wave
Er = Voltage of the reflected wave
V.S.W.R
Meter
Probe
Microwave Isolator Frequency Variable Slotted S.S Matched
Source Meter Attenuator Line Tuner Termination
FIG. 1 Set up for VSWR Measurement

23
Procedure:
1. Set up the equipment as shown in the Fig 1
2. Keep the variable attenuator at maximum position.
3. Keep the control knobs of VSWR Meter as below:
a. Range dB - 40 dB/50 dB
b. Input Switch - Impedance Low
c. Meter Switch - Normal
d. Gain (Coarse-Fine) - Mid Position approx.
4. Keep the control knobs of Klystron Power Supply as below :
i. Meter Switch - ‘OFF’
ii. Mod Switch - ‘AM’
iii. Beam Voltage Knob - Fully anticlockwise
iv. Reflector Voltage Knob - Fully clockwise
v. AM Frequency & Amplitude Knob - Mid Position
5. Switch ‘ON’ the Klystron Power Supply, VSWR Meter and Cooling Fan.
6. Turn the meter switch of klystron power supply to beam voltage position
and set the beam voltage at 300V.
7. Adjust the reflector voltage to get deflection in VSWR Meter.
8. Tune the output by tuning the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of
AM modulation.
9. Tune for maximum deflection by tuning the plunger of klystron mount. Also
tune for maximum deflection by tuning the probe.
10. If necessary change the range db-switch, variable attenuator position and
gain control knob to get maximum deflection in the scale of VSWR meter.
11. Move the probe along slotted line, the deflection in VSWR meter will
change.
A. MEASUREMENT OF LOW, MEDIUM VSWR
1. Move the probe along with slotted line to maximum deflection in VSWR
Meter.
2. Adjust the VSWR Meter gain control knob or variable attenuator until the
meter indicate 1.0 on normal SWR scale (0-∞)
3. Keep all the control knobs as it is, move the probe to next minimum
position. Read the VSWR on the scale and record it.
4. Repeat the above step for change of S.S Tuner probe depth and
record the corresponding SWR .
5. If the VSWR is between 3.2 and 10, change the range dB switch to next
higher position and read the VSWR on the second VSWR scale i.e., 3 to 10.
24
B. MESUREMENT OF HIGH VSWR

(DOUBLE MINIMA METHOD)
1. Set the depth of S.S. Tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR
2. Move the probe along the slotted line until a minimum is indicated.
3. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control and variable attenuator to obtain a
reading of 3dB on normal db scale (0 to 10dB) of VSWR meter.
4. Move the probe to the left on slotted line until full scale deflection is
obtained i.e. ‘0’ dB on 0 to 10 dB scale. Note and record the probe position on
the slotted line. Let it be d1 .
5. Repeat the step 3 and 4 and then move the probe right along slotted line until
full scale deflection is obtained on 0 -10 dB normal dB scale. Let it be d2 .
6. Replace the S.S.Tuner and termination by short circuit termination.
7. Measure the distance between two successive minima. Twice this distance is
guide wavelength λg.
8. Compute SWR s = λg / [π(d1~d2)]
9. Calculate ρ =(1-s)/(1+s)
Observations:
VSWR=1.26(low), ρ=0.115; VSWR=2.7(medium); ρ=0.46

VSWR=12(High), ρ=0.85
Result:
Thus standing wave ratio is determined and reflection coefficient is

calculated.
Inference:
Low, medium and High VSWR are 1.26, 2.7 and 12 respectively

1. What is the significance of VSWR?
VSWR gives the degree of mismatch between the load and transmission
lines.
2. What are the different methods to measure VSWR?
For VSWR <10, VSWR can be directly measured using VSWR meter.
For VSWR >10, Double minima method is used to measure VSWR.

25
6. IMPEDANCE AND FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT
Objective:
To determine the unknown impedance and frequency in a rectangular
wave guide.
1 Klystron Power Supply Beam voltage 240-400V, 1
Repeller supply 10-270V
2 Klystron Tube - 1
5 Variable Attenuator Average Power:2 ; 1
Max. Insertion Loss:0.2
dB
10 dB Steps
9 Slotted section Max Residual VSWR: 1
1.01 W
10 BNC Cable - 2
11 Tunable Probe Detector: IN23 1
12 Movable Short - 1
14 Cooling - 1
15 Horn Antenna (Unknown - 1
Impedance)
Theory:
For dominant TE 10 mode in rectangular wave guide free space wave length λ0,
guide wave length λg, and cutoff wavelength λc are related as below.
(1/λ0) =(1/λg ) +(1/λc )
2 2 2
.
For TE 10 mode λc =2a where ‘a’ is broad dimension of wave guide.
The impedance at any point of a transmission line is related to the reflection
coefficient or VSWR.
S= 1+lρl , ρ = (Z/Zo) -1
1-lρl (Z/Zo) +1
Z is the impedance at any point.

26
V.S.W.R
S.K.P.S METER
Klystron
Tube
PROBE
KLYSTRON
ISOLATOR FREQUENCY VARIABLE SLOTTED TERMINATION/
MOUNT
METER ATTENUATOR LINE HORN
ANTENNA
MOVABLE
SHORT
FIG. 1 Set up for Frequency and Impedance Measurement
Procedure:
1. Set up the components and equipment as shown in the Fig.1 with

termination.
2. Set the variable attenuator at maximum position.
3. Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below:-
Range dB = 50 dB position
Input switch = Crystal low impedance
Meter switch = Normal position
Gain Coarse & Fine = Mid position
4. Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as below :-

Meter switch - OFF
Mod switch - AM
Beam Voltage Knob - Fully anticlockwise
Reflector Voltage - Fully clockwise
AM-Amplitude Knob - Around fully clockwise
AM-Frequency Knob - Around Mid position
5. Switch “ON’ the Klystron Power supply, VSWR Meter and Cooling Fan.
6. Turn the Meter switch of Power Supply to beam voltage position and set
beam voltage at 300V with the help of beam voltage knob.

27
7. Adjust the reflector voltage to get some deflection in VSWR Meter.

8. Maximize the deflection with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of
power supply.
9. Tune the plunger of Klystron Mount for maximum deflection.
10. Adjust the Reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection.
11. Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR Meter.
12. Rotate the frequency meter knob to get a ‘dip’ on the VSWR Scale and
note down the frequency directly from frequency meter. Detune it.
13. Replace the Termination with movable short.
14. Move probe along the slotted line. Move the probe to a minimum
deflection position nearer to the terminator. Record the probe position d1 .
15. Move the probe position and record the successive minimum position, d2 .
16. Now connect the horn antenna in place of termination. Calculate the
VSWR of horn antenna s .xLocate position of minimum d nearer
x to d . 1
Note whether the shift of minimum is towards source side or load side with
reference to d1 .
17. Estimate the shift dx ~d1in terms of wavelength d x/ λo.
18. Measure the wave guide inner broad dimension ‘a’
19. Evaluate λc= 2a and hence calculate the cut off frequency cf
20. Take a smith chart, with ‘1' as centre, draw a circle of radius s . x Mark a
point on circumference of chart at a distance equal to ‘d x/ λ0’ as shown in
the Fig. 2(towards load side or generator side as the case may be).
21. Draw a line from this point to center of chart. Find the intersection of this
line with the SWR circle drawn. Read the normalized impedance of load
Zn.
22. Multiply Z n with characteristic wave impedance of wave guide to get the
impedance of load horn antenna.
Observations:
Frequency measurement:
with matched termination:
Frequency=9.75GHz
With movable short:
d1=8.4cm, d2=10.48cm, λg =2(d1-d2) =4.16 cm
λc= 2a=4.57cm ; Cutoff frequency, fc =6.56 GHz.
f= 3x10 x √ (1/ g+1/ c), f = 9.75 GHz
10 2 2
Wavelength, λ=3x10 /9.75 x10 =3.08 cm

10 9

28
Measurement of Unknown Impedance:-

For f=9.75GHz, wave length, λo=3x10 /9.75 x10 = 3.08 cm
10 9
Without load of horn antenna d1=8.4cm, with,

VSWR, sx= 1.5 dx=8.89cm dx~d1=0.49cm
Shift of minimum = towards load side = [dx ~d1 / λo] λ= 0.16λ
Normalized impedance Zn=1.1-j 0.4 Ω
Characteristic wave impedance of wave guide for TE mode =η/√ [1-(fc )/ (f )]
2 2
=377/0.74 =509.46 Ω
Where η is the intrinsic impedance and f=operating frequency
Horn antenna impedance at 9.75 GHz= Zx = Znx Characteristic wave impedance
= (1.1-j 0.4) x (509.46) =560.41-j203.78 Ω
Shift in minima with load, 0.5 cm (towards load)=0.16λ
FIG. 2 Smith Chart
Normalized impedance Zn =1.1-j0.4

Z0of wave guide for TE Mode = η/√ [1-(fc )/ (f )] =509.46 Ω
2 2
Impedance of Horn Antenna==560.41-j203.78Ω

29
Result:
Wavelength is measured. Frequency is measured directly and calculated

from wavelength. The unknown impedance of horn antenna is measured.
Inference:
The frequency measured using the frequency meter directly and the
frequency calculated by using guide wavelength are found to be equal.

1. What is the frequency range of X-band & C-band?
Ans: X-band: 8 –12 GHz
C-band: 4 – 8GHz
2. What is the relation between λ0,λ g, and λc in a rectangular wave guide?
(1/λ0) =(1/λg ) +(1/λc )
2 2 2
Ans.
here λ0 is free space wave length
λg is guide wave length
3. What parameters can be calculated using smith chart?
A) Using smith chart, reflection coefficient, reflected power, transmitted
power and load impedance can be calculated.

30
7. WAVEGUIDE PARAMETERS MEASUREMENT
Objectives: To find the

(i) Insertion loss
(ii) Phase constant of wave guide

1 Klystron Power Supply Beam Voltage 240-400V, 1
2 Klystron Tube - 1
dB
10 dB Steps
9 Slotted Line Max Residual VSWR 1.01 W 1
10 BNC Cable -
11 Tunable Probe 8.2 to 12.4 GHz 1
12 Movable Short 8.2 to 12.4GHz 1
13 Cooling - 1
Theory:
A wave can travel in a waveguide in any of a number of configurations.
Thus far, this has meant that for any given signal, the number of half-waves of
intensity between two walls may be adjusted to suit the requirement. when two
more walls exist, between which there may also be half-waves of intensity, some
system must be established to ensure a universally understood description of any
given propagation mode.
Modes in rectangular waveguides are labeled TE mn transverse electric
mode, and TM mn transverse magnetic mode. In each case m,n are integers
denoting the number of half wave lengths of intensity variation between each pair
of walls. ‘m’ is measured along the X axis of the waveguide(as in the dimension
‘a’),this being the direction along the broader wall of waveguide; ‘n’ is measured
in the other direction.

31
V.S.W.R
METER
PROBE
MICROWAVE FREQUENCY VARIABLE SLOTTED WAVE DETECTOR

ISOLATOR ATTENUATOR
SOURCE METER LINE GUIDE MOUNT
MOVABLE
SHORT
FIG. 1 Set up for Wave Guide Parameter Measurement
Procedure:
1. Arrange the set up as shown in Fig 1.
2. Switch on supply and obtain oscillations.
3. Tune the detector mount for maximum deflection on VSWR meter.
4. Set any reference level on the VSWR meter with the help of
variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter. Let it be
P1.
5. Remove the test wave guide and record the reading of the VSWR
meter. Let it be P2.Then the insertion loss of wave guide will be P 2-
P1dB.
6. Replace the detector mount with movable short, VSWR meter is
connected to slotted section.
7. Measure the distance between two successive minima.
Observations:
P1= 33 dB P2= 35 dB
Insertion value = P2 -P1dB = -3 dB
d1=8.4 cm; d2=10.2 cm
Distance between two successive minima,λg= 3.6 cm
Waveguide length= 15 cm
Attenuation constant α = 13.3 dB/cm
Phase constant,  =2π/ λg
= 174.53 rad/cm

32
Result:
The waveguide parameters i.e., attenuation constant and the phase

constant are measured.
Inference:
The attenuation constant= 13.3 dB/cm

The phase constant= 174.53 rad/cm.

1. What is a waveguide?
Ans: A waveguide is a hollow metallic tube in rectangular or circular shape
used to guide electromagnetic waves.
2. What are the power losses in the rectangular waveguide?

Ans: There are two types of losses in rectangular waveguides. They
are
1. Losses in dielectric
2. Losses in the guide walls.

33
8. SCATTERING PARAMETERS OF CIRCULATOR

(i) Insertion loss of circulator
(ii) Isolation loss of circulator
(iii) Scattering parameters of circulator
1 Klystron Power Supply Beam Voltage 240-400V, 1
2 Klystron Tube - 1
dB
8 VSWR Meter Frequency :1 KHz; 1
Range :70 dB Minima in
10 dB Steps
9 BNC Cable - 2
10 Circulator Min Isolation:20 dB; 1
Max VSWR:1.2
12 Cooling - 1
Theory:
ISOLATOR:
The isolator is a two-port device with small insertion loss in forward direction and
large in reverse direction.
CIRCULATOR:
The circulator is a multi port junction that permits transmission in certain ways.
Refer to the Fig 1. A wave incident in port 1 is coupled to port 2 only, a wave
incident at port 2 is coupled to port 3 only and so on. Following is the basic
parameters of isolator and circulator for study.
A. INSERTION LOSS:
The ratio of power supplied by a source to the input port to the power
detected by a detector in the coupling arm, i.e. out put arm with other port
terminated in the matched load, is defined as insertion loss or forward
loss.
34
B. ISOLATION:
It is the ratio of power fed to input arm to the power detected at uncoupled
port with other port terminated in the matched load.
C. INPUT VSWR:
The input VSWR of an isolator or circulator is the ratio of voltage
maximum to voltage minimum of the standing wave exiting on the line
when one port of it terminates the line and others have matched
termination.
NOTE: when port which is not coupled to input port is terminated by matched
termination, it marks as isolator (two port device)
FIG. 1 CIRCULATOR
V.S.W.R
METER
PROBE
MICROWAVE
ISOLATOR FREQUENCY VARIABLE MATCHED
SOURCE ATTENUATOR
SLOTTED 3-PORT
METER CIRCULATOR LOAD
LINE
FIG. 2 Measurement of V.S.W.R of Circulator.

35
V.S.W.R
Meter
Microwave Isolator Frequency Variable Slotted Detector

Source Meter Attenuator Line Mount
2
1 1
Isolator or Detector
Circulator Mount
1
1
2
1 Detector
Isolator or
Mount
Circulator
FIG. 3 Measurement of Insertion Loss and Isolation Loss of Circulator

and Isolator
Procedure:
A. INPUT VSWR MEASURMENT:
1. Set up the components and equipment as shown in Fig. 2 with input port
of isolator or circulator towards slotted line and matched load on other
ports of it.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular operation of frequency.
3. With the help of slotted line probe and VSWR meter find out SWR of the
circulator.
4. The above procedure can be repeated for other ports.

36
B. MEASUREMENT OF INSERTION LOSS AND ISOLATION:

1. Remove the probe and isolator or circulator from line and connect the
detector mount to the slotted section. The output of the detector mount
should be connected with VSWR meter (as shown in Fig. 3).
2. Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular
frequency of operation. Tune the detector mount for maximum output in
the VSWR Meter.
3. Set any reference level of power in VSWR meter with the help of variable
attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter .Let it be P1.
4. Carefully remove the detector mount from slotted line without disturbing
and position of set up. Insert the isolator / circulator between slotted line
and detector mount keeping input port to slotted line and detector at its
out put port. A matched termination should be placed at third port in case
of Circulator.
5. Record the reading in the VSWR meter. If necessary change range-dB
switch to high or lower position and taking 10 dB change for one step
change of switch position. Let it is P2.
6. Compute insertion loss as P1 - P2 in dB.
7. For measurement of isolation the isolator or circulator has to be
connected reverse i.e. out put port to slotted line and detector to input port
with other port terminated by matched termination (in case circulator) after
setting a reference I level without isolator or circulator in the set up as
described in insertion loss measurement. Let same P1 level is set.
8. Record the reading of VSWR meter inserting the isolator or circulator as
given in step 5. Let it is P3.
9. Compute isolation as P1 – P 3in dB .
10. The same experiment can be done for other ports of circulator.
11. Repeat the above experiment for other frequencies if needed.
Observations:
VSWR =s = 1.06 ( at port 1)
VSWR =s = 1.06 ( at port 2)
Power in VSWR Meter in dB
P1 = 35dB
P2 = 38dB
P3= 63dB

37
Insertion loss, P2 -P 1=3dB

Isolation loss, P3 -P 1=28dB
ρ = (1-s)/(1+s) = 0.029
S11=0.029
S22=0.029
Result:
Scattering parameters, insertion loss and isolation loss are measured.
Inference:
Insertion loss is less and isolation loss is more
1. What are the basic properties of ferrites which make them useful at
microwave Frequencies?
The use of ferrites in a number of microwave devices is based on the fact
that propagation constants for different models of polarization (i.e. left and right
circular polarization) of the electromagnetic ray are very different.
2. Why ferrite devices are non- reciprocal?

The propagation constants for different modes of polarization of an
electromagnetic ray are different and this give rise to non reciprocal Faraday
rotation.

38
9. SCATTERING PARAMETERS OF MAGIC TEE

(i) Isolation loss of Magic Tee
(ii) Coupling coefficient of Magic Tee
(iii) Scattering parameters of Magic Tee

1 Klystron Power Supply Beam voltage 240-400 V, 1
2 Klystron Tube - 1
dB
10 dB Steps
9 Magic Tee - 1
10 BNC Cable - 2
11 Matched terminations Average Power: 2.0 W 3
12 Cooling - 1
Theory:
The magic tee is a combination of the E and H plane Tees. Arm 3 (H-arm) in
combination with arms 1 and 2 form an H plane tee and arm 4(E-arm) in combination
with arms 1 and 2 forms an E-plane Tee. When the power is fed into arm 3, the
electric field divides equally between arm 1 and 2 with the same phase, and no
electric field exists in arm 4.If power is fed to arm 4(E-arm)it divides equally into arm
1 and 2 but out of phase with no power to arm 3. Further, when the power is fed from
both arms 1 and 2 they get added at arm 3(H-arm), and subtracted at arm 4 (E-arm).

39
A. INPUT VSWR
Value of SWR corresponding to each port, as a load to the line while other ports
are terminated in matched load.
B. ISOLATION
The isolation between E and H arms is defined as the ratio of the power supplied
by the generator connected to the E-arm(port 4) to the power detected at H-arm
(port 3) when side arms 1 and 2 are terminated in matched load.
Hence, isolation between 3&4 ports=10 log 10 (p4/p 3) dB. Similarly, isolation
between other ports may also be defined.
C. COUPLING COEFFICIENT
(-∝ /10)
It is given by Cij =10
Where ∝ =10 log (P/P)
i j is attenuation in dB
Pi is the power fed to arm i and Pj is power detected at arm j
FIG. 1 Study of Magic Tee

40
Procedure:
A.VSWR MEASUREMENT OF THE PORTS
1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in Fig. 1a, with arm 1
to slotted section line.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation.
3. Measure the VSWR of arm 1 as described in measurement of SWR for
low and medium value
4. Connect arm 2 to slotted line and terminate the other ports with matched
termination. Measure the VSWR as above.
5. Repeat the procedure for ports 3 and 4.
B. MEASUREMENT OF ISOLATION AND COUPLING COEFFICIENT
1. Remove the tunable probe and magic tee from the slotted line and
connect the detector mount to slotted line as shown in Fig 1.b.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation and
connect the detector mount for maximum output.
3. With the help of variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter,
set any power level in the VSWR meter and note down Let it be P3 .
4. Without disturbing the position of variable attenuator and gain control
knob, carefully place the magic tee with arm3 to slotted line and arm 4 to
detector mount. Note down the reading of VSWR meter. Let it be P4
5. Determine the isolation between ports 3 and 4 as P3 -P4 in dB.
6. Determine the coupling coefficient between ports 3 and 4.
Observations:
VSWR for arm 3=1.25
VSWR for arm 4=1.2
Scattering parameter, S33=S-1/S+1 = 1.25-1/1.25+1 = 0.11
S44=0.090
Isolation loss:
P1=32dB
P2=61dB
Isolation Loss = 29
(-∝ /10)
Coupling Coefficient, Cij=10
41
(-29/10)
C34=10 = 0.0012
Result:
Scattering parameters, isolation loss and coupling coefficient are

measured.
Inference:
When the power is inserted to the third port, negligible amount of power
(0.0012) is coupled to the fourth port i.e., they are isolated ports.

1. What are the different applications of magic Tee?
Ans: - The magic Tee is commonly used for mixing, duplexing and impedance
measurements. A particular application requires twice or more input power to an
antenna than either transmitter can deliver. A magic tee may be used to couple
the two transmitters and antenna in such a way that transmitters do not load each
other.
2. What is the difference between E-plane Tee and H-plane Tee?

Ans: An E-plane Tee is a waveguide in which the axis of its side arm is parallel to
the E field of the main waveguide. An H-plane Tee is a waveguide in which the
axis of its side arm is shunting the E field or parallel to the H field of the main
waveguide.

42

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The Scientific Instrument. Co. Ltd.

Microwaves are electromagnetic waves (E.M. waves) having wavelength

IEEE Microwave Frequency Band:

Designation Frequency range in GHz