DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work in this project entitled “DESIGN OF A MILLING
PLANT TO PROCESS 20TONNES/DAY OF RICE” was carried out by me in the
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Maiduguri under the supervision of
Engr. Dr. Alhaji S. Grema and Engr. Abubakar S. Kolo. The information derived from
the literature has been duly acknowledged in the text and a list of references provided. To
the best of my knowledge, no part of this work was previously presented for the award of
degree or diploma at this or any institution.

……………………. …………………….

Abdulmalik Muhammad Isah Date

i
 CERTIFICATION
This research project titled “DESIGN OF A MILLING PLANT TO PROCESS

20TONNES/DAY OF RICE” has been read and certified as meeting the requirement for

the award of the degree, Bachelor of Engineering (B. Eng.) in Chemical Engineering,

University of Maiduguri, Borno State.

APPROVED:

………………………………. …………………………….

Engr. Abubakar S. Kolo Date

(Project Coordinator)

………………………………. …………………………….

Engr. Dr. Alhaji Shehu Grema Date

(Head of Department)

………………………………. …………………………….

Engr. Prof. Bello Mukhtar Date

(External Examiner)

ii
 DEDICATION
I dedicate this project to God Almighty my creator, my strong pillar, my source of
inspiration, wisdom, knowledge and understanding, my beloved prophet Muhammad
peace be upon him and to my late mother Hajiya Fatima Mohammed Mala for all her years
of struggle, love and encouragement.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to begin by expressing my profound gratitude to Almighty Allah (S.W.T) for his
guidance and blessings. My sincere gratitude goes to our project coordinator Engr. S Kolo
for his painstaking guidance, advice, patience and tutelage, whose endless effort, time and
cooperation led to successful completion of this design project.
My thanks also go to all our highly revered and respected lecturers from the Head of
Department Engr. Dr. A. S Grema, to other distinguished lecturers who have trained us
both in learning and character; Prof. Babagana Gutti, Dr Murtala M. Ahmed, Dr. M. N.
Idris, Engr. Habu M. Iyodo, Engr. Modu Aji, Engr. I. Maina, Engr. Dauda Baba and other
Lecturers who have contributed a lot to our success.
I am deeply grateful to all my colleagues in group three for their dedication and tireless
effort in the course of this work.
Finally, very special thanks are due to all my family members and friends for their never-
ending love and support without which this project would not have been possible.

iv
 ABSTRACT
The aim of this project is to design a plant that will process 20 tonnes per day of rice. The
task was carried out ensuring that the process operation is kept at optimum. Also included
is the design of a scheme for adequate control of process variables; ensuring safety of
personnel and equipment by setting aside important safety measures; and to ensure that
the venture is profitable. Milling is a crucial step in post-production of rice. The basic
objective of a rice milling system is to remove the husk and the bran layers, and produce
an edible, white rice kernel that is sufficiently milled and free of impurities. The most
economical and simplest method that maximize the total milled rice recovery out of paddy
and minimize grain breakage is multistage milling. The process contains Pre-cleaning,
Dehusking or dehulling, Paddy separation, Whitening or polishing, Grading and
separation of white rice, Mixing, Mist polishing and Weighing of rice. Other essential step
involved is parboiling of the rice prior to the milling. Equipments coupled together to
carry out this task, were given design specifications. Hazard and Operability studies is
carried out to see how anticipated failures could occur and measures associated in
curtailing such deviation from design intent. The product specification is processing of
20tonnes per day of rice; however, husk and bran are two other commodity-based products
of the plant. Rice husk is 20% and bran is 10% of the whole feed. For the plant, total
capital investment is N 47,114,978; net profit is N 14,202,533 annually; return of
investment is 30% while pay-back period is 2.6 years, implying a feasible project to
embark on.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ i

CERTIFICATION ............................................................................................................. ii

DEDICATION .................................................................................................................. iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................ iv

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... v

TABLE OF CONTENT .................................................................................................... vi

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................ 1

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1

1.2. AIM AND OBJECTIVE ......................................................................................... 1

1.3 DESIGN PROBLEM ............................................................................................... 1

1.4. SCOPE AND LIMITATION .................................................................................. 2

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................... 3

LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................. 3

2.1 RICE ......................................................................................................................... 3

2.2 ORIGIN AND SPREAD OF RICE ......................................................................... 3

2.3 GRAIN STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF RICE ...................................... 5

2.3.1 STRUCTURE OF THE RICE GRAIN ............................................................. 5

2.3.1.1 Hull ............................................................................................................. 5

2.3.1.2 Embryo........................................................................................................ 7

2.3.2 GROSS NUTRIENT COMPOSITION AND MILLING FRACTION OF

RICE ........................................................................................................................... 8

2.4 RICE USES ............................................................................................................ 11

2.5 RICE PRODUCTION IN WEST AFRICA ........................................................... 11

2.6 RICE PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA ..................................................................... 12

vi
2.7 HISTORY OF RICE IN NIGERIA ....................................................................... 13

2.8 TYPES OF RICE SYSTEMS AND THEIR GEOGRAPHY IN NIGERA ........... 14

2.8.1 UPLAND RICE ............................................................................................... 14

2.8.1.1 RAINFED UPLAND RICE ...................................................................... 15

2.8.1.2 IRRIGATED UPLAND RICE ................................................................. 15

2.8.2 HYDROMORPHIC RICE .............................................................................. 15

2.8.3 RAINFED LOWLAND RICE ........................................................................ 16

2.8.4 IRRIGATED LOWLAND RICE .................................................................... 17

2.8.5 DEEP INLAND WATER RICE ..................................................................... 17

2.8.6 MANGROVE SWAMP RICE ........................................................................ 17

2.9 RICE MILLING ..................................................................................................... 18

2.10 RICE MILLING IN NIGERIA ............................................................................ 19

2.10.1 SMALL-SCALE MILLING OPERATIONS IN NIGERIA ......................... 20

2.10.2 LARGE-SCALE MILLING OPERATIONS IN NIGERIA ......................... 21

2.10.3 MEDIUM-SCALE MILLING OPERATIONS AND INDUSTRIAL

CLUSTERS IN NIGERIA ....................................................................................... 22

2.11 METHOD OF MILLLING .................................................................................. 22

2.11.1 TRADITIONAL METHOD .......................................................................... 22

2.11.2 MECHANICAL METHOD: ......................................................................... 23

2.12 IMPORTANCE OF MILLING ............................................................................ 23

2.13 THE RICE KERNEL COMPOSITION ............................................................... 23

2.14 MILLING SYSTEMS .......................................................................................... 23

2.15 COMMERCIAL MILLING ................................................................................. 24

2.15.1 OBJECTIVE OF COMMERCIAL MILLING .............................................. 24

2.15.2 THE MODERN RICE PROCESS MILLING............................................... 24

vii
 2.15.3 FUNCTION OF A PRE-CLEANER ............................................................. 27

2.15.4 COMMON HUSKING TECHNOLOGIES .................................................. 27

2.15.5 HUSKING EFFICIENCY ............................................................................. 27

2.15.6 STEEL HUSKER .......................................................................................... 28

2.15.7 HUSKING WITH RUBBER ROLLS ........................................................... 29

2.15.8 DESTONER .................................................................................................. 30

2.15.9 CHARACTERISTICS CONSIDERED FOR GRADING OF MILLED RICE

.................................................................................................................................. 31

2.15.10 OBJECTIVES OF ESTABLISHING STANDARDS AND GRADES ...... 31

2.15.11 GRADES OF INDIAN RICE ...................................................................... 32

2.15.12 LENGTH GRADERS ................................................................................. 32

2.16 MILLING BY-PRODUCTS ................................................................................ 32

2.16.1 RICE HUSK .................................................................................................. 33

2.16.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RICE HUSK .............................................. 34

2.16.3 UTILIZATION OF THE RICE HUSK ......................................................... 35

2.16.4 RICE BRAN .................................................................................................. 37

2.16.5 BREWERS RICE .......................................................................................... 38

2.17 MOISTURE CONTENT OF RICE ..................................................................... 38

2.18 IMPORTANCE OF MEASURING MOISTURE CONTENT ............................ 38

2.19 MEASUREMENT OF MOISTURE CONTENT ................................................ 39

CHAPTER THREE ......................................................................................................... 41

PROCESS SELECTION ................................................................................................. 41

3.0 PROCESS SELECTION........................................................................................ 41

3.1 AVAILABLE PROCESSES .................................................................................. 41

3.2 COMPARISON OF THE PROCESSES................................................................ 41

viii
 3.2.1 ONE STEP MILLING ..................................................................................... 41

3.2.1.1 Hand Milling ............................................................................................. 41

3.2.1.2 The Steel Huller ........................................................................................ 42

3.2.2 TWO STEP MILLING .................................................................................... 42

3.2.3 MULTI-STEP MILLING ................................................................................ 44

3.3 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 46

CHAPTER FOUR............................................................................................................ 47

PROCESS DESCRIPTION ............................................................................................. 47

4.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION ................................................................................... 47

4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 47

4.2 PROCESS FLOW .................................................................................................. 47

4.2.1 PARBOILING .................................................................................................... 47

4.2.2 MILLING ........................................................................................................ 48

CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................. 51

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT ............................................................ 51

5.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 51

5.1 PROJECT SITE/LOCATION ................................................................................ 51

5.2 THE NEED FOR THE PROJECT ......................................................................... 51

5.3 THE DESIRABILITY OF THE PROJECT ........................................................... 52

5.3 BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

LOCATION ................................................................................................................. 53

5.3.1 VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE WITHIN THE PROJECT AREA ............ 53

5.3.2 DRAINAGE AND HYDROLOGY ................................................................ 53

5.3.3 SOILS .............................................................................................................. 53

5.4 IMPACT EVALUATION ...................................................................................... 53

ix
 5.4.1 DURING THE CONSTRUCTION ................................................................. 53

CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................ 62

SAFETY MEASURES .................................................................................................... 62

6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 62

6.2 POSSIBLE HAZARDOUS UNIT OPERATIONS, AREAS AND MEASURES 63

6.3 GENERAL SAFETY RULES AT THE MILLING PLANT ................................ 66

6.4 HAZOP ANALYSIS .............................................................................................. 68

6.5 EMERGENCY SHUT DOWN SYSTEM IN THE MILLING PLANT ............... 70

CHAPTER SEVEN ......................................................................................................... 71

MATERIAL BALANCE ................................................................................................. 71

7.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 71

CHAPTER EIGHT .......................................................................................................... 74

ENERGY BALANCE ..................................................................................................... 74

8.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 74

8.2 RELEVANT ENERGY BALANCE EQUATIONS USED .................................. 74

CHAPTER NINE ............................................................................................................. 76

CONFIRMATION OF MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE USING MATLAB

SOFTWARE .................................................................................................................... 76

9.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 76

9.1 WHY MATLAB?................................................................................................... 76

CHAPTER TEN .............................................................................................................. 80

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS AND PROCESS OPTIMIZATION .................................. 80

10.1 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS ................................................................................ 80

10.2 PROCESS OPTIMIZATION ............................................................................... 80

10.3 PARAMETERS FOR OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE ......................................... 80

x
 10.4 PLANT OPTIMIZATION ................................................................................... 81

10.4.1 EQUIPMENT OPTIMIZATION .................................................................. 81

10.4.2 GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR OPTIMIZATION ........................................ 82

10.4.3 OPERATING CONDITION SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS ............................... 83

10.4.4 OPERATING CONDITION OPTIMIZATION............................................ 84

10.5 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................... 86

10.6 RECOMMENDATION ....................................................................................... 86

CHAPTER ELEVEN ....................................................................................................... 87

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL...................................................................... 87

11.1. INSTRUMENTATION ...................................................................................... 87

11.1.2. CONTROL ................................................................................................... 88

11.2. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL FOR RICE MILLIMG INDUSTRY

...................................................................................................................................... 89

11.2.1 CONTROL ON WASHER TANK ............................................................... 89

11.2.2 CONTROL ON DRYER ............................................................................... 91

11.2.3. CONTROL OF PACKAGING MACHINE ................................................. 92

CHAPTER TWELVE ...................................................................................................... 94

PLANT LAYOUT AND SITE SELECTION ................................................................. 94

12.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 94

12.2. FACTORS AFFECTING RICE MILLING SITE SELECTION........................ 95

12.4. SITE SELECTION CRITERIA FOR RICE MILLING PRODUCTION PLANT

...................................................................................................................................... 99

12.5. PLANT LAYOUT .............................................................................................. 99

CHAPTER THIRTEEN ................................................................................................. 102

DETAILED EQUIPMENT DESIGN ............................................................................ 102

13.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 102

xi
CHAPTER FOURTEEN ............................................................................................... 105

ECONOMIC EVALUATION ....................................................................................... 105

14.1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ................................................................. 105

14.2. COST ESTIMATES ......................................................................................... 105

14.3 ESTIMATION OF CAPITAL INVESTMENT COST ..................................... 105

14.3.1. DIRECT COST .......................................................................................... 105

14.3.1.1. PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST (PEC) ....................................... 106

14.3.1.2. PURCHASED-EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION COST (PIC) .......... 106

14.3.1.3. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL COST (ICC) .................... 107

14.3.1.4. PIPING COST (PC) ............................................................................. 107

14.3.1.5. LAND COST (LC) .............................................................................. 107

14.3.1.7. ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT COST (EEC) ...................................... 107

14.3.1.6. BUILDINGS COST (BC) .................................................................... 107

14.3.2. INDIRECT COST ...................................................................................... 108

14.3.3. WORKING CAPITAL INVESTMENT COST ......................................... 109

14.3.4. TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT........................................................... 109

14.4. ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST ............................................... 109

14.4.1. MANUFACTURING COST ...................................................................... 109

14.4.1.1. DIRECT PRODUCTION COST ......................................................... 110

14.4.1.2. FIXED CHARGES .............................................................................. 112

14.4.1.3. PLANT OVERHEAD COST .............................................................. 113

14.4.2. GENERAL EXPENSES............................................................................. 113

14.4.3. GROSS EARNINGS .................................................................................. 113

14.5. SIMPLE ESTIMATE EARNINGS AND RETURNS ...................................... 115

14.5.1. NET PROFIT.............................................................................................. 115

xii
 14.5.2. CASH FLOW (CF)..................................................................................... 115

14.5.3. RETURN OF INVESTMENT (ROI) ......................................................... 115

14.5.4. PAYBACK PERIOD (PBP) ....................................................................... 115

14.5.5. ECONOMIC EVALUATION DATA TABLE .......................................... 116

CHAPTER FIFTEEN .................................................................................................... 119

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION............................................................. 119

15.1 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 119

15.2 RECOMMENDATION ..................................................................................... 119

REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 120

APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................ 124

APPENDIX B ................................................................................................................ 131

APPENDIX C ................................................................................................................ 133

APPENDIX D ................................................................................................................ 135

APPENDIX E ................................................................................................................ 137

xiii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Milling is a crucial step in post-production of rice. The basic objective of a rice milling
system is to remove the husk and the bran layers, and produce an edible, white rice kernel
that is sufficiently milled and free of impurities. Depending on the requirements of the
customer, the rice should have a minimum number of broken kernels. Most rice varieties
are composed of roughly 20% rice hull or husk, 11% bran layers, and 69% starchy
endosperm, also referred to as the total milled rice. In an ideal milling process this will
result in the following fractions: 20% husk, 8−12% bran depending on the milling degree
and 68−72% milled rice or White rice depending on the variety. Total milled rice contains
whole grains or head rice, and brokens. The by-products in rice milling are rice hull, rice
germ and bran layers, and fine brokens.

A rice milling system can be a simple one or two step process, or a multi stage process. In
One step milling, husk and bran removal are done in one pass. In Two step
process, removal of husk and removing bran are done separately while in Multistage
milling, rice undergoes a number of different processing steps, such as; Pre-cleaning,
Dehusking or dehulling, Paddy separation, Whitening or polishing, Grading and
separation of white rice, Mixing, Mist polishing and Weighing of rice.

1.2. AIM AND OBJECTIVE

The aim is to design a plant to process 20 tonnes per day of Rice. Objective is to ensure
that the plant operate optimally; design a scheme for adequate control of process variables;
ensure safety of personnel and equipment by setting aside important safety measures; and
ensure that the venture is profitable.
1.3 DESIGN PROBLEM
Rice is one of the most consumed staples in Nigeria and Nigeria has the potential to be
self-sufficient in rice processing, both for food and industrial needs and for export
purpose. However, the inefficient rice milling techniques used has resulted in
processed rice that is too expensive and of a lower quality. Designing a good plant for

1
processing a qualitative rice in Nigeria, help reduce or curb completely the problem of
importation of rice and poor quality, the building of the plant would aid diversify Nigeria’s
economy in that area.
1.4. SCOPE AND LIMITATION
This design explores one technique (multi-stage milling process) out of several methods
available to mill rice. Simulation of process flow was carried out using MATLAB
software. Economic evaluation carried out were simply estimates, which is believe to
change with time due to non-stability in currency exchange rate, tax rate and other
unforeseen factors which possibly could alter the figures of the costs analysis.

2
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 RICE
Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza savita (Asian rice) or Oryza glaberrima
(African rice). Rice is from the family, Gramineae, Genus; Oryza and species: sativa L.
and Glaberrima. The Oryza sativa complex is divided into cultivated species and wild
species. Oryza sativa L. and Oryza glaberrima Steud are two cultivated species, whereas
Oryza rufipogon, Oryza nivara, Oryza barthii, Oryza longistaminata, Oryza meridionalis
and Oryza glumaepatula are wild species (Vaughan et al., 2003, Sweeney and McCouch,
2007). It was taken to West Africa in the early 19th century (Jirgi et al., 2009). Rice is the
staple food for about half of the human race. It is the leading cereal crop which can be
grown in the standing water of areas of flat, low-lying tropical soils (Ge et al., 1999)

Rice is known as the grain of life, and is synonymous with food for Asians. In addition to
being a staple food and an integral part of social rites, rituals, and festivals in almost all
Asian countries, it has a medicinal value too, which was clearly recognized by the
medicine systems of the region centuries ago. Ancient Asian civilizations have long
valued the importance of rice in sustaining human health and nutrition. India has a wealth
of medicinal plants, most of which have been traditionally used in Ayurveda, Unani
systems of medicines and by tribal healers for generations. In ancient Indian literature it
is clearly mentioned that every plant on this earth is useful for human beings, animals and
for other plants (Oudhia et al., 1999)

2.2 ORIGIN AND SPREAD OF RICE

The geographical site of the origin of rice domestication is not yet definitely known. The
general consensus is that rice domestication occurred independently in China, India and
Indonesia, thereby giving rise to three races of rice: sinica (also known as japonica), indica
and javanica (also known as bulu in Indonesia). Rice is closely related to bamboos but
distantly related to the major cereals maize, wheat, and sorghum (Vaughan, 1994). Oryza
sativa and O. glaberrima and their wild progenitors are diploids (2n ¼ 24) with AA
genomes. Asian rice is closely related to a wild complex of annual and perennial species,
often recognized as Oryza nivara and O. rufipogon, while African rice is domesticated

3
from the annual O. barthii, which in turn is close to perennial O. longistaminata (Agnoun
et al., 2012b)

Rice is cultivated in a wide range of ecological habitats, from dryland to wetland fields,
to terraces cut in the slopes of hills and even in deep water up to 4 m. It can grow in
altitudes from sea level to 3,000 m and is cultivated as far north as 50 degree in China and
as far south as 40 degree in Argentina (Vaughan, 1994, Fuller, 2011). Under rainfed
conditions, 800 mm of rainfall can be taken as a minimum with higher precipitation
preferred. African rice is a traditional staple over major areas of western Africa, while
Asian rice is the staple cereal of the most densely populated countries and regions. Many
varieties exist, especially in Asian rice, to cater to different tastes. There are sticky and
fragrant varieties and colors from white to red and black. The total world production of
rice in tonnes is second to maize with China and India being the largest rice producers
(Tubiello et al., 2013). Asian Oryza sativa has been widely grown in western Africa for
the past few hundred years, but it remains the case that native O. glaberrima tends to be
more reliable on poor soils without the application of expensive fertilizers (Agnoun et al.,
2012a, Richards and Richards, 1996).

Figure 2.1: Map showing the distribution of wild progenitor rices in Asia and
Africa

4
Table 2.1: Area and production of selected cereal crop

Crop Africa (2012)

Area (ha) Production (p)

Maize 34,075,972 70,076,591

millets 19,998,008 16,008,838
Rice paddy 11,206,813 28,798,202
sorghum 33,142,595 23,350,064
wheat 10,2249,52 24,704,201
Total 99,226,080 162,422,507
Source: FAOSTAT Statistical Pocketbook 2015 World Food and Agriculture. Statistical
division 4 October 2015

2.3 GRAIN STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF RICE

2.3.1 STRUCTURE OF THE RICE GRAIN
2.3.1.1 Hull
The mature rice grain is harvested as a covered grain (rough rice or paddy), in which the
caryopsis (brown rice) is enclosed by a tough siliceous hull (husk) (Juliano and Tuaño,

5
2019) (Fig. 2.1). The caryopsis is enveloped by the hull, composed of two “modified”
leaves (lemmae): the palea (dorsal) and the larger lemma (ventral).

The palea and lemma are held together by two hook-like structures. The shape of the
mature caryopsis and its ridges corresponds to the shapes of the lemma and palea. The
outer surface of the hull possesses trichomes that fit between longitudinal rows of
endosperm cells. Some varieties have an awn attached to the tip of the lemma. The cells
of the hull are highly lignified and brittle. Mean hull weight is about 20% of the rough rice
weight, with values ranging from 16% to 28%.

The rice hull provides protection to the caryopsis. The tightness of the hull, or the ability
of the lemma and palea to hook together without gaps, has been related to the grain’s
resistance to insect infestation during storage. The hull also protects the grain from fungi
infestation, as the dehulled grain can readily be colonized by Aspergillus spp. Both lemma
and palea consist of four structural layers:

(1) An outer epidermis of highly silicified cells, the outer surface of which is sinuous and
coated with a thick cuticle, among which trichomes are found;

(2) Sclerenchyma or hypoderm fibers two or three cell layers thick, possessing lignified
cell walls;

(3) Crushed, spongy parenchyma cells, some elongated with a rather wavy outline, and
some short or quadrilateral; and

(4) An inner epidermis of generally isodiametric cells (Juliano and Tuaño, 2019). The
lemma has five distinct but poorly developed vascular bundles, whereas the palea has
three.

6
Figure 2.2: Longitudinal section of rice grain. (Sourced from Morphology of Oryza sativa
Linnaeus. Philippine Agriculturist 26)

2.3.1.2 Embryo
The embryo (germ) is extremely small and located at the ventral side at the base of the
grain. It is bounded on the side by a single aleurone layer and by the fibrous cellular
remains of the pericarp, seed coat, and nucellus, i.e., the caryopsis coat (Bechtel and
Pomeranz, 1977). Three appendages of the scutellum partly sheath the coleoptile; a ventral
scale and two lateral scales protect the upper half of the axis.

7
Figure 2.3: TEM section of the subaleurone layer of IR2 6developing rice endosperm
showing the three types of protein bodies: Illustrated by J.B. Labita based on Bechtel,
D.B., Juliano, B.O.2012

2.3.2 GROSS NUTRIENT COMPOSITION AND MILLING FRACTION OF

RICE
Brown rice has the lowest protein content and total dietary fiber among cereal grains, and
the highest content of starch and available carbohydrates (Butler et al., 2016)

It has the highest energy content next to oat. Removal of the inedible hull reduces the fiber
content of brown rice. Its low dietary fiber content caused the delay in having the United
States Food and Drug Administration consider brown rice as a whole grain, which usually
requires 10% content of dietary fiber in the grain.

In brown rice, all nonstarch constituents are concentrated in the bran fraction, and the
endosperm (milled rice) is richest in starch. Lipid bodies are concentrated in the embryo
and the aleurone layer, and also in the subaleurone layer; hence, the energy level is highest

8
in the bran, followed by brown rice, and then milled rice (Champagne et al., 2004, Butler
et al., 2016).

Nutrient composition and genetic diversity in rice were reviewed by Kennedy and
Burlingame (2003). Protein content is slightly higher in brown rice than in milled rice
because of the higher protein level in the bran. Crude fat, crude ash, crude fiber, and total
dietary fiber are also higher in brown than milled rice, being concentrated in the bran
fraction. Sugars, phytic acid, and phenolics are also higher in brown rice. Pigments are
located in the pericarp. Black or purple rice has more phenolics (0.6% anthocyanins) than
red rice (0.2% proanthocyanidins) but nonpigmented brown rice has <0.02% phenolics
(Shao et al., 2014). However, both anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins were reported
present in a black rice (Finocchiaro et al., 2010). Antioxidant activity is higher in raw
pigmented rice than in nonpigmented rice (Irakli et al., 2016) in free and bound forms.

The non-starch polysaccharides of two brown rice samples were 2.5% pentosans, 0.6%
water-soluble (1 / 3) (1 / 4) b-glucan, 0.5% arabinoxylan, 0.8% total soluble fructans, and
0.2% uronic acid (Henry, 1985). French milled rice (n¼27) had 0.04%e1.4% b-glucans
and 0.17%e0.24% arabinoxylans on dry basis (Vidal et al., 2007).

9
Table 2.2a: Comparison of gross composition of various cereal grainsper 100 gedible
portion at 14% moisture

Source: (USDA,2016) Rice Chemistry and Technology, second ed. American Association
of Cereal Chemists, Inc., St. Paul, MN, pp 17e57

Table 2.2 b: Proximate analysis of parts of the rice grain per 100 g at 14% moisture

Source: The rice grain and its gross composition. In: Juliano, B.O. (Ed.), Rice Chemistry
and Technology, second ed. American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc., St. Paul, MN,
pp 17e57; Champagne, E.T., Wood, D., Juliano, B.O., Bechtel, D.B., 2014.

10
2.4 RICE USES
1. Starch: Rice starch is used in making ice cream, custard powder, puddings, gel, distillation
of potable alcohol, etc.
2. Rice Bran: It is used in confectionery products like bread, snacks, cookies and biscuits. The
defatted bran is also used as cattle feed, organic fertilizer (compost), and medicinal purpose
and in wax making.
3. Rice Bran Oil: Rice bran oil is used as edible oil, in soap and fatty acids manufacturing. It is
also used in cosmetics, synthetic fibers, detergents and emulsifiers. It is nutritionally superior
and provides better protection to heart.
4. Flaked Rice: It is made from parboiled rice and used in many preparations.
5. Puffed rice: It is made from paddy and used as whole for eating.
6. Parched Rice: It is made from parboiled rice and is easily digestible.
7. Rice Husk: It is used as a fuel, in board and paper manufacturing, packing and building
materials and as an insulator. It is also used for compost making and chemical derivatives.
8. Rice Broken: It is used for making food item like breakfast cereals, baby foods, rice flour,
noodles, rice cakes, etc. and also used as a poultry feed.
9. Rice straw: Mainly used as animal feed, fuel, mushroom bed, for mulching in horticultural
crops and in preparation of paper and compost.
10. Paddy as a Seed: The paddy is used as seed.
2.5 RICE PRODUCTION IN WEST AFRICA
Rice is a major commodity in world trade. Rice has become the second most important
cereal in the world after wheat in terms of production, due to a recent decline in maize
production (Ibrahim and Ibrahim, 2012). It is widely cultivated throughout the tropics;
and where flood controls are effective as in South-east Asia, production is high. Much of
the foreign rice imported into West Africa is from South-east Asia. In Sub-Saharan Africa,
West Africa is the leading producer and consumer of rice (Akinbile, 2007). West Africa
accounts for 64.2% and 61.9% of total rice production and consumption in Sub-Saharan
Africa respectively. Except for Burkina Faso and Niger, rice is a staple crop throughout
West Africa, especially in Côte d'Ivoire, the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia,
Senegal and Sierra Leone. The River Niger drainage system is a major rice growing
environment in the Region. The trend for the Region is that the production and

11
consumption of rice is growing faster than for other food staples. The potential for
commercial production of rice in West Africa is tremendous.
Table 2.3:Total area of Wetlands
in West Africa
Area
% of total
Category 000s km2 wetlands % of total area
Coastal wetlands 165 7 1.5
Inland basins 1075 45 9
River floodplains 300 12 2.5
Inland valleys 850 36 7

Source: Andriesse (2016)

Apart from wetlands, the potential for upland rice is huge. It is simply a matter for the
farmer to switch over to its cultivation when he senses that the price of rice will be good
in that cropping season, provided there is good precipitation and availability of an
appropriate variety. Under such conditions the farmer will easily convert from growing
conventional upland staples to growing upland rice. Maize is the first choice of an upland
crop that may be substituted with rice.

2.6 RICE PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA

Nigeria has a leading role in rice production in West Africa. Nigeria ranks highest as both
the producer and consumer of rice in the Sub-region with figures slightly above 50%
(Akinbile, 2007). Rice is important in Nigeria for several reasons. It is a major contributor
to internal and sub-regional trade. Rice is also the staple for most of the peoples in the
Niger-Benue trough which divides Nigeria into three parts, Sokoto-Rima Basin in the
north-west, Chad Depression in the north-east, Hadejia-Jamaare trough in the extreme
north, and Cross River trough in the south. Farmers find rice more adaptable than a high
input staple like maize when there is declining soil fertility because of the huge array of
varieties they can switch over to every few years. Since it is becoming a staple crop,

12
farmers seem to be willing to grow it all the time no matter the constraints they are facing.
Rice is one of the crops where the gap between potential and actual production in terms
of hectarage is wide.

2.7 HISTORY OF RICE IN NIGERIA

The origin of rice has long been a source of debate for very long time. But it is certain that
rice has been traced back to about 5000 BC, but systematic cultivation is believed to have
originated in areas of China and Southern and eastern Asia in about 2000BC. Globally,
there are only two domesticated species of rice out of the over 20 known species of the
genus Oryza. One of these cultivated species, O. sativa is indigenous to Asia, while the
other, O. glaberrima is indigenous to Africa. The latter was reported to be distributed
mainly in the Savannah along the southern fringes of Sahara Desert (Singh et al., 2000b).
The species was first grown as a crop in the central Niger delta and Sokoto basins among
other places, but later the cultivation spread into bush fallow upland farming systems of
the western forest zones. Today it is still being cultivated as a lowland crop in Kebbi and
Sokoto States of Nigeria in the Rima River flood plains and as upland crop in the Zuru
Local Government Areas in Kebbi State. The species can also be found in mixtures and
sometimes almost replacing the Asian species varieties in the farmers’ fields both in the
shallow swamps and the inland valleys and flood plains of the Niger and Benue valley
and also in the dry land rice fields of the southern parts of the country.
Rice growing ecologies in Nigeria is vast and grossly underutilized. The potentials for
expansion exists in upland which currently accounts for 35% of the paddy fields, rainfed
lowland (45%), irrigated rice field (15%), deep water (8%) and mangrove ecology (< 1%).
With the changing climate resulting in frequent drought, upland rice cultivation was
becoming less attractive and attention was shifted to valley bottoms in the southern and
eastern parts of the country where though the land mass is limited, the unit land output is
much better than the upland crop. Fortunately, however, with the advent of early maturing
varieties pioneered by FAROs 45 and 46, reaching the farmers from researchers and of
recent the introduction of yet earlier NERICAs even the northern parts of the country such
as Kano, Kaduna, Zanfara and other states are now moving rice cultivation to the upland.
The mangrove ecology remains grossly underutilized with less than 1% of available

13
mangrove land been put to rice cultivation (Imolehin, 1991). The full exploitation of the
Nigerian cultivable land to rice crop will strongly depends on the suitable high yielding,
disease and pest resistant and good grain quality varieties in addition to the provision of
irrigation facilities to mitigate current climate change challenges.

Fig2.4: Map of Nigeria showing Rice growing areas. (Source Constraints to Increasing
Agricultural Productivity in Nigeria)

2.8 TYPES OF RICE SYSTEMS AND THEIR GEOGRAPHY IN NIGERA

2.8.1 UPLAND RICE
Upland rice is grown on free-draining soils where the water table is permanently below
the roots of the rice plant. The ecological conditions under which upland rice grows in
Nigeria are diverse. However, to obtain a successful crop, adequate and assured soil

14
moisture reserves and fertility during key periods of plant growth are essential. The upland
rice environments are defined on the basis of soils, climate, water resources, water regime
at the micro level (Rashid-Noah, 1995) and topography. Two types of Upland Rice
Systems (URS) are found in Nigeria. These are Rainfed Upland and Irrigated Upland.
Each will be briefly described below.
2.8.1.1 RAINFED UPLAND RICE
This is the dominant URS in Nigeria. It is found in all agro ecological zones. The crop
depends entirely on rainfall. Heavy rainfall can lead to soil erosion, leaching of plant
nutrients and possible flooding. The risk of poor grain filling due to drought is also high.
In the year 2000, crop failure due to a sudden cessation of rains was noticeable in some
places as far south as the Southern Guinea Savannah. The system is found from Abeokuta,
Ado-Ekiti, Abakaliki, Ogoja in the south right up to Yauri, Zamfara river, Gombe,
Southern Borno and Yola. In some places the upland is a hill. Cultivation of rice on hills
arise due to pressure on arable land
2.8.1.2 IRRIGATED UPLAND RICE
In some places where the length of growing period (LGP) is short, some form of
supplementary irrigation may be required to ameliorate drought conditions during critical
stages of growth in the rice crop. This system is found in the southern region of Jigawa
state as Birnin Kudu Local Government Area. It is also found in places where rainfall is
between 150-500mm and LGP of 0 to 90 days. These abound in Borno, Jigawa, Kano and
Katsina states. The growing season in the flatlands of the Sudan-Sahel is only 90 days
(Dugje, 2000). The soils are generally sandy and have low water-holding capacities. Water
for rice production in Borno state is supplied by government irrigation schemes as the Lau
Irrigation Scheme and South Chad Irrigation Project.
2.8.2 HYDROMORPHIC RICE
According to (Jones, 1995) hydromorphic conditions occur when water is supplied to the
rice crop by a shallow ground water table, within the rooting zone of the plants.
Hydromorphic rice is found either on lower slopes in the top sequence or in situations
where impermeable soil layer reduces water percolation. In Tarok land of Plateau state,
central Nigeria, this impermeable layer has a vernacular term alam. It is considered as
marginal land some twenty years ago. However, today rice is cultivated even on alam.

15
Another situation which can give rise to hydromorphic conditions is the slow flow of water
in a grassed waterway or even a simple ditch by a highway. It is now common to see rice
in this environment all over the Northern and Southern Guinea Savannah. In Tarok land
some twenty years ago such ditches were left fallow but today they are usually lush rice
patches due to great demand for land.

2.8.3 RAINFED LOWLAND RICE

An estimated 25 percent of Nigeria's rice area is under rainfed lowland rice cultivation.
This ecology is said to contribute between 43 and 45 percent of national rice production
(Imolehin and Wada, 2000, Singh et al., 2000a). However, hydromorphic rice might have
been included in that category. Two sub-types are set up here for lowland ecologies:
shallow fadama and deep fadama or deep inlands valleys or so called wetlands. A
distinguishing feature of this system and hydromorphic rice is that the soil must be covered
completely by water at some stage in the growth cycle. In deep fadamas the land is flooded
all the time or during the major part of the cropping season. Farmers generally adjust their
date of planting or transplanting in order to avoid flooding during the early stage of growth
(Andriesse and Fresco, 1991). This is the dominant system in the floodplains of the rivers
Niger, Benue, Katsina Ala, Kaduna, Yobe and their tributaries. Shallow fadamas are
seldom flooded. Excessive flooding, iron toxicity and lack of water control structures have
been the bane of lowland swamp rice production in the Abakaliki area for instance.
Farmers in that area have an interesting farming system. Giant mounds are made at the
end of rains or onset of rain. Yam is planted at the top of the mound. With early rains,
groundnuts is planted lower down the mound. By May, rice is raised in a nursery for 4
weeks. The yams and groundnuts are harvested and the mound broken down and puddled
by hand and the crop residues incorporated into the soil. At this stage the fields are flooded
and rice is transplanted. The giant mounds prevent the yams and groundnuts from being
waterlogged. This system suffices, but in a year when the Cross river overflows its banks
there can be total crop failure. Box 1 describes another rainfed lowland rice system which
was evolved by the farmers themselves. That system started some 30 years ago and has

16
become a remarkable innovation and technology. Jigawa state has one of the highest
network of wetlands for rice cultivation in the country. However, much of that will be
turned into industrial sugarcane plantations as from 2001 cropping season given the policy
thrust of the state government
2.8.4 IRRIGATED LOWLAND RICE
The establishment of River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs) in the 1980s gave a
boost to Rice Schemes and irrigated lowland rice. Irrigation is supplied from rivers, dams,
wells, boreholes, washbores, and other sources to supplement rainfall for full rice crop
growth (Imolehin and Wada, 2000). This system accounts for 18 percent of cultivated rice
land and 10-12 percent of national rice supply. In parts of Ogoja, irrigation is by gravity.
It is a system developed entirely by the farmers. They have incorporated the use of rice
bran as organic fertilisers in the farming system. Apart from the Adani Scheme in Enugu
state and Bida Scheme in Niger state, most of irrigated rice is in the Northern Guinea
Savannah, Sudan Savannah and Sahel.
2.8.5 DEEP INLAND WATER RICE
This is the floating rice system. Just before rain sets in, much of the water in the river
course has receded. The land is prepared and planted with rice by direct seeding or
transplanting of seedlings which had been raised in a nursery. The plants grow in not too
moist conditions for 4 weeks and the water level of the river begins to rise and overflow
its banks. The rice fields become flooded but the plants send down deep roots and the
vegetative parts float on top of the water. The plant has the ability not to be submerged. It
matures in this flooded condition and may be harvested from a canoe as may be seen in
Sokoto. This system has been known there for hundreds of years. According to Imolehin
and Wada (2000), it constitutes 5 to 12 percent of the national rice production area and 10
to 14 percent of the national rice output. This system is plagued by the problem of low
yield because of the use of unimproved varieties of the traditional rice Oryza glaberrima.
The average yield in deep water areas is around 1.2 t/ha, with a yield potential of up to 3
t/ha (Wassmann et al., 2009).
2.8.6 MANGROVE SWAMP RICE
This is also called Tidal Wetland rice system (Wassmann et al., 2009). The coastal swamp
areas in Delta, Ondo, Lagos, Rivers, Bayelsa, Akwa-Ibom and Cross River states are

17
suitable for swamp rice production. This covers a potential 1 million ha of land, but at
present not up to 1000 ha is cultivated (Imolehin and Wada, 2000). This vast potential lies
waste due to neglect given the cheap harvest of petrodollar in these oil producing states.
Mangrove rice is produced only in Warri and on Shell Company farms in Bayelsa state.
According to Moormann et al. (1986), the development of unused mangrove swamps for
rice cultivation is a long-term endeavour that must be based on hydrologic, soil and socio-
economic surveys and of course appropriate technology (Singh et al., 1997).
2.9 RICE MILLING
Rice milling is removal or separation of husk (dehusking) and bran to obtain the edible
portion for consumption. The process has to be accomplished with care to prevent
excessive breakage of the kernel and improve recovery of paddy or rice. The extent of
recovery during milling depends on many factors like variety of paddy, degree of milling
required, the quality of equipments used, the operators, etc. Milling is the process wherein
the rice grain is transformed into a form suitable for human consumption, therefore, has
to be done with utmost care to prevent breakage of the kernel and improve the recovery.
Brown rice is milled further to create a more visually appealing white rice.After harvesting
and drying, the paddy is subjected to the primary milling operation which includes de-
husking as well as the removal of bran layers (polishing) before it is consumed. In this
process the rice which is obtained after milling is called raw rice. Another process through
which rice is obtained after milling is called "Parboiling Rice." Nearly 60% of the total
rice produced in India is subjected to parboiling. Rice milling losses may be qualitative or
quantitative in nature. Quantitative or physical losses are manifested by low milling
recovery while low head rice recovery or high percentage of broken kernel reflects the
qualitative loss in rice grains.

18
Figure 2.5: Global map of production of milled rice for 2011(source at International Rice
Research Institute)
2.10 RICE MILLING IN NIGERIA
Rice milling in Nigeria has become a significant agro-processing sector, employing
thousands of traders, millers, and parboilers as demand for rice has grown over the years.
The sector was largely a “cottage industry” in the early-2000s, consisting primarily of
small-and-medium-scale operations (Erenstein et al., 2003). Additionally, there were three
government owned large-scale industrial mills Badeggi, Uzo-Uwani, and Agbede that
often were not operational due to poor maintenance and a lack of spare parts (Babatunde
et al., 2016). Under ATA, which started in 2011, the FGN made large invest-ments to
build national capacity for rice production, processing, and marketing. These investments,
along with conces-sions from government, attracted private investors into the rice sector.
As a result, Nigeria had 24 operational large-scale mills by 2014.
Despite these investments, performance of the rice value chain has been shown to be less
competitive than other major international rice producers, such as those in Asia. Johnson
and Ajibola (2016) found the average paddy production costs, including rice milling and
marketing costs, in Nigeria to be much higher than those in Thailand. The higher milling
costs in Nigeria were primarily due to the high costs of procuring paddy which involve
high search costs and a price premium for the scarce superior paddy varieties sought by
large mill operators. Trade and marketing costs also are high because of the distance to
urban markets throughout the country.
The modern rice milling sector in Nigeria, as the primary competitor with imports, cannot
compete without protec-tive tariffs at the border. The preference for higher quality

19
imported rice among Nigerian consumers means that, even in the presence of tariffs,
imports will not be prevented completely. Consequently, imported rice often fetches a
higher pre-mium price relative to domestic rice – about 25 percent higher according to
estimates (Johnson and Masias, 2016). The higher premium can be viewed as an amount
domestic producers could potentially absorb as additional costs in pro-cessing more
competitive higher quality rice.

2.10.1 SMALL-SCALE MILLING OPERATIONS IN NIGERIA

Small-scale milling operators serve a large number of people, including smallholder paddy
farmers, rural traders, whole-salers, retailers, and final consumers and supply almost 70
percent of the domestic rice consumed in Nigeria. Small- scale millers make up the most
significant sub-sector of the domestic rice milling industry in Nigeria. Mostly a cottage
industry, the small milling sector has a highly disaggregated and fragmented supply chain,
with rice sometimes changing hands several times between the farm and the final
consumer. Actors in the supply chain have varied skills and degrees of access to
technologies, services, and information, and rarely upgrade to better paddy varieties and
processing tech-nologies. Because of this, the quality of the milled rice varies widely. The
final milled rice is often discolored, with broken grains, and contains unwanted foreign
debris, especially small stones. As a result, consumers often view this rice as infe-rior to
and even non-substitutable with the higher quality premium rice obtained from modern
mills or importers.

The principal challenge for the small-scale rice milling sub-sector in Nigeria is the
numerous obstacles such millers face for improving productivity and product quality. As
a cottage industry, one large challenge is the necessity to deal with many producers,
traders, and processors who have variable skills and access to technologies and credit, and
who interact only at the point of sale or for servicing. As a fragmented processing and
marketing system, small rice millers have limited abilities or incentives to upgrade to
better technologies or market and brand their product, especially in the downstream part
of the value chain. While they may wish to invest in modern equipment, many of the
smaller scale operators have poor access to credit to afford such investments. Additionally,

20
the existing marketing system has no consistent grades and standards, exhibits poor record
keeping, and has poor organizational capacities. Lastly, small-scale millers lack incentives
to improve the quality of their product. As a result, they mill paddy for a fee, leaving the
decision on the quality of rice milled up to the trader or consumer to whom they are
providing the milling service.

2.10.2 LARGE-SCALE MILLING OPERATIONS IN NIGERIA

The large industrial rice milling sub-sector enjoys the advantage of having higher milling
capacity and modern technologies for supplying premium-grade rice and thus has greater
potential to compete with imports. However, the sub-sector is usually unable to take full
advantage of its greater economies of scale as it is often forced to operate well below
maxi-mum capacity due to insufficient access to quality paddy. This is a major challenge
as much of the paddy in Nigeria is produced by smallholder farmers. As the dominant
supplier of paddy, the smallholder rice farming sector in Nigeria varies widely with regard
to paddy yield achieved, the varieties of rice grown, the type of production system and
inputs used, and distance to major rice processing centers and markets.

This heterogeneous rice farming section introduces a major logistical challenge for large-
scale millers in procur-ing the right quality and quantity of paddy in a timely and well-
coordinated fashion. Large millers resort to traveling great distances or establishing out
grower systems to procure sufficient quantities of quality paddy. However, these tactics
do not always guarantee a sufficient supply. Many have found it too costly to stay in
business due to the higher per-unit operating costs that result from their inability to utilize
the full capacity of their mills and the added search and administrative costs they face in
securing sufficient paddy as input to their mills. Some large-scale millers have chosen to
start growing their own paddy on large-scale irrigated lands to try and circumvent these
problems, but it is too early to tell whether such an approach to surmounting their supply
problems will prove successful. In addition to their challenges in sourcing paddy, large
scale operators also face periodic breakdown in utility services, such as electricity and
water, and problems in finding replacement machinery parts, which have to be imported
from the mill manufacturers overseas.

21
2.10.3 MEDIUM-SCALE MILLING OPERATIONS AND INDUSTRIAL
CLUSTERS IN NIGERIA
Between the large and small scale operators are two types of millers: medium-scale
modern mill operators, who process up to 10,000 mt per year, and industrial clusters of
small scale millers, who together process between 3,000 and 10,000 mt per year. Areas
with high volumes of paddy production usually have large clusters of mills nearby.
Relative to small millers found in villages or rural markets, these clusters tend to be more
organized in procuring, milling, and selling their rice. Some notable examples are the
clusters found in Lafia, Otukpo and Abakaliki, usually with eight or more millers (in the
past, Abakaliki had as many as 100 millers). Capacity utilization is usually highest during
the months of October through December after the rainfed rice harvest. Throughout the
rest of the year, paddy is procured from further afield.

The main differences between the clusters and other small scale operators is that they not
only handle larger volumes in the same location, but often serve the dual role of miller
and trader—that is, they will buy their own paddy to mill and sell. As miller-traders, they
have the advantage of being more selective in the paddy variety they wish to mill, even
handling the parboiling task before milling, and, in the process, ensuring a better-quality
product. There is also more vertical market integration, implying stronger links in the
supply chain. The result of these vertical links creates a certain standard of quality and,
therefore, the prevalence of branding among these clusters is higher. Brands, such as
Abakaliki rice, provide the consumer with a guarantee of a certain quality product and can
carry an extra premium.

2.11 METHOD OF MILLLING

2.11.1 TRADITIONAL METHOD
Before the advent of mechanical milling, hand-pounding traditional method of rice milling
was in practice. In fact, hand-pounding rice has got more nutritive value as compared to
machine milling rice. In hand-pounding, a variety of implements is used such as: Mortar
and Pestle, Hand Stone (Chakki) etc.

22
2.11.2 MECHANICAL METHOD:
With the introduction of mechanized mills, hand-pounding method has steadily decreased
because it could not compete with machine mills. The conventional mills in use can be
categorized into three main types:

• Huller mills
• Sheller-Huller mills
• Sheller-Cone Polisher mills.

2.12 IMPORTANCE OF MILLING

Milling is a crucial step in post-production of rice. The basic objective of a rice milling
system is to remove the husk and the bran layers, and produce an edible, white rice kernel
that is sufficiently milled and free of impurities. Depending on the requirements of the
customer, the rice should have a minimum of broken kernels.

2.13 THE RICE KERNEL COMPOSITION

Most rice varieties are composed of roughly 20% rice hull or husk, 11% bran layers, and
69% starchy endosperm, also referred to as the total milled rice. Total milled rice contains
whole grains or head rice, and brokens. The by-products in rice milling are rice hull, rice
germ and bran layers, and fine brokens.

2.14 MILLING SYSTEMS

A rice milling system can be a simple one or two step process, or a multi stage process. In
a one-step milling process, husk and bran removal are done in one pass and milled or
white rice is produced directly out of paddy. In a two-step process, removing husk and
removing bran are done separately, and brown rice is produced as an intermediate product.
In multistage milling, rice will undergo a number of different processing steps. Depending
on whether the paddy is milled in the village for local consumption or for the marketing
rice milling systems can be classified into the categories village rice mills and commercial
mills.

23
2.15 COMMERCIAL MILLING
Commercial milling systems mill the paddy in stages, and hence are called multi-stage or
multi-pass rice mills. The objective of commercial rice milling is to reduce mechanical
stresses and heat buildup in the grain, thereby minimizing grain breakage and producing
uniformly polished grain. Compared to village-level systems, the commercial milling
system is a more sophisticated system configured to maximize the process of producing
well-milled, whole grains. The rice milling facility comes in various configurations, and
the milling components vary in design and performance. “Configuration” refers to how
the components are sequenced. The flow diagram below shows a modern commercial mill
catering to the higher end market. It has three basic stages,

 The husking stage,

 The whitening-polishing stage, and
 The grading, blending, and packaging stage.

In modern rice mills, many adjustments (e.g. rubber roll clearance, separator bed
inclination, feed rates) are automated for maximum efficiency and ease of operation. The
whitener-polishers are provided with gauges that sense the current load on the motor
drives which gives an indication of the operating pressure on the grain. This provides a
more objective means of setting milling pressures on the grain.

2.15.1 OBJECTIVE OF COMMERCIAL MILLING

A commercial rice miller will have following objectives:

 To produce edible rice that appeals to the customer- i.e. rice that is sufficiently milled
and free of husks, stones, and other non-grain materials
 To maximize the total milled rice recovery out of paddy minimize grain breakage

2.15.2 THE MODERN RICE PROCESS MILLING

According to International organization of Scientific Research the typical modern rice
milling stages are:

24
Table 2.4:Functions and stages of rice milling

Source: IOSR Journal of Engineering (IOSRJEN) www.iosrjen.org ISSN (e): 2250-3021,

ISSN (p): 2278-8719 Vol. 04, Issue 05 (May. 2014), ||V4|| PP 34

Flow diagram of a modern rice mill: The flow diagram below represents the configuration
and flow in a typical modern rice mill.

Fig 2.6: Flow diagram of a modern rice mill (source: International organization of
Scientific Research, 2014)

25
 paddy is dumped in the intake pit feeding the pre-cleaner

 pre-cleaned paddy moves to the rubber roll husker

 mixture of brown rice and unhusked paddy moves to the separator

 unhusked paddy is separated and returned to the rubber roll husker

 brown rice moves to the destoner

 de-stoned, brown rice moves to the 1st stage (abrasive) whitener

 partially milled rice moves to the 2nd stage (friction) whitener

 milled rice moves to the sifter - (for simple rice mill) ungraded, milled rice moves
to bagging station and (for more sophisticated mill) milled rice moves to the
polisher1

 Polished rice, will move to length grader

 Head rice moves to head rice bin

 Brokens moves to brokens bin

 Pre-selected amount of head rice and brokens move to blending station

 Custom-made blend of head rice and brokens moves to bagging station

 Bagged Rice moves to the market

 straw, chaff and empty grains are removed

 husk removed by the aspirator

 small stones, mudd balls etc. removed by de-stoner

 Coarse (from 1st whitener) and fine (from 2nd whitener) bran removed from the
rice grainduring the whitening process

 Small brokens/brewer’s rice removed by the sifter

26
2.15.3 FUNCTION OF A PRE-CLEANER
A simple pre-cleaner used in rice mills usually contain an oscillating double screen bed
with an aspirator. The first screen is a scalper that lets through the grain but retains straw.
The second screen retains the grains but let’s through broken grains and small stones or
weed seeds. The air aspirator sucks out dust and the light empty grains. Air dampers are
provided and have to be adjusted to prevent the good grain from being sucked out.

Fig 2.7: Pre-cleaning operation using Aspirators and Oscillating Screen (source: source:
International organization of Scientific Research, 2014)

2.15.4 COMMON HUSKING TECHNOLOGIES

Three different husking technologies are commonly used: Steel husker, under runner disk
husker and rubber roller husker. In order to separate the remaining unhusked paddy grains
from the brown rice fraction and feed them back into the husker a paddy separator is used.

2.15.5 HUSKING EFFICIENCY

The performance of a husker can be expressed by the husking efficiency, which is the %
of husked rice in total grain flow. In a properly adjusted rubber roll husker, husking
efficiencies can be as high as 95%, however efficiencies are often lower. Besides machine
adjustments, uniformity of grain thickness will affect the husking efficiency. If a mixture
27
of varieties is fed into the husker, or paddy grain that did not mature uniformly in the field,
husking efficiencies will be lower.

2.15.6 STEEL HUSKER

The steel husker is in fact more than a husker since it also does the polishing. It is an
adaptation of the "Engleberg" coffee huller, modified for milling rice. In earlier days this
type of rice mill was very popular in most rice-growing countries. The “iron hullers", or
"single pass mills" which all refer to the same mill are notorious for breaking the paddy
grain. The fine brokens are mixed with the bran and the ground rice hull. The steel husker
removes the husks and whitens the rice in one pass. Paddy rice is fed into the machine and
passes between a revolving steel shaft and a cylindrical shaped mesh screen. These
machines are normally powered by a 5 to 20 hp engine and are very simple to operate.
They are relatively cheap.

28
Fig 2.8: Flow through the IRRI micro mill as an example for a steel husker cum
mill.(2014)

2.15.7 HUSKING WITH RUBBER ROLLS

The rubber-roller huller is the most efficient hulling machine. As the name suggests two
rubber rollers of the same diameter are operated at different speeds to remove the husk
from the paddy. One roller has a fixed position and the other is adjustable to meet the
desired clearance. The adjustable roller rotates slightly slower than the fixed roller.
Rubber-roll hullers have an aspirator in the base of the machine to separate the hulls from
the brown rice. The roll diameter varies from 150 to 250 mm and the roller width from 60
to 250 mm. The correct clearance is dependent on the varietal characteristics and the
width and length of paddy. This method of hulling can achieve hulling efficiencies of

29
85% to 90% with minimum broken or cracked grain. This type of machine is now widely
used in developed countries.

Fig 2.9: Working principle of a rubber roll husker (2014)

2.15.8 DESTONER
The de-stoner is an important component of the rice mill, particularly when rice is
harvested mechanically, or when rough rice is dried on open pavements. The grain gathers
a lot of stones and mudball during handling, which must be removed. The de-stoner is a
simple vibrating deck and air blower that suspends the grain from the stones. The stones
are thrown off in one end and the brown rice in the other end.

30
Fig 2.10: Rice destoning machine(Taizy ,2016)

2.15.9 CHARACTERISTICS CONSIDERED FOR GRADING OF MILLED RICE

 Dead rice, brokens and brewers percentages

 Defectives •

 Foreign matter •

 Presence of paddy •

 Whiteness •

 Chalkiness •

 Moisture content 12.2)

2.15.10 OBJECTIVES OF ESTABLISHING STANDARDS AND GRADES

 To ensure only edible rice reaches the consumer.

31
  To improve post-harvest practices so as to eliminate or reduce waste.

 To improve agronomic practices to increase farm yields.

 To improve processing practices for better milling recoveries and for market
expansion.

 To protect consumers from price/quality manipulation.

2.15.11 GRADES OF INDIAN RICE

Common variety: Short bold & long bold rice •

Fine variety: Medium slender rice •

Superfine variety: Long slender & short slender rice

2.15.12 LENGTH GRADERS

The common length grader used in modern rice mills is the indented cylinder, also referred
to as trieur. It consists of a rotating cylinder with cavities (i.e. indents) inside and a catch
trough with a screw conveyor. As the indented cylinder rotates, grains are caught in the
indents and lifted. Head rice falls on while broken grains are elevated to the catch trough.
The screw conveyor along the axis will convey the brokens outside the cylinder. The
entire cylinder is set at a slight angle. Length graders are usually used in series, with
indents of various sizes used for each grading step.

2.16 MILLING BY-PRODUCTS

The main by-products of rice are rice husk or hull, rice bran, and brewer’s rice.

 Rice husks or hulls: are generated during the first stage of rice milling, when rough rice or
paddy rice is husked.
 Rice bran: is generated when brown rice moves through the whiteners and polishers. When
paddy is hand-pounded or milled in a one-pass Engle erg steel huller, rice bran is not
produced separately but mixed with rice hulls.
 Brewer’s rice: is separated produced when milled rice is sifted. Measuring moisture content

32
2.16.1 RICE HUSK

(a) (b)
Fig 2.11: Paddy grain (left)(a) and its products after husking(b). (Source at IRRI Rice
Knowledge)

The rice husk, also called rice hull, is the coating on a seed or grain of rice. It is
formed from hard materials, including silica and lignin, to protect the seed during the
growing season. Each kg of milled white rice results in roughly 0.28 kg of rice husk as a
by-product of rice production during milling.

Common products from rice husk are: solid fuel (i.e., loose form, briquettes, and
pellets), carbonized rice husk produced after burning, and the remaining rice husk ash
after combustion.

Rice husk in its loose form (Fig. 2) is mostly used for energy production, such as
combustion and gasification. Combustion is the process of burning carbon in the rice husk,
which emits CO2 and generates heat energy for further use. One of the most efficient uses
of this by-product is its direct combustion without the need for a heat exchanger with a
proper furnace to generate heat for drying paddy. Gasification is the process of converting
rice husk to synthesis gas (syngas) in a gasifier reactor with a controlled amount of air.
Syngas can be used as fuel for drying and cooking or in a cogeneration system to produce
electricity.

33
 Rice husk briquettes and pellets are produced using densification to increase the
density of materials and their combustion performance. These densified rice husks are
mainly used in industrial boilers as a substitute for fossil fuel.

Rice husk ash is the remaining by-product after combustion is done. The amount
of carbon remaining in ash depends on the combustion performance (i.e., complete or
incomplete combustion). Rice husk ash can be used as a soil amendment and as additive
in cement and steel, among others. However, only small amounts compared to the total
rice husk production are used for such purposes.

Carbonized rice husk is produced by thermal decomposition of the rice husk under
a limited supply of oxygen (O2) and at relatively low temperatures (less than 700°C).
Biochar produced from carbonization can be used as soil amendment, for processing
fertilizer, and as activated carbon, etc.

2.16.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RICE HUSK

Produced during rice milling, the rice husk is already dried and accumulated at the
factory. The specific weight of uncompressed rice husk is about 100 kg/m3. Average
properties of rice husk in proximate analysis a and ultimate analysis b are shown in Tables
1 and 2, respectively, according to various research on the rice husk by Beagle (1978),
Jeng et al. (2012), and Jenkins (1998).

Table 2.5: Rice husk composition in % of weight (dry basis) based on proximate
analysis

Volatile
Fixed carbon % matter% Ash%
15 67 18

Source:(Aquaulture, accessed 2016)

34
 Table 2.6 : Compositions of rice husk in % of weight (dry basis) based on ultimate
analysis

C (%) H (%) O (%) N (%) S (%) Ash (%) HHV (Mj/kg)

40 5 35 1 0.1 20 15

Source: The determination of the percentage of elements contained in a chemical

substance (Encyclopedia, accessed 2016)

Silicon oxide forms the main component of the ash with trace amounts of Al2O3,
Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, K2O, and Na2O. The physical and chemical properties of rice husk
ash are dependent on the components of the combustion process, such as combustion type,
feeding type, temperature, residence time, and availability of oxygen (aerobic or
anaerobic).

The characteristics of rice husk compared with other solid fuels can be summarized
as follows:

 Its high silica content causes excessive wear to parts of processing machines, such as
conveyors or grinders, and hampers digestibility in livestock. The content of volatile matter
in the rice husk is higher than in wood and much higher than in coal; whereas, fixed carbon
is much lower than in coal. Ash content in the rice husk is much higher than in wood and
coal, which causes barriers in energy conversion.
 The high content of ash, alkali, and potassium causes agglomeration, fouling, and melting
of the parts of combustors or boilers.
2.16.3 UTILIZATION OF THE RICE HUSK
Rice husk was long considered a waste from the rice milling process and was often
dumped and/or burned. But because it can be easily collected and is cheap, some amount
of rice husk has always been used as an energy source for small applications, such as for

35
brick production, for steam engines and gasifiers used to power rice mills, and for
generating heat for rice dryers. The high silica content of rice husk ash makes it a good
additive for the steel and concrete industries. To a lesser degree, rice husk ash is used as
soil conditioner, activated carbon, insulator, and others. More recently, creation of
electrical power on a small to medium scale up to 5 megawatts has been piloted throughout
Asia, with some promising approaches but also some demonstrated limits. Failure was
mostly due to feedstock supply problems once the formerly free waste rice husk becomes
a traded commodity and due to logistical problems and the high cost when transport
distances become too large. A diagram of rice husk use is shown in Figure below.

Figure 2.12: Rice husk use diagram- (Source at IRRI Rice Knowledge Bank at
knowledgebank.irri.org)

36
2.16.4 RICE BRAN

Figure 2.13: a picture of rice bran (Source at IRRI Rice Knowledge Bank at
knowledgebank.irri.org)

One hundred kilogram (100 kg) of paddy rice will generate approximately 5−10
kg of bran. Rice bran is a mixture of substances, including protein, fat, ash, and crude
fiber. In many cases, bran contains tiny fractions of rice hull, which increases the ash
content of bran. Bran composition is largely dependent on the milling process.

In modern rice mills, several different kinds of bran are produced: coarse bran
(from the first whitening step), fine bran (from second whitening step) and polish (from
the polishing step). Polish consists of part of the endosperm and is often referred to as
meal.

Rice bran has a high nutritive value. Besides proteins, rice bran is an excellent
source of vitamins B and E. Bran also contains small amounts of anti-oxydants, which are
considered to low cholesterol in humans. Rice bran contains 10−23% bran oil. The oily
nature makes bran an excellent binder for animal feeds. Bran oil, once stabilized and
extracted, is a high quality vegetable oil for cooking or eating. The conventional use of
rice bran is as ingredient for animal feeds, in particular ruminants and poultry. In recent
years however, advances in stabilization techniques have been made which has led to new
uses for bran and its derivatives, most notably bran oil for cooking and waxes for cosmetic
products. In the developing countries, rice bran is underutilized due to a lack of suitable
stabilization techniques.

37
2.16.5 BREWERS RICE

Figure 2.14: a picture of brewersrice- (Source at IRRI Rice Knowledge Bank at

knowledgebank.irri.org)

Brewer’s rice is often used as ingredient for beer brewing, hence the name. In rural
areas, brewer’s rice has a variety of uses including ingredient for rice flour and rice
noodles.

2.17 MOISTURE CONTENT OF RICE

Moisture content (MC) is the weight of water contained in paddy or rice expressed
in percent. MC is usually referred to the wet basis meaning the total weight of the grain
including the water (MCwb). For research moisture content referred to the dry matter of
the grain is sometimes used (MCdb).

2.18 IMPORTANCE OF MEASURING MOISTURE CONTENT

Accurate moisture content testing is important in managing and marketing paddy
and rice because depending on the purpose rice has different ideal moisture contents.
Inaccurate moisture content measurements lead to:

 Extra drying cost and harvesting loss if paddy is harvested wetter than necessary
 Spoilage if the grain is too wet in storage
 Extra drying cost and loss of quality if paddy is dried too far
 Lower head rice when milled at wrong MC
 Weight loss (loss in profit) if grain is sold too dry

38
2.19 MEASUREMENT OF MOISTURE CONTENT
Moisture content of grain can be measured by using either:

 Primary method: based on weight measurements like the oven method or an infrared
moisture balance or
 Secondary method: using an electronic instrument that uses electrical characteristics of the
grains.Many different types of portable grain moisture meters can be used to measure the
moisture content. When selecting a meter, make sure it is suitable for harvesting paddy or
milling grain, depending on which higher moisture content results in more losses from poor
grain quality; while, lower moisture content results in more losses from shattering.

39
Table 2.7: Target moisture content for each of the key postproduction operation
activity

Source at IRRI Rice Knowledge Bank at knowledgebank.irri.org S(2016)

40
 CHAPTER THREE

PROCESS SELECTION
3.0 PROCESS SELECTION
Rice is the most economically important food crop in many developing countries and has
become as major crop in many developed countries where its consumption has increased
considerably. It has become necessary to meet the demand of the world’s current
population growth rate, and least costly means for achieving this aim is to increase rice
quality and productivity through proper milling process, wherever possible. The main
problem encountered by rice millers in Nigeria are to select appropriate rice milling
techniques. This chapter compares the different processes available for rice milling.

3.1 AVAILABLE PROCESSES

A rice mill can be:

 Single or one step;

 Two step; or
 Multi step.
3.2 COMPARISON OF THE PROCESSES
3.2.1 ONE STEP MILLING
In a one-step milling process, husk and bran removal are done in one pass and milled or
white rice is produced directly out of paddy. It can be;

1. Hand milling or
2. The steel single pass mill.
3.2.1.1 Hand Milling
Hand pounding of paddy in a mortar with a pestle is the traditional milling process in
remote villages. Pounding the paddy induces upward and downward forces on grain
against grain that removes the husk and bran layers. The pounding also breaks up fissured
grain. The final cleaning is by winnowing in a woven bamboo tray and gravity separation
by hand.

41
3.2.1.2 The Steel Huller
One of the most popular single pass rice mills is the steel huller which is an adaptation of
the "Engleberg" coffee huller from the United States modified for milling rice. In earlier
days this type of rice mill was very popular in most rice-growing countries. It is still the
mainstay technology for milling parboiled paddy in Bangladesh, and in many African
countries. The "iron hullers", or "single pass mills" which all refer to the same mill are
notorious for breaking the paddy grain.

Paddy Bran
HULLER

Husk

Fig 3.3: Block diagram of One Step Milling

Advantages of One Step Milling

1. low capital cost

2. It combines the dehusking and polishing process into one operation
3. Skilled operators are not required
Disadvantages of One Step Milling

1. Requires high man power

2. the total milled rice recovery is 53-55%
3. low milling quality
3.2.2 TWO STEP MILLING
In a two-step process, removing husk and removing bran are done separately, and brown
rice is produced as an intermediate product. Several manufacturers have developed more
modern, small-capacity rice mills. With this machine, dehusking is done with rubber
rollers, husk is separated by aspiration, and bran is removed by friction polishers.

42
The modern small-capacity mill is available in various sizes and capacities ranging from
150 to 550 kg/ hour. These are small capacity 2-stage rice mills. They are also used for
custom milling services in the rural areas. A typical compact rice mill consists of a 6-inch
diameter x 6-inch wide rubber roller husker, and a friction whitener. The friction whitener
has a very similar design configuration as the Engleberg except that is has no husking
knife. The milling performance of the compact rice mill is superior to the single pass
Engleberg huller. Milling recoveries are normally above 60%. Efficiency and the modern
principle of operation reduce the horsepower requirement to about one-half that of the
steel huller.

Paddy

ASPIRATOR Friction Polisher

Bran
Husk

Fig 3.5: Block diagram of Two Step Milling

Advantages

1. Low capital cost

2. Increased rice outturn.
3. High quality output because husk and bran are separated differently
4. It can be installed in a small space and can be operated by one person
5. It can be powered by an electric motor, diesel engine or tractor
Disadvantages

1. The friction whitener produces higher broken rice especially for long grain variety
2. Increased cost compared to steel huller

43
 3. Stone removal efficiency is low
3.2.3 MULTI-STEP MILLING
Multi- stage systems are called Commercial milling systems; the process mill the paddy
in stages. The objective of commercial rice milling is to reduce mechanical stresses and
heat buildup in the grain, thereby minimizing grain breakage and producing uniformly
polished grain. Compared to village-level systems, the commercial milling system is a
more sophisticated system configured to maximize the process of producing well-milled,
whole grains.

The rice milling facility comes in various configurations, and the milling components vary
in design and performance. “Configuration” refers to how the components are sequenced.
It has three basic stages,

 the husking stage,

 the whitening-polishing stage, and
 the grading, blending, and packaging stage.
In modern rice mills, many adjustments (e.g. rubber roll clearance, separator bed
inclination, feed rates) are automated for maximum efficiency and ease of operation. The
whitener-polishers are provided with gauges that sense the current load on the motor
drives which gives an indication of the operating pressure on the grain. This provides a
more objective means of setting milling pressures on the grain.

44
Fig 2.6: Flow diagram of a modern rice mill (source: International organization of
Scientific Research, 2014)

Advantages of Commercial Milling

Cleaning Stage

 Make the rice mill look neat and hygienic

 Will save wastage of paddy along with stones
 Will minimize breakdowns
 Will increase the milling capacity
De husking or de hulling Stage

 Will increase the milling capacity at least by 5%

 Less recirculation of paddy and rice, will reduce breakage of rice
 Will enhance the rubber roll life & reduce expenses on consumables & down times
 Will remove admixtures like oversize rice kernels & removes immature grains at brown
rice stage and thus enhancing not only the quality but also the milling capacity
Whitening or polishing Stage

45
  Enhances whiteness, increase Head Rice Yield by reducing breakage drastically
 Enhance the appearance of rice kernels by imparting glossiness which fetch the rice millers
a premium price
 Minimize breakdowns / down times
Grading Stage

 Will effectively separate broken from head rice

 Also one can control the percentage of broken rice in head rice consistently
Disadvantages

1. Capital cost of machine is very high

2. Requires skilled operator
3. Maintenance cost is high
4. Consumes space
3.3 CONCLUSION
Findings on the different processes available for milling rice shows that, the
commercial milling process is the best way to base on the following reasons;

1. It will produce edible rice that appeals to the customer- i.e. rice that is sufficiently milled and
free of husks, stones, and other non-grain materials
2. Maximize the total milled rice recovery out of paddy minimize grain breakage

46
 CHAPTER FOUR

PROCESS DESCRIPTION
4.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Parboiling is a hydrothermal treatment that involves three basic steps soaking, steaming,
and drying. It is carried out before milling in order to increase its nutritional value, to
change the texture of the cooked rice, and reduce breakage during milling. Parboiling
causes a gelatinization of the starch in boiling and during cooling the amylase molecule
re-associate with each other and form a tightly packed structure. The kernels are harder
and appear glassier after the parboiling process.

Parboiling process moves micro nutrients contained in the bran, which is usually removed
in the whitening process in the rice mill to the endosperm. Parboiled rice is therefore more
nutritious than white rice.

Parboiling also mends little cracks that might have developed in the endosperm during
postharvest processing and therefore head rice recoveries of parboiled rice are higher.
Parboiled rice takes less time to cook and is firmer and less sticky when cooked.

4.2 PROCESS FLOW

The milling of parboiled rice can be done through the following steps:

1. Parboiling which involves washing (Cleaning). Soaking, steaming and drying.

2. The milling process; it starts from destoning, husking stage, whitening and polishing stage
and grading and packaging stage.

4.2.1 PARBOILING
1. Washing (cleaning): After the raw materials (paddy) is received, it is submerged and
stirred vigorously inside a washing tank. The tank has a pipe that supplies water
continuously. Inside the tank, unfilled seeds, wheat and other debris are skimmed at the
top. The paddy rice is scooped out leaving heavier materials such as stones at the bottom

47
and poured away. Washing is usually done 2 to 3 times depending on the extent of the
dirt.

2. Soaking: Soaking is done for a period of 8 to 24hrs depending on the water content and
the variety of the rice. The tank is divided into two layers. The layers have holes and the
paddy is filled to almost half of the tank. The soaking is done at a temperature of 35 to 40
degree Celsius. After 8hrs, the water is drained through the tank outlet. The paddy is then
conveyed to the steamer.

3. Steaming: The soaked paddy is then steamed in a pot with little water lining the pot.
The steam is meant to reach all sections of the pot by covering with jute sacks and
polythene sheets. The covering prevents the steam from escaping easily thereby creating
a partial pressure over the content that aid in inward movement of molecules in each
gelatinous kernel. When paddy begins to crack open their husk and there is steam vapor
rising all over the pot. It is an indication that steaming is enough. The high temperature
up to 80 degrees is able to kill some of the microorganisms and degrade toxins and other
poisonous substance present in the rice. Electric heater or LPG is used for steaming.

4. Drying: The steamed rice is conveyed into the Gravity dryer. The gravity dryer
comprises of two curved elevators. Coal is supplied at both sides of the dryer and the
extractor fan is used to suck the heat into the dryer. The rice moves up and down from the
left elevator to the right and it gets dried in an enclosed system. After the loop is repeated
2 to 3 times depending on the temperature. The seasonal temperature usually determines
the drying time. After the paddy is dried, the second elevator is manually blocked and the
paddy is collected at the downward tray and is conveyed into the milling machine.

4.2.2 MILLING
Milling process of rice is basically divided into destoning, husking stage, whitening and
polishing stage and grading and packaging stage.

1. Destoning: The paddy is conveyed from the gravity dryer to the elevator, from the
elevator it enters into the destoner through the hopper. The destoner has two sieves, and it
uses mechanic shake to warble where by larger stones and other impurities are trapped in
the first sieve and the smaller impurities are trapped in the second sieve and are removed

48
through the impurity outlet. The paddy pass through the paddy outlet to the elevator and
then to the hopper.

2. Husking: The paddy is elevated from the destoner to the hopper, from the hopper it
enters into DE husker machine. The machine has a separator that warbles, and the husk is
removed through the cyclone. The brown rice is conveyed to the whitener.

3. Whitening/Polishing: The polisher machine has hullers that scrubs the brown rice in a
screen. The screen is 1.5mm and rice grain cannot pass through it. The bran passes through
the screen and is collected through the second cyclone. Some rice with traces of stones are
collected through the impurity outlet and is conveyed back to the destoner. The white rice
is then conveyed and elevated to the silo.

4. Sorting/Grading: The stage has three elevators and an optical colour sorter machine.
The silo is opened and the white rice is elevated from the first elevator (usually in the
middle) to the hopper and then the Optical Colour Sorter machine through the first two
feeders. The machine has six cameras, three in the front and three at the back. The machine
sorts based on colour. The machine has air compressor that blows the rice to the desired
chute. Colour specification is given to the machine, the rice passes through first sorting
and the acceptable ones are blown through the chutes to the diagonal conveyor and then
second elevator. The unwanted rice is blown through the chute to elevator three and the
process is repeated (second sorting) and the final rejected rice is removed through the
rejected rice outlet. The machine also has an extractor fan that removes escaped residual
bran and husk.

5. Packaging: The machine has scale cell that is used for weighing. The rice is received
by the hopper from the second elevator. The hopper has gates that is controlled by air ram.
Ones the desired kg is achieved the air ram closes the gates and the back is released. The
bag is carried by an opened conveyor to the automatic sewing machine controlled by the
proximity sensors. After it is sewed the machine has a cutter with sharp blends that cuts
the thread. The bag is then manually carried to the warehouse for storing.

49
 F I
X1
W6
D W4 P1 L
G
X5
I1 A B
H K
E P2
X3 X6
W1
X2
W5 X7
C X4
W2 J

W3
W7

I1- Paddy rice W3- Stones X5- Brown rice A- Washer Tank E- De-husker

W1- Leaves and stems X3- Stone free paddy W6- Rice bran B- Dryer F- Cyclone

X1- Clean wet paddy W4- Rice husk X6- White rice C- De-stoner G- Paddy
separator

W2- Vapor X4- Husked rice W7- Colored rice D- Fan H-Whitener

X2- Parboiled Paddy W5- Unhusked rice X7- Polished white rice K- Grader I-
Cyclone

P1- Clean head white rice P2- Broken white rice J- Optical Color Sorter L- Packaging
Machine

50
 CHAPTER FIVE

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

5.0 INTRODUCTION
In Nigeria, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) must be carried out prior to the
commencement of major projects. The Federal Ministry of Environment of Nigeria has
laid down procedures for conducting the environmental impact assessment (EIA) and
enforces the EIA Decree No. 86 of 1992.

Environmental protection is a rapidly growing concern internationally as man’s impact on

natural resources is better understood and becomes more pronounced (Haynes et al.,
2013). The potential for negative off-site impacts by the rice mills has led to ever-
increasing scrutiny from regulatory agencies (Laguna et al., 2004) and community and
consumer groups concerned about environmental and socio-economic sustainability. The
general objective of this ESIA is to assess the potential environmental and socioeconomic
impacts of the proposed project with a view to ensuring that it causes insignificant or no
adverse impact on the environment and socio-economic setting of the project area.

5.1 PROJECT SITE/LOCATION

The proposed project is to be located in Gongulong area of Jere Local Government,
precisely on Plot No, 4c Madinnatu road. The factory is sited within an area demarcated
for industries and is thus compatible with section 3.2 of the National policy on
environment requirement.

5.2 THE NEED FOR THE PROJECT

Nigeria has always used the revenue from agriculture value chain for its development. In
the pre independence era, the sector contributed most to the GDP. On attainment of
political independence in 1960, the trend was still very much the same, the Nigeria
economy could reasonably be described as an agricultural economy, because agricultural
value chain served as the engine of growth of the overall economy. However, the 1967 to
1970 civil war in Nigeria coincided with the oil boom era, which resulted in extensive
exploration and exportation of petroleum and its strong agriculture in favor of an
unhealthy dependence on oil. Ever since then, Nigeria has been witnessing extreme

51
poverty and insufficiency of basic food items. The agricultural value chain contributions
now account for less than 5% of Nigeria’s GDP. It is against this backdrop that successive
governments in Nigeria have been trying to reverse the neglect of the agricultural sector
and the dependence of Nigeria on a mono-cultural crude oil based economy through
encouraging projects like Bifsam Rice mill as food processing problem is estimated at
about 20 to 40% of the yearly harvest that is lost due to lack of processing.

The agricultural sector through processing of primary product to secondary as in this

project has the potentials to shape the landscape, provide environmental benefits such as
conservation, guarantee sustainable management of renewable natural resources, preserve
biodiversity and contribute to the viability of rural areas development. Through its spheres
of activities at both the macro and micro levels, the agricultural sector is strategically
positioned to have a high multiplies and linkage effect on any nation’s quest for socio-
economic and industrial development.

5.3 THE DESIRABILITY OF THE PROJECT

I. Company is expected to provide employment for 1 65 employees.
II. Government is expected to earn revenue from the personal income taxes to be paid by the
employees of the company.
III. Government fiscal revenue will be enhanced through corporate taxes to be paid by the
company.
IV. Increased domestic supply of rice and rice products through the utilization of idle local raw
materials.
V. The provision of employment to Nigerians by the company will have positive impacts on
the employees’ living standard.
VI. The project will contribute directly to the government policy of industrial development with
good linkages with other sectors of the economy.
VII. The project will increase the supply of output to the economy which could have been
imported. Thus, the economy will conserve foreign exchange through the implementation
of the project.

52
5.3 BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
LOCATION
5.3.1 VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE WITHIN THE PROJECT AREA
Within the study area, there are a few trees on the main road. The trees are mostly common
species with low to medium value and poor to good condition. Trees and shrubs have been
removed to make way for the industrial estate many years ago. Domesticated animals on
free range dominate the animal population. The common ones are cattle, sheep, goats and
donkeys.

5.3.2 DRAINAGE AND HYDROLOGY

The drainage of the Borno state is mainly part of the inland drainage system of the Chad
Basin. These streams rise and flow freely over the Basement Complex section only to lose
their channels, at a short distance east of the Hydro-Geological into the unconsolidated
sediments of the Chad Formation. The climate of the area controls the amount of water
that is available both on the surface and at sub-surface at any given time within a water-
year. The climate also controls the regimen and other characteristics of the rivers. For
example, water is abundantly available during the wet months both on the surface and at
sub-surface.

5.3.3 SOILS
The factors of soil formation include the parent material, climate, plants and other
organisms, site conditions and time. The widest spread parent material in project area is
the wind drift material deposited on the pediplains. The drift materials are predominantly
of silt and fine sand particles. Other parent materials include the regolith of granites where
exposed. The parent materials have interacted with the climate of the area to produce the
matured soil which is ferruginous and can withstand structures such as the flyover being
proposed

5.4 IMPACT EVALUATION

5.4.1 DURING THE CONSTRUCTION
Economic /Business

I. Local labour with different levels of skills will be engaged and will thus earn a living and
learn new skills
53
 II. Local food suppliers will benefit from the work force engaged in the construction
III. Cultural/Social
IV. Mixture of the workshop including foreigners may lead to cultural friction as they may not
be aware of local sensibilities
Enviromental

 Noise
During construction, the source of noise nuisance is primarily from the use of powered
mechanical equipment (PME) on site. The construction activities for the project will
involve the use of plant for piling, excavation, substructure and superstructure
construction etc.

Measures;

I. Provide staff with appropriate gear as recommended

II. Monitor noise level monthly throughout the construction period
III. Hearing protectors shall be given to staff

 Temperature change
Increased temperature in day time and night may be experienced due to particles of dust
which traps outgoing radiation

Measure;

I. Monitor temperature
II. Implement good site management practices

 Air Quality
Increased pollution of air due to dust from drilling and movement of heavy equipment
during construction, which involves activities such as material handling, excavation and
erosion of unpaved area and stockpiles will be expected.

Measure;

I. Ensure that emission levels of machinery are within permissible limits, based on the good
site practices and relevant dust control measures set out in the Air pollution control
54
 II. Implementation of dust suppression technique such as application of water or non-toxic
chemicals to minimize dust from vehicular movement
III. Minimisation of dust from open area sources by using water suppression, bag house etc.
IV. Selective removal of potential hazardous air pollutants prior to demolition
V. Appropriate management of emissions from mobile sources
VI. Prohibition of open burning of all solids as prescribed in extant regulation
VII. Monitor air quality

 Water Quality
Site runoff is expected to be the major water quality impact from construction sites for
this project. The potential sources of site runoff include water from dust suppression
sprays, oils and grease from machinery and vehicles used in construction and wastewater
from erosion of temporarily stockpile.

Measure;

I. Provide location for ancillary Equipments and bound wall for containment of waste oil in
the event of any unanticipated spillage
II. Provide a functional adequate and appropriate drainage system for the project site
III. Separate or divert clean water runoff to prevent it from mixing with water containing high
solid particulate content
IV. Ensure safe movement of materials and fuel to and from site
V. tanks to be clearly labelled with their and storage capacity
VI. absorbent materials and other containment equipment should be available in adequate
quantity on site

 Waste Management
Construction and demolition waste will be generated from the construction activities,
vehicles and plant maintenance etc. Other types of waste include small amounts of general
waste from workers and chemical waste.

Measure;

55
 I. Provide location for ancillary Equipments and bound wall for containment of waste oil in
the event of any unanticipated spillage
II. Provide a functional adequate and appropriate drainage system for the project site
III. Separate or divert clean water runoff to prevent it from mixing with water containing high
solid particulate content
IV. Ensure safe movement of materials and fuel to and from site
V. tanks to be clearly labelled with their and storage capacity
VI. absorbent materials and other containment equipment should be available in adequate
quantity on site
VII. Implement good site management practices
Ecological Impact

The proposed project is within an already demarcated industrial layout and no natural
habitat would be affected. No important ecological resources have been identified within
the study area.

Health Impairment of air quality has been associated with increased illnesses such as
swollen eye, difficulty in breathing, chartarh and bronchitis. Lack of proper sign could
result in fatal accidents with moving and stationary construction Equipments and
construction material Movement of cranes and heavy concrete without adequate warning
could cause accidents

Measure;

I. Restrict movement of unauthorized persons in the construction site

II. Workers must be provided with protective covers
III. Monitor air quality
IV. Proper illumination of stationary Equipment'
V. Keep unauthorized persons away from dangerous zones
VI. Put warning signs (written in English and local languages)
5.4.2 IMPACT DURING THE OPERATION OF THE PLANT

Economic/Business

I. Loss of business due to out pricing of local rice processors

56
 II. Loss of job as a result of closure of the local rice mills
III. Loss of business as a result of better quality rice from the proposed mill that will force buyers
of local rice to choose the one from the proposed mill
IV. The new rice from the proposed plant can lead to a situation of higher demand for its product
which may consequently lead to higher food importation to supplement its own supply to
the market
V. Potential positive benefits include employment for local people as the proposed plant will
have 165 workers including many unskilled labourers at inception
VI. The plant will also have positive impact on the local economy as most of the workers will
rent property in the area in order to work in the precinct of the plant, local shops and food
sellers will also benefit.
VII. The products of the plant will also have a macro economic impact through the benefits that
will accrue to dealers and suppliers
VIII. A further benefit of the plant is the reduction in import of food – this will reduce Nigeria’s
import bill thereby reducing foreign exchange demand and will in addition ameliorate food
insecurity
IX. The plant will help agriculture in the locality and indeed in Nigeria by providing a ready and
stable market for rice thereby increasing standard of living and a more assured livelihood to
farmers
X. The plant will lead to innovation as it will continue to strive to provide higher yielding seeds
to farmers through its research facility
Cultural/Social

Socio cultural effect of the proposed plant is likely to manifest in its negative impact on
the land tenure system as agriculture especially rice production will now be fully
commercialized

The current poor government/regulatory policies in respect to the sector may lead to
unforeseen negative consequences

Environmental

 Soil Erosion

57
Soil erosion and loss of fertility may manifest as small holders seek to intensify production
by adding labour to existing agricultural land without corresponding increase in capital
(chemical, organic inputs, and fertilisers.

 Loss of Biodiversity
Loss of biodiversity and the damage of natural ecosystems may manifest as small holders
seek to enhance agriculture production by clearing forests and expanding into fragile
ecosystems.

 Air quality
Air quality impairment during the operation of the plant may be associated with
generators, boilers and de-husking operations; destining; raw material unloading;
polishing; pre-cleaning; vibratory screening etc.

 Noise
The envisaged heavy traffic of vehicles off-loading and loading raw materials and finished
products; generators; boilers and other machinery will increase noise levels within and in
the vicinity of the plant. Other sources of noise include, destining; vibratory screen for
sorting; fans; de-husking; polishing; blowing, paddy cleaning; packaging etc.

 Water Quality
The potential water quality impacts during operation would be the waste water discharges
from washing, soaking and parboiling operation. The surface runoff will contain some
amounts of oil, grease and grit from cleaning of machinery that will cause water quality
impacts.

 Health
The increased pollution of air envisaged as a result of increased traffic will not impair air
quality due to the temporary nature of vehicular movement hence will not result in
illnesses associated with impaired air quality The increased noise level due to increased
traffic and machinery may lead to increased noise related illnesses.

*POTENTIAL IMPACTS MITIGATION MEASURES

58
Environmental •Ensure strict adherence to maintenance
Soil Erosion program and the environmental
management plan
• Appropriate regulatory mechanism
based on sustainability should be in place

Loss of Biodiversity
•Ensure strict adherence to maintenance
program and the environmental
management plan

Health
Air quality
Monitor air quality
•Ensure strict compliance with
environmental management plan as it
relates to air quality

Noise •Monitor Noise level

59
 •Ensure strict compliance with
environmental management plan as it
relates to air quality

Water Quality runoff should be diverted into storm

water drainage system where due to
dilution is unlikely to produce any
adverse effect

Economic
•Relevant authorities should strive to
improve skills and quality of local
producers
•Liaise with the appropriate traders’
association to find alternative source of
livelihood
•Relevant authorities must strive to
increase production at this plant and

60
 encourage more investment to attain
local self -sufficiency
• Measures must be taken by relevant
authority to ensure adequate protection of
the famers of rice as well other producers
Cultural/Social
• Appropriate regulations based on best
practices that are hinged on sustainability
should be put in place

61
 CHAPTER SIX

SAFETY MEASURES
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Plant safety and industrial-accident prevention measures aim first and foremost to prevent
accidents at plants where hazardous substances are used – and in the event of an accident,
minimize the consequent health and environmental effects, and also lay ground rules on
safe working procedures in a plant. it is important to deal with occupational safety with
an approach of “employees ‘safety’ priority basically. Whereas any financial loss can be
compensated, there is no possibility of compensating human life. Below is a list of safety
working procedure;

A. Safe work procedures must be developed and maintained for the safe operation/use of
plant and equipment, taking into account:

I. plant/equipment risk assessments

II. regulatory requirements, where appropriate
III. standard industry operation, and
IV. manufacturer's/supplier's requirements.
B. Safe work procedures must include instructions, where relevant, on:

I. preoperational start up checks

II. safe operation of the plant/equipment
III. the correct use of guarding and other control measures
IV. who may use an item of plant or equipment (for example, only authorized or licensed
operators)
V. how to carry out inspections, shutdown, cleaning, repair and maintenance
VI. traffic rules, rights of way, clearances and no-go areas for mobile plant,
VII. emergency procedures.
C. Safe work procedures, including any relevant emergency procedures relating to an item of plant
or equipment must be readily accessible to workers and students who use, or are likely to use,
the plant.

62
6.2 POSSIBLE HAZARDOUS UNIT OPERATIONS, AREAS AND MEASURES
 Electrical Installations and Fire Extinguishing Systems
Major elements that may pose a risk throughout the plant are electrical panels and
installations. Possible electrical leakage in those parts can cause serious results such as
injury or death.

Measures.

Precautions that should be taken for this issue are making electrical grounding
measurements annually, making maintenance of electrical panels regularly, hanging
warning signs on the electrical boards, putting insulating mats in front of the electrical
boards and realization of the maintenance by authorized personnel.

 Lightning systems
Lack of lightning system (lightning rod) in the plants and insufficient periodical controls
of these systems are another risk factor. A possible streak of lightning and fire and
explosions as a result of that can cause injury, death and material damages.

Measures

In order not to experience these situations; the work equipment whose usage may cause
streak of lightning should be protected by appropriate means against the effects of
lightning. Lightning rods and other protective installations against lightning should be
checked by qualified personnel at least once a year.

 Alert, Warning Signs and Boards

Lack of alert and warning sign and board increases the occupational accidents.

Measures

Therefore; shape and color of the signs that would be used for prohibitions, warnings,
orders, escape way in case of emergency or that indicating equipment for firefighting
should be designed according to their specific objectives. The signs should be made of
impact and weather resistant material that is appropriate for the environment. The size and
colorimetric and photometric features of the signs would ensure that they are easily visible
and understandable.

63
 Emergency Exit Routes and Doors
Improper emergency exit routes and doors may cause that the employees cannot leave the
danger zone in a possible case of danger.

Measures

Emergency exit routes and doors should be opened to outside or to a safe place and there
should not be any hinder that prevents the exit. In any case of danger, it should be made
possible for all of the employees to leave the workplace promptly and safely. The number,
size and places of the emergency routes and doors should be suitable for the qualification
of the work performed, size of the workplace and the number of the employees. Rail or
revolving doors should be used as emergency door, the doors should be opened to outside,
they should not be locked or tied up and should be opened promptly and easily by the
employees in case of emergency. Spare lighting system that would provide the sufficient
lighting in case of power failure at the emergency route and doors that are needed be
lightened should be kept.

 Inadequate Ventilation and Inappropriate Ambient Temperature

Inadequate ventilation and inappropriate ambient temperature cause work stress, inattention and
suffocation for the workers and thus bring occupational accidents.
Measures

Sufficient fresh air needed by the employees depending on the way of work and the work
they do should be provided in the indoor workplaces. When the forced ventilation system
is used, the system should also be in a condition of working properly all the time; if the
failure of the ventilation system is hazardous for the health of the employees, there should
be a warning system that reports the failure. Air flow in the artificial ventilation systems
should not disturb the employees. Residues and contaminants that may harm the
employees’ health by polluting the air of the work environment should be thrown outside.
The temperature of the work environment should be suitable for the way of work and the
effort of the employees. Resting areas, dressing rooms, shower and toilets, waiting areas,
cafeterias, canteens and first aid rooms should have sufficient temperature according to
the purpose of usage; windows and ceiling lighting should prevent the adverse effects of
the sun light depending on the workplace and the feature of the work done.

64
 Boiler Room
Inappropriate place of the boiler room or neglected boiler brings the risk of fire and explosion.
Measures

All the boilers used in the workplace should be kept in a separate part or building resistant
to fire and explosion and the workers should not be allowed to work on the floor above
the boiler room. Ceiling of the boiler rooms should be high enough to facilitate working
with the boiler when necessary, boiler rooms should be constantly ventilated and proper
aspiration installation should be made when the ventilations is not enough by itself. Before
mounting the boilers or in case of change and maintenance, they should be checked and
proper and safe working condition of the boilers should be certified. Periodic maintenance
should be made at least once a year and all maintenance and repairs should be recorded.
The maintenance should be made after the experts take all kinds of security measures

 Elevator and Conveying Transporters

Elevator and conveying transporters have the risk of hand and arm injuries or losses for
the employees.

Measures

Therefore, employees should not put their hands or arms on the open parts of the elevator,
should act from a safe distance, the protective parts should not be removed. The protectors
that are disassembled during maintenance should be assembled before starting to be
operated; the motion of the elevator shaft should be stopped completely in order for
repairing the breakdown in case of blockage. During excessive heating, there should be a
safety system that stops the motion of the elevator automatically. The materials sticking
on the top cylinders or drums of the belt conveyors should not be cleaned by hand; they
should be cleaned by proper knives or rotary brushes. Grounding should be made in order
to prevent the formation of static electricity on the elevators and belt transporters.

 Silos
Silos can cause serious results such as injury, death and material damage in case of
explosion.

Measures

65
In order to be protected from these risks, welding and cutting should not be realized in the
silos without taking sufficient precautions. Grain silos and storages should have dust-
proof covers, waterproof coverings and air exchange assemblies. Grain drying parts
should be made of fire resistant material; they should be placed at a sufficient distance
from the elevators and storages or at suitably isolated places. During the maintenance,
inside of the silos should be ventilated sufficiently and the employees working inside
should be watched by other employees outside of the silos. Lightning conductor and
grounding should be kept in the silos in case of static electricity formation or streak of
lightning. Before starting to maintenance and repair; the power connection of the mixing
equipment should be cut and the mixing equipment should be wedged, supported or tied
up properly. Another risk factor in the silos is falling down from height. Therefore; the
employees should use personal protective equipment such as seat belt, double-legged
lanyard life rope, wire rope holder that prevents falling during the climbing to the silo
stairs. During working on the top of the silo, employees should tie up themselves on a
solid ground via personal protective belt.

6.3 GENERAL SAFETY RULES AT THE MILLING PLANT

The rules that workers should observe when operating milling facility machinery and
equipment are shown below;

I. Check whether safety is secured: Alert others when starting machines.

II. Check first whether the necessary maintenance has been done.
III. Check the vicinity of machinery before operation: Never leave tools in the machine. Ensure
that all nuts and bolts are fastened and adjust the tension of belts.
IV. Wear safe work clothes: Wear tight clothes that cannot be caught in machines.
V. Wear a mask when working in dusty areas: This is to prevent lung damage.
VI. Wear earplugs when working in noisy areas: This is to prevent ear damage.
VII. Never operate a milling machine while listening to music through an iPhone or other
devices. This is because when using such devices, it is difficult to notice abnormal noise,
which could indicate that a serious accident is about to occur.

66
VIII. Install protection devices for any dangerous movable parts of machines as much
as possible: Use protection devices made of nets or grids that do not hinder the
easy operation and maintenance of machines and that help secure a safe distance
so that movable parts do not directly touch a worker’s body or clothes.

Table 6.1: Hazard to employees and measures (Personnel Protective Equipment)

Objective Workplace Hazard Measures
Eye and face protection Flying particles, molten Safety glasses with side
metal, liquid chemicals, shields, protective shades.
gases or vapors, light
radiation

Head protection Falling objects, inadequate Plastic helmets with top and
height clearance and side impact protection
overhead power cords
Hearing protection Noise, ultra-sound hearing protectors(ear plugs
or ear muffs)
Foot protection Falling or rolling objects, Safety shoes and boots for
pointed objects. Corrosive protective against moving
or hot liquids and falling objects, liquids
and chemicals
Hand protection Hazardous materials, cut or Gloves made of rubber or
laceration, vibrations, synthetic
extreme temperature materials(Neoprene),
leather, steel, insulating
material,
Respiratory protection Dust, fogs, fumes, mist, Facemasks with appropriate
gases, smoke, vapor filters for dust removal and
air purification (chemicals,

67
 masts, vapors and gases).
Single or multi-gas personal
monitors.
Oxygen deficiency Portable or supplied air
(fixed lines). On site rescue
equipment
Body/leg protection Extreme temperatures, Insulating clothing, body
hazardous materials, suits, aprons, of appropriate
biological agents, cutting materials
and laceration

6.4 HAZOP ANALYSIS

It stands short for Hazard and Operability. A HAZOP study identifies hazards and
operability problems. The concept involves investigating how the plant might deviate
from the design intent. The prime objective for the HAZOP is problem identification. The
best time to conduct a HAZOP is when the design is fairly firm (NSW Planning, 2011).

68
Table 6.2: HAZOP Process Worksheet Study Title: Rice milling
HAZOP Team: Group three Date: 8TH March, 2021
Element Guide- Parameter Deviati Possible Conseq Safegua Comment Action Action
word on Causes uences rds s Require allocate
d d to
Destoner too Agitation Loss of Lack of Screenin This is due Add Maintena
agitatio -Agitator separati g sensor to alarm nce
n motor fails on of and mechanica shutdow Engineer
- Operator stone alarm l or human n of
fails to and error system
activate paddy for loss
agitator of
agitator
Paddy Other Flow No flow Too much Separati Sensors This due Proper Operator
separator than grain on will to to monitori or
breakage not be monitor mechanica ng of the Maintena
and achieve grain l error process nce
indifferenc d size Engineer
e in grain
size
Storage More Level More Content Tank Multiple This is as a Channel Process
tank level send in is overfills storage result of to Engineer
above tank deviation another
storage from the storage
capacity design tank
intent
Heat Less Flow Less flow of cooling Pipe Temperature of High Operator
Exchange water blockag process fluid remains temperat
r e constant ure alarm

69
6.5 EMERGENCY SHUT DOWN SYSTEM IN THE MILLING PLANT
An ESD (Emergency Shut Down System) is an emergency control system used to manage
the start and stop sequences of a plant or machine.

In milling plants, the function of emergency shutdown is to minimize the consequences

of emergency situations, or the failure of power systems or essential components.

The purpose of the ESD is to protect people, facilities and to

prevent negative environmental impacts. The ESD is one of the main safety systems in
plant engineering and complex industrial applications.

An emergency stop system is also a method to block process operation, isolate incoming
connections or current and quickly reduce the risk of an unexpected event. Emergency
shutdown is a minimum requirement which must be implemented at all stages: design,
production, testing and as a safety system requirement. The redundancy function is the
most popular among ESDs. Usually, these systems are integrated in a closed loop and are
connected to an independent shut-down system which can be redundant.

Typical actions implemented by ESDs are: stopping ignition sources, non-essential

electrical equipment, activating fire protection systems, opening/closing blocking valves
in safety position, blocking electric motors and package units, initiating depressurization
and deactivation procedures of the plant.

70
 CHAPTER SEVEN

MATERIAL BALANCE
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Material balance involves calculating the quantities of all materials that enter and leave
any system or process which are based on the principle of the "law of conversation of
mass". This law states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in the process and the
total mass remains unchanged. For a given system, a material balance can be written in
terms of the following conserved quantities: total mass (or moles), mass (or moles) of a
chemical compound, mass (or moles) of an atomic species. It is to be mentioned that the
number of moles is not always conserved, and hence may not be appropriate to represent
an amount in a material balance.

The general expression of a mass balance takes the following form:

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) + (𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

Where,

Accumulation: is the change in quantity of material inside the system

Input: is the material that enters the system by crossing system boundary

Output: is the material that exits the system by crossing system boundary

Generation: is the material that is produced by chemical reaction within the system
Consumption: is the material that is used up by chemical reaction within the system

If the system is under steady state, then the accumulation term is removed from the
balance. If the balanced quantity is total mass, the generation term will be cancelled since
total mass is neither created nor destroyed (with the exception of nuclear reactions). If the
balanced substance is a nonreactive species, neither a reactant nor a product, no generation
or consumption takes place; these terms are removed from the balance, accordingly.

In particular, chemical engineers are concerned with writing mass balances around
chemical processes. Chemical engineers write mass balances to account for what happens
to each of the chemicals participating in a chemical process. Processes can operate either

71
under steady state or in a transient mode (unsteady state). A steady-state system is one
whose properties do not change with time. Every time we take a snapshot of the process,
all the variables have the same values as they did when measured the first time. A transient
system is one whose properties change with time. Every time a snapshot is taken, process
variables take on.

PROCESS FLOW

P1
573.86kg/hr
I
I2
1322.9kg/hr W6
64.665kg/hr L

X1 F
831.247kg/hr X3
808.307kg/hr
D W4 H K P2
161.66kg/hr
X6 2.884kg/hr
581.982kg/hr
I1 X2
A B 808.387kg/hr X7
833.33kg/hr
576.744kg/hr
E
W1 J
1324.98kg/h
X4
W2 C 646.647kg/hr W7
22.86kg/hr 5.328kg/hr

W3
0.08kg/hr

72
KEYS

A - Washer Tank X2 Parboiled Paddy

B Dryer X3 Stone free paddy
C De-stoner X4 Husked rice
D - Fan X5 Brown rIce
E - De-husker X6 White rice
F Cyclone X7 Polished white rice
G Paddy separator W1 Leaves and stems
H Whitener W2 Vapor
I Cyclone W3 Stones
J Optical Color Sorter W4 Rice husk
K Grader W5 Unhusked rice
L Packaging Machine W6 Rice bran
I1 Paddy rice W7 Colored rice
X1 Clean wet paddy P1 Clean head white
rice

73
 CHAPTER EIGHT

ENERGY BALANCE
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of energy conservation as expressed by an energy balance equation is central
to chemical engineering calculations. Similar to mass balances, a balance on energy is
crucial to solving many problems. Process industries have always recognized that wasting
energy leads to reduced profits, but throughout most of this century, the cost of energy
was often an insignificant part of the overall process cost, and gross operational
inefficiencies were tolerated. In the 1970s, a sharp increase in the price of natural gas and
petroleum raised the cost of energy several fold and intensified the need to eliminate
unnecessary energy consumption. If a plant uses more energy than its competitors, its
product could be priced out of the marketplace. As an engineer designing a process, one
of the principal jobs would be to account carefully for the energy that flows into and out
of each process unit and to determine the overall energy requirement for the process. This
is done by writing the energy balances on the process, in much the same way that material
balances are written to account for the mass flows to and from the process and its units.

8.2 RELEVANT ENERGY BALANCE EQUATIONS USED

The energy balance of a rice processing plant is usually carried out by calculating work
done. Work is given as

W = Q × ∆H

Where;

Q = Heat content in kcal and the values are obtained from (CO_GEN, 2007)

∆H = m × s × ∆T

m = mass

s = specific gravity

∆T = change in temperature

74
Table : Energy Balance Table
Processing Q m s ∆T W
0
Equipment kcal kg C J

Dryer 1488 831.24 0.782 85-80 15762.1

De-husker 1176 808.31 0.782 0-20 16978.4

Whitener 2472 646.65 0.782 0-25 15113.9

Polisher 1704 681.93 0.782 0-25 13080.0

75
 CHAPTER NINE

CONFIRMATION OF MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE USING

MATLAB SOFTWARE
9.0 INTRODUCTION
MATLAB® (matrix laboratory) is a multi-paradigm numerical computing environment
and proprietary programming language developed by MathWorks. MATLAB allows
matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms,
creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages.
Although MATLAB is intended primarily for numerical computing, an optional toolbox
uses the MuPAD symbolic engine allowing access to symbolic computing abilities.

MATLAB® combines a desktop environment tuned for iterative analysis and design
processes with a programming language that expresses matrix and array mathematics
directly. It includes the Live Editor for creating scripts that combine code, output, and
formatted text in an executable notebook.

9.1 WHY MATLAB?

Material and energy balance problems frequently lead to sets of linear and nonlinear
equations. Phase equilibrium relationships are usually given in terms of graphs or
complicated, empirically-derived functions. This has led to the development of the
“traditional” graphical analysis techniques in which the two governing processes

1. Material and energy balances;

2. Phase equilibrium relationships; are plotted together in the solution procedure.

Material and energy balances connect the stages (operating lines) and the stages
themselves are assumed to be at equilibrium. Matlab is ideally suited to plotting and
solving equations, and makes subsequent analysis of the computed solution easy.

76
Figure: Material balance confirmation

77
78
Figure: Energy balance confirmation

79
 CHAPTER TEN

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS AND PROCESS OPTIMIZATION

10.1 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
Sensitivity analysis provides users of mathematical and simulation models with tools to
appreciate the dependency of the model output from model input, and to investigate how
important is each model input in determining its output. All application areas are
concerned, from theoretical physics to engineering and socio-economics. In many fields
such as environmental risk assessment, behavior of agronomic systems, structural
reliability or operational safety, mathematical models are used for simulation, when
experiments are too expensive or impracticable, and for prediction. Models are also used
for uncertainty quantification and sensitivity analysis studies. Some of these
input parameters and variables may be unknown, unspecified, or defined with a large
imprecision range. Inputs include engineering or operating variables, variables that
describe field conditions, and variables that include unknown or partially known model
parameters (Tarantola et al., 2002).
10.2 PROCESS OPTIMIZATION
The design and operation of a system or process to make it as good as possible in some
defined sense is generally known as optimization. Plant optimization is a sound fiscal
decision and it is a key component of good operational management. The decision to pay
strict attention to the measurements, controls and efficiencies necessary for optimization
not only enhances the plant, but it quite often produces a safer operating facility. The
process optimization is the discipline of adjusting a process so as to optimize some
specified set of parameters without violating some constraint. The most common goals
are minimizing cost and maximizing throughput and/or efficiency. This is one of the major
quantitative tools in industrial decision making i.e. when optimizing a process, the goal is
to maximize one or more of the process specifications, while keeping all other within their
constraints.

10.3 PARAMETERS FOR OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE

Fundamentally, there are three parameters that can be adjusted to affect optimal
performance (Luyben and Luyben, 1997). They are:

80
  EQUIPMENT OPTIMIZATION

The first step is to verify that the existing equipment is being to its fullest advantage by
examining operating data to identify equipment bottlenecks

 OPERATING CONDITION

Operating procedures may vary widely from person to person or from shift to shift.
Automation of the plant can help significantly. But automation will be of no help if the
operators take control and run the plant manual.

 CONTROL OPTIMIZATION

In a typical processing plant, such as a chemical plant or oil refinery, there are hundreds
or even thousands of control loops. Each control loop is responsible for controlling one
part of the process, such as maintaining a temperature, level or flow (Daud et al., 2018).
If the control loop is not properly designed and tuned, the process runs below its optimum.
The process will be more expensive to operate, and equipment will wear out prematurely.
For each control loop to run optimally, identification of sensor, valve and tuning problems
is important.

10.4 PLANT OPTIMIZATION

Based on the production aim of Milled rice, the yield of the product will be optimized by
sensitivity analysis on the temperature and drying time which are the manipulated variable
and the objective function as the yield of the product

At the course of this study, we are going to utilize the flexible feature of MATLab to
optimize the drying time of Rice. The optimization will be carried out on based on the
equipment and operating conditions

10.4.1 EQUIPMENT OPTIMIZATION

Effective equipment optimization protects investment and improves the production by
minimizing downtime, extending equipment life, reducing energy and other operating
costs, and optimizing performance. According to (Silva et al., 2018), an Engineer must
ask the following questions when designing process topology:
81
 1. Can unwanted by-products be eliminated?

2. Can equipment be eliminated or rearranged?

3. Can alternative separation methods or reaction configurations be employed?

4. To what extent can heat integration be improved

Having this question into consideration, elimination and replacement of redundant

equipment with alternative ones will significantly reduce the cost of production by
minimizing the cost of operation and maintenance of the units in the process.

10.4.2 GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR OPTIMIZATION

Every optimization problem contains three essential categories (Grema et al., 2018)

At least one objective function to be optimized (profit function, yield function)

Equality constraints (equations)

Inequality constraints (inequalities)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

ℎ = 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡

𝑙 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡.

𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 (𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)

𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒. 𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡.

ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡

82
10.4.3 OPERATING CONDITION SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

83
10.4.4 OPERATING CONDITION OPTIMIZATION
From the general expression for optimization in section 10.4.2:

 Objective function y= Milled Rice yield

 The inequality constraint 𝑙 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑢;
Temperature in R-102 820 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 950oC , Temperature 220 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 500oC and
pressure in both R-102 & R-103 20 − 25bar (Fahim et al., 2010)
The flexible feature of Matlab software is used in evaluating the optimum operating values

84
85
10.5 CONCLUSION
The optimization parameter temperature of hot air coming to the dryer (equipment
optimization and operating condition optimization) where being conducted on the process
where seen to be increasing with increase in temperature, more time of drying would be
reduced if a gravity dryer is used which allow the dryer to be in motion and as a result
more material such as solid material have enough contact with the hot air furthermore
using the gravity dryer will limit time which is money. The use of matlab simulation tools
come with possible range of values at each operating condition with different time due to
use of different dryer.

10.6 RECOMMENDATION
Due to different types or varieties of rice many comes with different moisture content
other variety of rice should be tested too and also the use of different simulation tool is
recommended. To established the relationship between temperature and drying time.

86
 CHAPTER ELEVEN

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

11.1. INSTRUMENTATION
A rice milling plant is combination of many integrated units which are responsible for
converting raw materials into useful products. During its operation the plant has to satisfy
many operating conditions and requirements specified by designer. Such requirements ask
for continuous checking system for rice milling plant. This system guarantees the
satisfaction of operational objectives. System is composed of equipment and humane
support and known as Instrumentation and process control.

The instrument is a complete measurement package that senses the quantity to be

measured and presents that measurement in a form suitable for use. The instruments on a
rice milling plant are the devices used to monitor the important variables that allow the
condition of the process to be determined. An instrument is a device that contains at least
one but usually more, and often all of the below (transducer, signal conditioning and
transmitter).

- A transducer is a device that translates a mechanical signal into an

electrical signal. A current-to-pressure (or voltage-to-pressure)
transducer is required if the control loop contains both electronic
instruments and a pneumatic control valve.
- A transmitter is a device that converts a reading from a sensor or
transducer into a standard signal and transmits that signal to a
monitor or controller. Example includes pressure transmitter, flow
transmitters, temperature transmitter, level transmitter etc.
- Final control elements are the devices that take the input signal from
a controller and convert it into something that can physically
influence the behavior of the plant (the manipulation). The most
common final control element in process industries is the control
valve.

87
A control engineer has to know about the instruments used to measure quantities, the
values and other final control elements that allow control systems to adjust the process,
communications to transmit information around, the control algorithms that decide how
to respond to the information coming from the process, and finally the control engineer
needs to understand how the process itself behaves: not just its steady-state behavior but
more importantly its dynamic response.

11.1.2. CONTROL
Control in processing industry refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process. Rice
milling plants doesn’t operate in a steady-state.

Some definitions:

Process: The conversion of feed materials to products using chemical and physical
operations

Process Variable: A process variable is a condition of the process fluid (a liquid or gas)
that can change the manufacturing process in some way. Examples are:

- Controlled variables (CVs): The process variables that are controlled.

The desired value of the controlled variable is referred to as its set-
point
- Manipulated variables (Ms): The process variable that can be
adjusted in order to keep the controlled variables at or near their set-
-points
- Disturbance variable (DVs): Process variables that affects the
controlled variables but cannot be manipulated

The specification of CVs, Ms and DVs is a critical step in developing a

control system.

Process control is concerned with making sure that processes do what they are supposed
to in a safe and economical way. This isn’t an easy task as most processes are subject to
many inputs called disturbances that constantly cause the controlled variables to move
away from their desired values (or set points). To prevent this other process inputs called
88
manipulations have to be moved to restore the process to the desired state. Process control
technology is the tool that enables manufacturers to keep their operations running within
specified limits and to set more precise limits to maximize profitability, ensure quality and
safety.

11.2. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL FOR RICE MILLIMG

INDUSTRY
Equipment used under rice milling plant is mostly valves which requires control of their
process conditions.

11.2.1 CONTROL ON WASHER TANK

1. Level transmitter is being attached to the tank and it’s being monitored and
controlled.

As an example, the control aims at controlling the inlet flow to the washer tank. A level
transmitter (LT) measures level of water from washer tank as measured variable. An
electric signal from lt is send to the controller in form of control. The level controller (LC)
is specified a set point which then directs the final control element to respond which is the
valve.

Control objective Volume of the tank

Controller Level controller
Controller type PID
Manipulated variable Flow of the stream …
Controlled variable Level Of The Tank
Final control element Valve

89
 Fig. 11.2: Washer Control Loop

In all, the controller compares the measured value to the desired value (set point) and
calculates an appropriate output signal that is sent to a current-to-pressure transducer (I/P)
where it is converted to an equivalent pneumatic (air) signal that is compatible with the
control value.

2. Temperature of the water is to be controlled. A thermostat is to be used. Is a regulating

device component which senses the temperature of a physical system and perform actions
so that the systems temperature is maintained near the desired set point.

Control objective Temperature

Controller Temperature controller
Controller type PID
Manipulated variable Flow of the stream …
Controlled variable Temperature of stream.
Final control element Valve

90
 I/P TC TT

Fig. 11.2: Dryer Control Loop

In all, the controller compares the measured value to the desired value (set point) and
calculates an appropriate output signal that is sent to a current-to-pressure transducer (I/P)
where it is converted to an equivalent pneumatic (air) signal that is compatible with the
control value.

11.2.2 CONTROL ON DRYER

Measured variable for the dryer is the temperature of the dryer. Here the humidity inside
the dryer is controlled, and therefore the humidity is the controlled variable. Example if
the humidity level is set to a certain degree the humidity in the dryer should not be any
more than or less than the certain degree set at any given time.

The typical control strategy is to maintain a certain outlet temperature acting on the fuel
valve. This is better implemented as cascade control, where the inner loop controls fuel
feed to achieve a certain inlet temperature

 Tight control of product moisture is not necessary. Furthermore, moisture cannot usually be
measured on line.
 The inlet solid flow can be assumed to be constant once the production of the plant has been
fixed.
 Moisture of feed product can vary substantially and therefore the thermal efficiency too.
 The manipulated variable is usually the temperature of combustion air coming from the
burner, that is manipulated acting on the fuel flow, while the flow of combustion air is
practically constant.
Control objective Temperature

91
 Controller Temperature controller
Controller type PID
Manipulated variable Flow of the stream …
Controlled variable Temperature of stream.
Final control element Valve

11.2.3. CONTROL OF PACKAGING MACHINE

Control on packaging machine is very important because it helps us to know the kg
or amount of material output.

I/P

SET POINT
WC WT

Control objective Weight

Controller Weight controller
Controller type PID
Manipulated variable Flow of the product…
Controlled variable weight of stream.
Final control element Valve

Table 11.1 Instrument list

Symbol Instrument Description

92
 controls the level of the
LC PID controller
tank

LT Transducers measure the level

Transmits weight
WT Transmitter
signal
WC PID controller Weight controller
current-to-pressure converts electric signal
I/P
transducer to pneumatic signals
TC PID controller temperature controller
TT Censor (Thermometer) Temperature
transmitter

93
 CHAPTER TWELVE

PLANT LAYOUT AND SITE SELECTION

12.1. INTRODUCTION
The geographical location of the final plant can have strong influence on the success of
the industrial venture. Considerable care must be exercised in selecting the plant site, and
many different factors must be considered. Primarily the plant must be located where the
minimum cost of production and distribution can be obtained but, other factors such as
room for expansion and safe living conditions for plant operation as well as the
surrounding community are also important. The location of the plant can also have a
crucial effect on the profitability of a project. The choice of the final site should first be
based on a complete survey of the advantages and disadvantages of various geographical
areas and ultimately, on the advantages and disadvantages of the available real estate.
Plant layout is the most effective physical arrangement, either existing or in plans of
industrial facilities i.e. arrangement of machines, processing equipment and service
departments to achieve greatest co-ordination and efficiency of 4M’s (Men, Materials,
Machines and Methods) in a plant.

Layout problems are fundamental to every type of organization/enterprise and are

experienced in all kinds of concerns/undertakings.

Plant location decision are very important because once the plant is located at a particular
site then the organization has to face the pros and cons of that initial decision. While taking
plant location decision organizations need to consider various factors such as availability
of men, materials, money, machinery and equipment. At the same time plant, location
decisions should also focus on expanding and developing facilities, the nearness of the
market, transport facilities, availability of fuel and power, availability of water and
disposal of water etc. There is no exact method of analysis or assurance for the selection
of an optimal location. But an extent of analysis and study can help in maximizing the
probability of finding the right locations. If an organization is placed in a potentially
satisfactory location then it can fulfill the objectives smoothly in the long run, on the other
hand, opt for a poor location does not give the expected results due to the non-availability
of raw materials, problems from local people, problems associated with availability and

94
disposal of water, power supply problems, etc. However, following a systematic method
in order to evaluate the better location can give maximum results in generating profits.

12.2. FACTORS AFFECTING RICE MILLING SITE SELECTION

Decisions regarding selecting a location need a balance of several factors. In these case
below are the main factors to be consider: -
1. Raw material availability.
2. Location (with respect to the marketing area.)
3. Availability of suitable land.
4. Transport facilities.
5. Availability of labors.
6. Availability of utilities (Water, Electricity).
7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal.
8. Local community considerations.
9. Climate.
10. Political strategic considerations.
11. Taxations and legal restrictions
 RAW MATERIALS AVAILABILITY
The source of raw materials is one of the most important factors influencing the selection
of a plant site. Attention should be given to the purchased price of the raw materials,
distance from the source of supply, freight and transportation expenses, availability and
reliability of supply, purity of raw materials and storage requirements.
 LOCATION
The location of markets or intermediate distribution centers affects the cost of product
distribution and time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is an important
consideration in the selection of the plant site, because the buyer usually finds
advantageous to purchase from near-by sources. In case of sulfuric acid plant, the major
consumers are fertilizer industries and hence the plant should be erected in close proximity
to those units.
.
 AVAILABILITY OF SUITABLE LAND

95
The characteristics of the land at the proposed plant site should be examined carefully.
The topography of the tract of land structure must be considered, since either or both may
have a pronounced effect on the construction costs. The cost of the land is important, as
well as local building costs and living conditions. Future changes may make it desirable
or necessary to expand the plant facilities. The land should be ideally flat, well drained
and have load-bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation should be made to determine
the need for piling or other special foundations.

 TRANSPORT:
The transport of materials and products to and from plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected so that it is close to
at least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway or a seaport. Road transport is
being increasingly used, and is suitable for local distribution from a central warehouse.
Rail transport will be cheaper for the long-distance transport. If possible the plant site
should have access to all three types of transportation. There is usually need for convenient
rail and air transportation facilities between the plant and the main company headquarters,
and the effective transportation facilities for the plant personnel are necessary.
 AVAILABILITY OF LABOURS:
Labors will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction
workers will usually be brought in from outside the site, but there should be an adequate
pool of unskilled labors available locally; and labors suitable for training to operate the
plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance. Local trade union customs
and restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing the availability and
suitability of the labors for recruitment and training.
 AVAILABILITY OF UTILITIES:
The word “utilities” is generally used for the ancillary services needed in the operation of
any production process. These services will normally be supplied from a central facility
and includes Water, Fuel and Electricity which are briefly described as follows:
 Water
The water is required for large industrial as well as general purposes, starting with water
for cooling, washing, steam generation and as a raw material in the production of sulfuric

96
acid. The plant therefore must be located where a dependable water supply is available
namely lakes, rivers, wells, seas. If the water supply shows seasonal fluctuations, it’s
desirable to construct a reservoir or to drill several standby wells. The temperature,
mineral content, slit and sand content, bacteriological content, and cost for supply and
purification treatment must also be considered when choosing a water supply.
Demineralized water, from which all the minerals have been removed is used where pure
water is needed for the process use, in boiler feed. Natural and forced draft cooling towers
are generally used to provide the cooling water require on site.
 Electricity
Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants and fuel is ordinarily
required to supply these utilities. Power, fuel and steam are required for running the
various equipments like generators, motors, turbines, plant lightings and general use and
thus be considered as one major
factor is choice of plant site.
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND EFFLUENT DISPOSAL OF RICE PADDY
WAX
Facilities must be provided for the effective disposal of the effluent without any public
nuisance. In choosing a plant site, the permissible tolerance levels for various effluents
should be considered and attention should be given to potential requirements for additional
waste treatment facilities. As all industrial processes produce waste products, full
consideration must be given to the difficulties and coat of their disposal. The disposal of
toxic and harmful effluents will be covered by local regulations, and the appropriate
authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to determine the standards that
must be met.
 LOCAL COMMUNITY CONSIDERATIONS
The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration
must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a significant
additional risk to the community.

 CLIMATE

97
Adverse climatic conditions at site will increase costs. Extremes of low temperatures will
require
the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and piping.
Similarly, excessive humidity and hot temperatures pose serious problems and must be
considered for selecting a site for the plant. Stronger structures will be needed at locations
subject to high wind loads or earthquakes.
 POLITICAL AND STRATEGIC CONSIDERATIONS
Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by governments to
direct
new investment to preferred locations; such as areas of high unemployment. The
availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection.
 TAXATION AND LEGAL RESTRICTIONS
State and local tax rates on property income, unemployment insurance, and similar items
vary from one location to another. Similarly, local regulations on zoning, building codes,
nuisance aspects and others facilities can have a major influence on the final choice of the
plant site.
12.3 OBJECTIVES OF PLANT LAYOUT IN RICE MILLING.
The main objective consists of organizing equipment and working areas in the most
efficient way, and at the same time satisfactory and safe for the personnel doing the work.
 Sense of Unity
 The feeling of being a unit pursuing the same objective
 Minimum Movement of people, material and resources.
 Safety
 In the movement of materials and personnel work flow.
 Flexibility
In designing the plant layout taking into account the changes over short and medium terms
in the production process and manufacturing volumes.
These main objectives are reached through the attainment of the following facts:
 Congestion reduction.
 Elimination of unnecessary occupied areas.
 Reduction of administrative and indirect work.

98
  Improvement on control and supervision.
 Better adjustment to changing conditions.
 Better utilization of the workforce, equipment and services.
 Reduction of material handling activities and stock in process.
 Reduction on parts and quality risks.
 Reduction on health risks and increase on worker’s safety.
 Moral and worker’s satisfaction increase.
 Reduction on delays and manufacturing time, as well as increase in production capacity.
12.4. SITE SELECTION CRITERIA FOR RICE MILLING PRODUCTION
PLANT
Site selection criteria are aspects of a proposed site that are important to the success of a
project and which can be used for the assessment of sites.
This common criterion is discussed base on different factors which are as follows
 Suitable size: site size must be larger than the minimum plant layout requirements. Site size
should also not be significantly bigger than the required size as this impact on Affordability,
unless future plant expansions are likely.
 Availability: the site should be available for purchase and free from encumbrances such as
contamination or legal disputes. These matters can take a long time to resolve.
 Accessibility: the site should be accessible for bringing the process equipment to site and
for feed material and product logistics. Ideally, access should not necessitate the
 construction of new roads, rail spurs or bridges.
 Political stability: may be applicable if a development in a foreign country is considered. It
can involve continued government support for a project or physical security of a facility.
 The project prefeasibility study will determine how important it is to have the plant site near
the primary feedstock or market, depending on the type of project.

12.5. PLANT LAYOUT

The process units and ancillary building are laid out to give the most economic flow of
materials and personnel around the site. Hazardous processes must be located at a safe
distance from the building. There should also be consideration for future expansion of the

99
site. The ancillary and services required on a site, in addition to the main processing unit
‘building’ will include:
 Raw materials and product storage
 Maintenance workshops
 Stores for maintenance and operating supplies
 Laboratories for process/quality control
 Fire station and other emergency service
 Utilities: water, power generation, transformer stations
 Offices for general administration
 Canteen and other amenity
 Car park
When laying out the site, the process units will normally be sited first and arranged to give
a smooth flow of material through the various processing steps, from raw materials to final
product storage.
 The process units are normally spaced at least 30m apart, of which greater spacing may be
needed for hazardous processes.
 The location of the principal ancillary building should then be decided. They should be
arranged so as to minimize the time spent by personnel in travelling between buildings.
 Administration offices and laboratories in which relatively large number of people will be
working should be located away from potentially hazardous processes. Control rooms will
normally be located adjacent to the processing and may have to be sited at a safer distance.
 The sitting of main process of main process units will determine the layout of the plant roads,
pipe alleys and drains. Access road will be needed to each building for construction, loading
and unloading of materials and for operation and maintenance.
 The main storage area should be placed between the loading and unloading facilities and
the process units they serve.

100
 Office

4608 sq. ft.

EMPTY SPACE FOR FUTURE EXPANSION

DUMPSTER

TOILET WORKSHOP

BOILER ROOM

REST AREA/
STORE CAFETERIA
FUEL STORAGE

CONTROL PANEL ETP

ROOM

MILLING AREA HUSK YARD

BRAN AREA

FIRE AND SAFETY

STATION
IMMATURE/
REJECTED PADDY

FINISHED PRODUCT STORAGE

OFFICE BLOCK

LOADING DOCK

CAR
WAREHOUSE PARK
WEIGH BRIDGE

SECURITY BARRIER
SECURITY ROOM GATE

101
 CHAPTER THIRTEEN

DETAILED EQUIPMENT DESIGN

13.1. INTRODUCTION
In chemical engineering, construction of process equipment is not necessary for chemical
engineers to partake in. This is because they can only specify the working principle of the
equipment they require for it to be constructed by expects in the Field.

This plant comprises of 1 washer tank, 7 solid conveyors, 1 DE stoner,1 DE husker, 1

dryer, 1 polisher/whitener, 1 water storage tank, 1color sorter and the packaging unit.
Each of this equipment has unique operating condition even if the equipment’s are same.

Washer tank

Description W-01
Process description Washing
Material of construction High carbon steel
Capacity 25000kg
Design temperature 1000c
Pressure 1bar
Type cylinder
Flow rate 833.33kg/hr
Mode of operation Batch

Dryer

Description D-01
Process description drying
Material of construction High carbon steel
Capacity 25000kg

102
 Design temperature 1200c
Pressure 1bar
Mode of operation batch

DE-stoner

Description S-01

Material of construction High carbon steel

Pressure 1bar

Mode of operation Continuous

DE-Husker

Description H-01
Material of construction High carbon steel
Pressure 1bar
Mode of operation continuous

Color sorter
103
Description C-01

Process description Sorting/grading

Light source LED

Cameras Double sided RGB CCD, 5400 pixels

Power consumption 3kw

Sorting accuracy ≥99.99

Weight 1050kg

Packaging

Description p-01

Process description Packaging

Scale interval(g) 10

Weighing extent 5-25: 600-900 25-50:( 300-400) base

on the rice
Accuracy X(0.2)

Power consumption 1.1kw

104
 CHAPTER FOURTEEN

ECONOMIC EVALUATION
14.1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Although the design of a chemical process plant is initiated by chemical engineers, its
complete design and construction requires the inputs of other specialists: mechanical,
structural, electrical, and instrumentation engineers; vessel and piping designers; and
purchasing agents who know what may be available at attractive prices.
14.2. COST ESTIMATES
It consists of the estimation of capital investment cost and the total product cost. They are
costs
related to the process. Some of the uses of capital cost estimates include:

• To select a business opportunity from alternative proposals

• To select a process design from a number of alternatives

• To prepare feasibility studies

• To appropriate funds for construction

• To present and select engineering bids

• To facilitate cost control of project during implementation.

14.3 ESTIMATION OF CAPITAL INVESTMENT COST

The fixed capital investment (FCI) is the sum of the direct cost (DC) and the indirect cost
(IC).

𝐹𝐶𝐼 = 𝐷𝐶 + 𝐼𝐶 -------------- (14.1)

14.3.1. DIRECT COST

Direct Cost (DC) entails materials and labor involved in actual installation of
complete facility. DC varies with the rate of production. It is 70-85% of the fixed-
capital investment (FCI). DC specifically implies manufacturing fixed-capital
investment. They include:

105
14.3.1.1. PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST (PEC)
All equipment listed on a complete flow sheet, including spare parts and freight charges.
PEC is the price of equipment FOB (free on board) at the manufacturer’s plant. The prices
are given in terms of appropriate key characteristics of the equipment, such as heat duty,
volume, area, weight etc which are obtainable in Appendix C.

Table 14.1: Purchased Equipment Cost

Name of Equipment Tag Name Cost of Equipment in

Nigerian Naira (N)

1 unit Combined Cleaner C-01 411,712

1 unit Husker H-01 1,181,615
1 unit Paddy separator P-01 1,440,994
1 unit Rice Whitener W-01 1,823,425
1 unit Rice Grader G-01 494,055
5 unit Elevators E-01 288,198
1 set of Control carbinet S-01 500,000
1 set of collection system Cc-01 100,000
1 unit of colour sorter Cs-01 1,882,566
5 unit of conveyors Cy-01 290,824
TOTAL 8,413,389

Literature has provided PEC as 15-40% of the FCI. If FCI is unknown, it can be estimated
by choosing desired percentage provided. For that reason, PEC is assumed to be 20% of
FCI, therefore:

--------------- (14.2)

14.3.1.2. PURCHASED-EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION COST (PIC)

Entails installation of all equipment in the process flow sheet, structural support, insulation
and paints which is 15-40% of the fixed capital investment (FCI). It is also 25-55% of the
purchased equipment cost (PEC). Let PIC be 25% of the PEC
106
 𝑃𝐼𝐶 = 0.25 × 𝑃𝐸𝐶 -------------- (14.3)

14.3.1.3. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL COST (ICC)

It encompasses cost for purchase, installation, calibration and computer tie-in and it is 6-
30% of Purchased-Equipment Cost (PEC). For this project we estimate ICC to be 15% of
the PEC.

𝐼𝐶𝐶 = 0.15 × 𝑃𝐸𝐶 -------------- (14.4)

14.3.1.4. PIPING COST (PC)

This is 10-80% of the Purchased-Equipment Cost (PEC). Assume PC equal to 50% of the
PEC.

𝑃𝐶 = 0.50 × 𝑃𝐸𝐶 -------------- (14.5)

14.3.1.5. LAND COST (LC)

Land is 1-2% of fixed-capital investment (FCI) and 4-8% of the purchased-equipment cost
(PEC). Let LC be 1% of the FCI.

𝐿𝐶 = 0.01 × 𝐹𝐶𝐼 -------------- (14.6)

14.3.1.7. ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT COST (EEC)

Like electrical equipment switches, motors, conduit, wire, fittings, feeders, groundings,
instrument and control wiring, lighting and panels. This is 10-40% of Purchased
Equipment Cost (PEC). After careful study, it is put at 18% of the PEC for this particular
project.

𝐸𝐸𝐶 = 0.18 × 𝑃𝐸𝐶 --------------(14.8)

DC is the sum of PEC, PIC, ICC, PC, LC, BC and EEC. That is,

𝐷𝐶 = 𝑃𝐸𝐶 + 𝑃𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐶𝐶 + 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐸𝐸𝐶 -------------- (14.9)

14.3.1.6. BUILDINGS COST (BC)

Process buildings include stairways, ladders, cranes, access ways, elevators support etc.
Auxiliary buildings are administration and offices, medical or dispensary, cafeteria,
garage, product warehouse, parts warehouse, guard and safety and control laboratory.

107
Buildings cost is 10-70% of Purchased-Equipment Cost (PEC). Taking BC to be 45% of
PEC

𝐵𝐶 = 0.45 × 𝑃𝐸𝐶 -------------- (14.7)

14.3.2. INDIRECT COST

Indirect cost (IC) includes expenses which are not directly involved with material and
labor of actual installation of complete facility. It is 15-30% of fixed-capital investment
(FCI). IC specifically imply non-manufacturing fixed-capital investment. To compute IC,
DC is subtracted from FCI (see Appendix C).

1. Direct Supervisory Cost (DSC): This include consultant fees,

administrative, process design and general engineering. It is 0.1-0.25 of the
operating labor cost (OLC). It is also 5-30% of the direct cost (DC). Let for
this design, DSC be 25% of DC

𝐷𝑆𝐶 = 0.25 × 𝐷𝐶 ------------(14.10)

2. Construction Expenses (CE): This is 6-30% of the direct cost (DC). Taking
30% of DC for CE.
𝐶𝐸 = 0.3 × 𝐷𝐶 ------------(14.11)

3. Contingency Cost (CC): Contingencies are unforeseen events, such as

strikes, storms, floods, price variations, and other contingencies that may
have effect on the costs of manufacturing operations. It is advisable to take
this factor into account. This is accomplished by including a contingency
factor equivalent to 1 to 5 percent of the total product cost (TPC).
Contingency could be taken to be 5-15% of the fixed-capital investment
(FCI).
If DSC and CE were already estimated, we just use this formula for estimating CC:

𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 − (𝐷𝑆𝐶 + 𝐶𝐸) -------------- (14.12)

108
14.3.3. WORKING CAPITAL INVESTMENT COST
Working capital are the “working funds” necessary to conduct a day-to-day
business of the firm.

These funds are necessary to pay wages and salaries, purchase raw materials,
supplies, etc. The working capital investment (WCI) is 10-20% of the total capital
investment (TCI) and also 5-

30% of the fixed-capital investment. After careful examination, WCI is taken to be

12% of FCI.

𝑊𝐶𝐼 = 0.12 × 𝐹𝐶𝐼 -------------- (14.13)

14.3.4. TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT

Total Capital Investment (TCI) is the sum of the fixed-capital investment (FCI) and
the working capital investment (WCI).

𝑇𝐶𝐼 = 𝐹𝐶𝐼 + 𝑊𝐶𝐼 -------------- (13.14)

14.4. ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST

Estimation of total product cost (TPC) includes manufacturing cost (MC), general
expenses (GE) and gross earnings cost (GI).

𝑇𝑃𝐶 = 𝑀𝐶 + 𝐺𝐸 + 𝐺𝐼 -------------- (14.15)

In another fashion, we say, under sub-heading 14.3.2, CC = 1 to 5% of TPC. Let it

be 5% for this design. Therefore,

14.4.1. MANUFACTURING COST

All expenses directly connected with the manufacturing operation or the physical
equipment of a process. Manufacturing costs (MC) is the sum of direct production
costs (DPC), fixed charges (FC) and plant overhead cost (POC).

𝑀𝐶 = 𝐷𝑃𝐶 + 𝐹𝐶 + 𝑃𝑂𝐶 -------------- (14.17)

109
14.4.1.1. DIRECT PRODUCTION COST
Direct production cost (DPC) is about 60% of the total product
cost (TPC).

𝐷𝑃𝐶 = 0.6 × 𝑇𝑃𝐶 -------------- (14.18)

It includes:

1. Raw material cost (RMC): Is the cost of the chemical feedstock. It is 10-50%
of the total product cost (TPC). 25% is assumed for this cost after careful
evaluation.

𝑅𝑀𝐶 = 0.25 × 𝑇𝑃𝐶 -------------- (14.19)

Also expressed as

RMC = Amount of Incoming Stream × Cost ------------ (14.20)

According to (LPG Prices, 2018), the average price of LPG around the
world is 0.65 US Dollar per liter. Compressed air is generated by the plant
in C-01, so it is not purchased.

Other raw materials used in this plant are catalyst, steam, fuel, solvent (MEA) and
water. 2. Waste Treatment Cost (CWT): To calculate CWT, consider the
equation below for DPC:

𝐷𝑃𝐶 = 𝑅𝑀𝐶 + 𝐶𝑊𝑇 + 𝑈𝑇𝐶 + 𝑂𝐿𝐶 + 𝑀𝑅𝐶 + 𝑂𝑆𝐶 + 𝐿𝐵𝐶 + 𝑃𝑅 ---------- (14.21)

Thus,

𝐶𝑊𝑇 = 𝐷𝑃𝐶 − (𝑅𝑀𝐶 + 𝑈𝑇𝐶 + 𝑂𝐿𝐶 + 𝑀𝑅𝐶 + 𝑂𝑆𝐶 + 𝐿𝐵𝐶 + 𝑃𝑅)------- (14.22)

3. Utilities Cost (UTC): The cost of utilities such as: steam, electricity, process
and cooling water, compressed air, natural gas, fuel oil, refrigeration, and
waste disposal for ordinary chemical processes amount to 10 to 20 percent
of the total product cost (TPC). Assume 15%:
𝑈𝑇𝐶 = 0.15 × 𝑇𝑃𝐶 -------------- (14.23)

110
 4. Operating Labor (OLC): This is 10-20% of total product cost (TPC).
Assume 8%:

𝑂𝐿𝐶 = 0.08 × 𝑇𝑃𝐶 -------------- (14.24)

Operating labor is usually the second largest direct expense item on the
manufacturing expense. Almost all plants are operated on a shift-work basis (even
batch plants), with typically 4.8 operators per shift position with five 8-hour shifts
a week. This gives a four shift rotation with allowance for weekends, vacations, and
holidays and some use of overtime. More shift positions are needed when handling
highly toxic compounds and using more mechanical equipment.

Operating labor can be estimated by multiplying number of operators per shift with
4.8 operators per shift. The following technique used to estimate number of
operating labours for chemical processing plants is given by

𝑁𝑂𝐿 = (6.29 + 31.7𝑃2 + 0.23𝑁𝑛𝑃)0.5 ----------------- (14.25)

where, 𝑁𝑂𝐿 = number of operators per shift

𝑃 = In general, the value of 𝑃 is zero

𝑁𝑛𝑃 = number of processing steps (or number of equipments)

5. Maintenance & Repairs Cost (MRC) involves cost of labor and materials
associated with maintenance. It is 0.02-0.1 of the base module cost (BMC)
or 2-10% of the fixed-capital investment (FCI). For this we take 3% of FCI
as MRC.

𝑀𝑅𝐶 = 0.03 × 𝐹𝐶𝐼 ----------------- (14.26)

6. Operating Supplies Cost (OSC) or costs of miscellaneous supplies that

support daily operation not considered raw materials (chart paper,
lubricants, protective clothing, etc.). It is 0.1-0.2 of the base module cost
(BMC). It is also 10-20% of the maintenance and repairs cost (MRC) or 0.5-

111
 1% of the fixed-capital investment (FCI). Here, we consider the following
equation for OSC:

𝑂𝑆𝐶 = 0.14 × 𝑀𝑅𝐶 ----------------- (14.27)

7. Laboratory Charges (LBC): Is the cost of laboratory tests of quality control.

This is 0.1 to 0.2 fraction of the operating labor cost (OLC). In this case, it
can be expressed as:

𝐿𝐵𝐶 = 0.1 × 𝑂𝐿𝐶 -------------- (14.28)

8. Patent and Royalties (PR): That is, the cost of using patented or licensed
technology which is 0-0.06 fraction of the total product cost (TPC). Let’s
consider the following expression:

𝑃𝑅 = 0.03 × 𝑇𝑃𝐶 -------------- (14.29)

14.4.1.2. FIXED CHARGES

Fixed charges (FC) is 10-20% of the total product cost (TPC). Or

𝐹𝐶 = 𝐷𝑃 + 𝐿𝑇 + 𝐼𝐶 -------------- (14.30)

1. Depreciation (DP). This is simply, the decrease in value of an item over

time. It is about 10% of the fixed-capital investment (FCI) for machinery
and equipment and 2-3% of building value for buildings.

𝐷𝑃 = 0.1 × 𝐹𝐶𝐼 -------------- (14.31)

2. Local Taxes (LT): It is 1-4% of the fixed-capital investment (FCI). Two

percent is assumed for this type of fixed charges.

𝐿𝑇 = 0.02 × 𝐹𝐶𝐼 -------------- (14.32)

3. Insurance Cost (IC): It ranges from 0.4 to 10% of the fixed-capital

investment (FCI). This design takes IC as 5% of FCI

𝐼𝐶 = 0.05 × 𝐹𝐶𝐼 -------------- (14.33)

112
14.4.1.3. PLANT OVERHEAD COST
Plant Overhead Costs (POC): Catch-all costs associated with operation of
auxiliary facilities supporting manufacturing process (fire protection, safety and
medical services, etc.). It is 0.5-0.7 fraction of the operating labor cost (OLC).

𝑃𝑂𝐶 = 0.6 × 𝑂𝐿𝐶 -------------- (14.34)

14.4.2. GENERAL EXPENSES

General expenses (GE) is the sum of administrative cost (AC), distribution and sales cost
(DS) and research and development cost

Customizing GE in equation (48):

𝐺𝐸 = 𝑇𝑃𝐶 − (𝑀𝐶 + 𝐺𝐼) -------------- (14.35)

Or, 𝐺𝐸 = 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐷𝑆 + 𝑅𝐷 -------------- (14.36)

1. Administrative Costs (AC): Literature provides a range of 2-6% of the total

product cost (TPC). Taking AC to be 2% of TPC:

𝐴𝐶 = 0.02 × 𝑇𝑃𝐶 -------------- (14.37)

2. Distribution and Selling (DS): It is 2 to 20% of the total product cost (TPC).

Customizing equation (69) to compute DS:

𝐷𝑆 = 𝐺𝐸 − (𝐴𝐶 + 𝑅𝐷) -------------- (14.40)

3. Research and development (RD) is about 5% of the total product cost (TPC).

𝑅𝐷 = 0.05 × 𝑇𝑃𝐶 -------------- (14.41)

14.4.3. GROSS EARNINGS

Pre-tax earnings or gross income (GI) is the annual sales revenue (ASR) or known
as total income (TI) minus the total expenditure (TE)

𝐺𝐼 = 𝑇𝐼 − 𝑇𝐸 -------------- (14.42)

113
Rice, Husk and Bran are products to be sold;

For Rice

The current gross selling price of Rice selling price (RSP) is $250/ton. The plant is
expected to operate at a 95% stream time. Plant operating time (POT) is equal to 95%
times number of days of the year (Subramanian, 2011). Number of days of the year (NDY)
is taken to be 355 days with provision for probably 10 days of religious holiday celebration
and commemoration of important national events. Despite the expected plant capacity
(EPC) is 20 tons/day, it is often unrealistic to sale all of these amount on daily basis;
because sometimes, less are purchased. Assume 165 tons/day sold on average i.e. the
average daily sales (ADS).
TI (R) = ASP × ADS (R) × NDY -------------- (14.43)

For Husk

Husk selling price (HSP) is $ 75/ton. Expected plant capacity (EPC) for CO2 as
obtained from material balance. Average daily sales, ADS = 18 tons/day

TI (H) = CSP × ADS (H) × NDY -------------- (14.44)

For Bran

Bran selling price (BSP) is $ 110/ton. Expected plant capacity (EPC). Average daily
sales, ADS = 240 tons/day

TI (B) = HSP × ADS (B) × NDY -------------- (14.45)

Therefore, TI = TI (R) + TI (H) + TI (B) -------------- (14.46)

Total expenditure, TE = RMC + OLC + DP + POC --------------- (14.47)

The service factor needs to be known. It is the number of days in operation during
the year divided by 365 which is 0.97 for this plant.

114
14.5. SIMPLE ESTIMATE EARNINGS AND RETURNS
14.5.1. NET PROFIT
After-tax earnings or Net Profit (NP) is equal to the gross earnings (GI) minus
income taxes (IT) on the gross earnings.

𝑁𝑃 = 𝐺𝐼 − 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐺𝐼(1 − 𝑡) ------------- (14.48)

where 𝑡 stands for income tax rate. For companies in Nigeria (year 2018),
t = 30%

14.5.2. CASH FLOW (CF)

This simply defined as the net passage of money into (+) or out of (-) a company
due to an investment.

Cash Flow = Net (after tax) Profit + Allowed Depreciation Charges ------ (14.49)

14.5.3. RETURN OF INVESTMENT (ROI)

It is the annual interest-rate made by the profits on the original investment.

------------- (14.50)

An ROI > 15% is considered profitable

14.5.4. PAYBACK PERIOD (PBP)

It is the time (in years) required for the annual earnings to equal the original
investment. It is given by

(14.51)

For PBP < 3-4 years, the project is considered profitable; for PBP between 4 and 10 years
(i.e. 4 < PBP < 10 years), there is additional assess; and for PBP > 10 years, the project is
considered non-profitable.

115
14.5.5. ECONOMIC EVALUATION DATA TABLE
Table 14.2: Cost of Investment and Return of Investment
Cost Estimates (N) Relation Amount (N)
ESTIMATION OF CAPITAL INVESTMENT COST
 Fixed Capital Investment FCI=DC+IC 42,066,945
(FCI)
DC=PEC+ICC+PC+LC+BC+EEC 21,706,543
(1) Direct Cost (DC)
PEC=Total Equipment Cost 8,413,389
- PEC PIC=0.25×PEC 2,103,347
- PIC ICC=0.15×PEC 1,262,008
- ICC PC=0.50×PEC 4,206,694
- PC LC=0.01×FCI 420,669.4
- LC BC=0.45×PEC 3,786,025
- BC EEC=0.18×PEC 1,514,410
- EEC
IC=FCI – DC 20,360,401
(2) Indirect Cost (IC)

116
 - DSC DSC=0.25 DC 5,426,636
- CE CE=0.30 DC 6,511,963
- CC CC=IC – (DSC+CE) 8,421,802

 Working Capital Investment WCI=0.12 FCI 5,048,033

(WCI)

47,114,978
Total Capital Investment TCI=FCI+WCI

(TCI)
ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST
Manufacturing Cost (MC) MC=DPC+FC+POC 116,297,939

101,061,628
(1) Direct Product Cost (DPC) DPC=0.60 TPC

42,109,012
12,373,066

• RMC - RMC=0.25 TPC 25,265,407

• CWT CWT 13,474,883
• UTC UTC=0.15 TPC
1,262,008
• OLC
• MRC OLC=0.08 TPC 176,681

• OSC MRC=0.03 FCI

1,347,488
• LBC OSC=0.14 MRC

• PR LBC=0.10 OLC
5,053,081
PR=0.03 TPC

7,151,381

FC=DP+LT+IC 4,206,694
(1) Fixed Charges (FC)

117
 - LT DP=0.10 FCI 841,339
- DP LT=0.02 FCI 2,103,347
- IC IC=0.05 FCI

(2) Plant Overhead Cost 8,084,930

(POC) POC=0.60 OLC
31,848,774
• General Expenses (GE) GE=TPC – (MC+GI)

(1) Administrative Costs (AC)

(2) Distribution and Selling 3,368,721
(DS) AC=0.02 TPC 20,058,251
(3) Research and DS=GE – (AC+RD) 8,421,802
Development RD=0.05 TPC

(RD)

GI = TI – TE 20,289,333

Gross Earnings (GI)

TE=RMC+OLC+DP+POC 67,875,520
Total Expenditure (TE)
Total Product Cost (TPC) TPC=CC/0.05 168,436,047

SIMPLE ESTIMATE EARNINGS AND RETURNS

Net Profit (NP)

NP=GI(1 – t) 14,202,533
Cash Flow (CF)
18,409,227
CF=NP+DP

Return of Investment (ROI) (%) ROI=NP/TCI

30
Payback Period (PBP) (yr)
PBP=TCI/CF 2.6

118
 CHAPTER FIFTEEN

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

15.1 CONCLUSION
It is clear that the aforementioned objectives have been successfully achieved. Complete
material balance, energy balance, design of a few equipment’s, piping design and
instrumentation diagram and plant layout has been done. The optimization parameter
temperature of hot air coming to the dryer (equipment optimization and operating
condition optimization) being conducted on the process where seen to be increasing with
increase in temperature. Adequate controls of process variable have been carried out in
chapter eleven of this work. All these variables were seriously emphasized in the process
units and specified set points adequate for optimum operation of the units. With safety in
every engineer’s mind, this work encourages the adherence to safety measures previously
suggested. This project is profitable with 30% return on investment and a pay-back period
of 2 years 7 months

15.2 RECOMMENDATION

The following recommendations are made;

1. Due to different types or varieties of rice that comes with different moisture
content other variety of rice should be tested and also the use of different
simulation tool
2. Further research should be carried out on other milling techniques in order to
reduce their expensive nature.

119
 REFERENCES
AGNOUN, A., SAMADORI, S., BIAOU, H., SIE, M., VODOUHÈ, R. &
AHANCHÉDÉ, A. 2012a. The African rice Oryza glaberrima Steud: knowledge
distribution and prospects. International Journal of Biology.
AGNOUN, A., SAMADORI, S., BIAOU, H., SIE, M., VODOUHÈ, R. &
AHANCHÉDÉ, A. J. I. J. O. B. 2012b. The African rice Oryza glaberrima Steud:
knowledge distribution and prospects.
AKINBILE, L. Determinants of productivity level among rice farmers in Ogun State,
Nigeria. African Crop Science Conference Proceedings, 2007. 1339-1344.
ANDRIESSE, W. & FRESCO, L. O. 1991. A characterization of rice-growing
environments in West Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 33, 377-
395.
BABATUNDE, R., SALAMI, M. & MOHAMMED, B. 2016. Determinants of Yield
Gap in Rain fed and Irrigated Rice Production: Evidence from Household Survey
in Kwara State.
BECHTEL, D. B. & POMERANZ, Y. 1977. Ultrastructure of the mature ungerminated
rice (Oryza sativa) caryopsis. The caryopsis coat and the aleurone cells.
American Journal of Botany, 64, 966-973.
BUTLER, B. J., HEWES, J. H., DICKINSON, B. J., ANDREJCZYK, K., BUTLER, S.
M. & MARKOWSKI-LINDSAY, M. 2016. Family forest ownerships of the
United States, 2013: Findings from the USDA Forest Service's national
woodland owner survey. Journal of Forestry, 114, 638-647.
CHAMPAGNE, E., BETT‐GARBER, K., MCCLUNG, A. & BERGMAN, C. 2004.
Sensory characteristics of diverse rice cultivars as influenced by genetic and
environmental factors. Cereal Chemistry, 81, 237-243.
CO_GEN, N. G. B. 2007. Bureau of energy efficiency. Ministry of Power, Government
of India, New Delhi.
DAUD, Z., ABUBAKAR, M. H., AWANG, H., AHMED, Z. B., ROSLI, M. A.,
RIDZUAN, M. B., ALIYU, R. & TAJARUDIN, H. A. 2018. Optimization of
Batch Conditions for COD and Ammonia Nitrogen Removal Using cockle shells

120
 Through Response Surface Methodology. International Journal of Integrated
Engineering, 10.
DUGJE, I. Y. Rice production and technology transfer in Borno state. A situation report
presented at the Multi-Agency Partnerships (M-APs) Workshop on Rice
production in Nigeria, held at Jos, 2000. 8.
ERENSTEIN, O., LANÇON, F., AKANDE, S., TITILOLA, S., AKPOKODJE, G.,
OGUNDELE, O. & ABIDJAN, C. D. I. 2003. Rice production systems in
Nigeria: A survey. Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire: West Africa Rice Development
Association.
FAHIM, M. A., ALSAHAF, T. A. & ELKILANI, A. S. 2010. Fundamentals of
Petroleum Refining, Khaldeya, Kuwait, Elsevier.
FINOCCHIARO, F., FERRARI, B. & GIANINETTI, A. 2010. A study of biodiversity
of flavonoid content in the rice caryopsis evidencing simultaneous accumulation
of anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins in a black-grained genotype. Journal of
Cereal Science, 51, 28-34.
FULLER, D. Q. J. R. 2011. Pathways to Asian civilizations: tracing the origins and
spread of rice and rice cultures. 4, 78-92.
GE, S., SANG, T., LU, B.-R. & HONG, D.-Y. J. P. O. T. N. A. O. S. 1999. Phylogeny
of rice genomes with emphasis on origins of allotetraploid species. 96, 14400-
14405.
GREMA, A., IMAM, Y. & MOHAMMED, H. 2018. Modeling and Simulation of
Hemihydrate Phosphoric Acid Plant. Arid Zone Journal of Engineering,
Technology and Environment, 14, 169-171.
HAYNES, R. J., BELYAEVA, O. & KINGSTON, G. 2013. Evaluation of industrial
wastes as sources of fertilizer silicon using chemical extractions and plant
uptake. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 176, 238-248.
IBRAHIM, H. Y. & IBRAHIM, H. I. 2012. Energy use analysis for rice production in
Nasarawa state, Nigeria. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 15.
IMOLEHIN, E. Rice improvement and production in Nigeria. WARDA Upland
Breeding Task-Force Workshop, Bouake, Côte d’Ivoire, 1991.

121
IMOLEHIN, E. & WADA, A. 2000. Meeting the rice production and consumption
demands of Nigeria with improved technologies. International Rice Commission
Newsletter, 49, 33-41.
IRAKLI, M., CHATZOPOULOU, P., KADOGLIDOU, K. & TSIVELIKA, N. 2016.
Optimization and development of a high‐performance liquid chromatography
method for the simultaneous determination of vitamin E and carotenoids in
tomato fruits. Journal of separation science, 39, 3348-3356.
JOHNSON, M. & MASIAS, I. 2016. Assessing the State of the rice milling Sector in
Nigeria. Working Paper 40 of International Food Policy Research Institute.
JONES, C. 1995. Rice price stabilisation in Indonesia: an economic assessment of the
changes in risk bearing. Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 31, 109-128.
JULIANO, B. O. & TUAÑO, A. P. P. 2019. Gross structure and composition of the rice
grain. Rice. Elsevier.
LAGUNA, E., DELTORO, V., PÉREZ-BOTELLA, J., PÉREZ-ROVIRA, P., SERRA,
L., OLIVARES, A. & FABREGAT, C. 2004. The role of small reserves in plant
conservation in a region of high diversity in eastern Spain. Biological
Conservation, 119, 421-426.
LUYBEN, W. L. & LUYBEN, M. L. 1997. Essentials of process Control, New york,
McGraw hill Publishing co.
OUDHIA, P., PANDEY, N. & TRIPATHI, R. J. I. R. R. N. 1999. Allelopathic effects of
weeds on germination and seedling vigor of hybrid rice. 24, 1-1.
RASHID-NOAH, A. 1995. WARDA training guide 3: survey and development of
uplands for rice production. United Kingdom: West Africa Rice Development
Association.
RICHARDS, G. & RICHARDS, G. B. 1996. Cultural tourism in Europe, Cab
International.
SHAO, Y., XU, F., SUN, X., BAO, J. & BETA, T. 2014. Identification and
quantification of phenolic acids and anthocyanins as antioxidants in bran,
embryo and endosperm of white, red and black rice kernels (Oryza sativa L.).
Journal of Cereal Science, 59, 211-218.

122
SILVA, R. O., TORRES, C. M., BONFIM-ROCHA, L., LIMA, O. C., COUTU, A.,
JIMÉNEZ, L. & JORGE, L. M. M. 2018. Multi-objective optimization of an
industrial ethanol distillation system for vinasse reduction–A case study. Journal
of cleaner production, 183, 956-963.
SINGH, R., GAUTAM, P., SAXENA, S. & SINGH, S. 2000a. Scented rice germplasm:
conservation, evaluation and utilization. Aromatic rices. Kalyani, New Delhi,
107-133.
SINGH, V., SINGH, U. & KHUSH, G. 2000b. Basmati rice of India. Aromatic rices,
135.
SWEENEY, M. & MCCOUCH, S. J. A. O. B. 2007. The complex history of the
domestication of rice. 100, 951-957.
TARANTOLA, S., GIGLIOLI, N., JESINGHAUS, J. & SALTELLI, A. 2002. Can
global sensitivity analysis steer the implementation of models for environmental
assessments and decision-making? Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk
Assessment, 16, 63-76.
TUBIELLO, F. N., SALVATORE, M., ROSSI, S., FERRARA, A., FITTON, N. &
SMITH, P. J. E. R. L. 2013. The FAOSTAT database of greenhouse gas
emissions from agriculture. 8, 015009.
VAUGHAN, D. A. 1994. The wild relatives of rice: a genetic resources handbook, Int.
Rice Res. Inst.
VAUGHAN, D. A., MORISHIMA, H. J. R. O., HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, &
PRODUCTION 2003. Biosystematics of the genus Oryza. 27, 65.
VIDAL, V., PONS, B., BRUNNSCHWEILER, J., HANDSCHIN, S., ROUAU, X. &
MESTRES, C. 2007. Cooking behavior of rice in relation to kernel
physicochemical and structural properties. Journal of agricultural and food
chemistry, 55, 336-346.
WASSMANN, R., JAGADISH, S., SUMFLETH, K., PATHAK, H., HOWELL, G.,
ISMAIL, A., SERRAJ, R., REDONA, E., SINGH, R. & HEUER, S. 2009.
Regional vulnerability of climate change impacts on Asian rice production and
scope for adaptation. Advances in agronomy, 102, 91-133.

123
 APPENDIX A
MATERIAL BALANCE

Mass balance equations:

A: I=W1 + X1 = 0.................................................................... (1)

B: X1= X2 + W2 = 0.................................................................... (2)

D: X2= X3 + W3 = 0.................................................................... (3)

E: X3 = X4 + W4 = 0.................................................................... (4)

H: X4= X6 + W6 = 0.................................................................... (5)

J: X6 = X7 + W7 = 0.................................................................... (6)

K: X7 = p1 + p2 = 0.................................................................... (7)

Description of symbols of Complex Mass Balance Model

INPUT OUTPUT
I1= paddy P1= clean head white rice
I2= water P2= broken white rice

Waste Product
W1= leaves and stems X1= clean wet paddy
W2= vapor X2= parboiled paddy
W3= stones X3= stone free paddy
W4= rice husk X4= husked rice
W5= unhusked rice X5= brown rice
W6= rice bran X6= white rice
W7= colored rice X7= polished white rice

124
Feed (Rice paddy) I1 = 20 ton/day = 833.33kg/hr

Feed (water) I2= 35 ton/day = 1322.9kg/hr

Overall feed I = 833.33+1322.9 = 2156.23kg/hr

Balance on A

I1 I2
833.33kg/hr 1322.9kg/hr

W1
1324.98kg/h
X1
831.247kg/
hr

Specifications

Cleaning Efficiency = 100%

Mole fraction of impurity xW1 = 0.61449

I= X1 + W1

But, W1 = XW1 (I) = 0.61449 (2156.23kg/hr) = 1324.981kg/hr

125
 Output Clean paddy+inpurity
Again, cleaner efficiency = =
Input Rice paddy

X1+𝑊1
1= I

Therefore, X1 = I + W1 = 2156.23 – 1324.981 = 831.247kg/hr

Balance around B

X1
831.247kg/hr

X2
W2 808.387kg/hr
22.86kg/hr

Specifications

11% water is removed as W2

25% moisture is in I1 = 0.25(831.247) = 207.82kg/hr

i.e 0.11(207.820) = 22.86kg/hr = W2

X1 = X2 + W2

X2 = X1 - W2 = 831.247 – 22.86 = 808.387kg/hr

The drying efficiency is therefore,

𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑋2 808.387

D.E = 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑦 = 𝑋1 =831.247 = 97.2%

Balance around C

126
 D

X2
808.387kg/hr

X3
W3
808.307kg/hr
0.08kg/hr

Specifications

Assume 0.0001 mass fraction of stone is the dried paddy of which 1% is paddy

So, W3 = 0.0001 X2 = 0.0001(808.387) = 0.08kg/hr

But 1% of this is paddy therefore 0.01(0.08) = 0.0008kg/hr

Take efficiency of the destoner to be = 99%

Overall balance: X2 = X3 + W3 (4)

808.387 = X3 + 0.08

X3 = 808.307 kg/hr

Note: I1 =W1 + W2 +W3 + X3

=>Balance around E:

127
 X3
808.307kg/hr F

W4
161.66kg/hr

X4
646.647kg/hr

Overall balance: X3 =X4 + W4 (5)

Here 20% of the stone free paddy is removed as husk:

Therefore, W4 = 0.2X3 = 0.2(808.307) = 161.66 kg/hr

So, from equation (5)

X4 = X3 – W4 = 808.307 – 161.66 = 646.647 kg/hr

=> Balance around H:

W6
X4 64.665kg/hr
646.647kg/hr

X6
581.982kg/hr

Thus, X4 = X6 + W6 (6)

128
10% removed as bran:

Therefore 0.1X4 = W6

W6 = 0.1(646.647) = 64.665 kg/hr

The stream of white rice + brown rice is X6.

Brown rice in stream X6 is 0.9% of the total.

From equation (6): X6 = X4 – W6 = 646.647 – 64.665 = 581.982 kg/hr

0.9
Amount that is brown rice = 100 × 581.982 = 5.238 kg/hr

The remaining is white rice.

=> Balance around J:

X6 X7
581.982kg/hr 576.744kg/hr

W7
5.328kg/hr

X6 = X7 +W7 (7)

So, W7 = 5.328 KG/HR

And X7 = 587.982 – 5.233 = 576.744 kg/hr

=> Balance around K:

129
 P1
573.86kg/hr

K P2
2.884kg/hr

X7
576.744kg/hr

For X7 = P1 + P2 (8)

In this unit, the accepted rice is examined and the broken once removed. The mass fraction
of the broken rice is 0.005.

So, 0.005X7 = P2

P2 = 0.005(576.744) = 2.884 kg/hr

And then, P1 = X7 – P2 = 576.744 – 2.884 =573.86 kg/hr of head rice

Balance for the whole process

INPUT
PRODUCT
MILLING

WASTE

Waste = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4 + W6 + W7 + P2 = 2.083 + 22.86 + 0.08 + 161.66 + 64,665

+ 5.238 + 2.884 = 259.47 kg/hr is removed as waste

Input = Waste + product

I1 = Waste + P1 = 259.47 + 573.86 = 833.33 kg/hr

130
 APPENDIX B
ENERGY BALANCE CALCULATION

Energy balance on dryer

Q = 1488 Kw/J

.∆H = 831.24 × 0.782 × (80-85)

= 16250.742 J

W = 14888-1650.74

= 15762.1J

Energy balance on De-husker

Q = 1176 Kw/J

.∆H = 808.307 × 0.782 × (0-25)

= -15802.4 J

W = 1176-15802.2

= 16978.4J

Energy balance on Whitener

Q = 2472 Kw/J

.∆H = 646.647 × 0.782 × (0-255)

= -12641.9 J

W = 12641.94 + 2472

= 15113.94J

131
Energy balance on Polisher

Q = 1704 Kw/J

.∆H = 581.928 × 0.782 × (0-25)

= 11376 J

W = 1704-(-11376)

= 13080J

Energy balance on dryer

Q = 1488 Kw/J

.∆H = 831.24 × 0.782 × (80-85)

= 16250.742 J

W = 14888-1650.74

= 15762.1J

132
 APPENDIX C
CONFIRMATION OF MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE

%CALCULATE THE OVERALL MATERIAL BALANCE

%GROUP 3 DESIGN PROJECT:

l1=833.33;

l2=1322.9;

l=l1+l2;

w=0.61449;

w1=w*l;

x1=l-w_1

wr1=0.11;

m1=0.25;

mc= (0.25*x1);

w2= (0.11*mc);

x2=x1-w2;

%calculate D.E

D.E=x1/x2

%calculate x3

W_0= 0.0001;

w3=W_0*x2

133
x3=x2-w3

%calculate x4

wst=0.2;

w4= wst*x3

x4=x3-w4

%calculate x6

br=0.1

wr=0.9

w6=br*x4

x6=x4-w6

%calculate H.E

p=br/100

H.E=p*x6

%calculate x7

w7=H.E

x7=x6-w7

%calculate x8

MF=0.005

P2=MF*x7

P1=x7-P2

%calculate overall balance

W=w1+w2+w3+w4+w6+w7+P2

l1=w+P1

134
 APPENDIX D
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS AND OPTIMIZATION

DRYER OPTIMIZATION:
%calculate dryer efficiency
%known values
cp=0.785
m1=0.25
mr=0.08:.01:.11
x1=(831.247)
m3=m1*x1
w2=m3*mr
x2=x1-w2
D.E=x1./x2
%calculate heat requirement
U=10
T1=0
T2=80
A=20
dT=T2-T1
Q=U*A*dT
Mwet=831.247
Mdry=808.387
Mwet-Mdry./Mdry.*100
%calculate the drying time
X0=0.25
X1=0.11
Nc=cp*A*dT
Ms=x1

135
dt=Ms./Nc.*(1./3600)*(X0-X1)

136
 APPENDIX E
ECONOMIC COST EVALUATION

FCI:
PEC 𝟖𝟒𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟖𝟗
FCI= = = ₦42,066,945
0.2 0.2

PIC:

PIC= 0.25× PEC = 0.25 × 8413389 = ₦2,103,347

ICC

ICC = 0.15 × PEC = 0.15 × 8413389 = ₦1,262,008

PC
PC =0.50× PEC = 0.50 × 8413389 = ₦4,206,694

LC

LC=0.01× FCI = 0.01 × 42066945 = ₦420,669.45

BC

BC=0.45× PEC = 0.45 × 8413389 = ₦3,786,025

EEC:
EEC=0.18× PEC = 0.18 × 8413389 =
₦1,514,410

From equation (42): 𝐷𝐶 = 𝑃𝐸𝐶 + 𝑃𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐶𝐶 + 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐸𝐸𝐶

137
 =8413389+2103347+1262008+42066945+420669.45
+3786025+1514410
= ₦21,706,543

IC

IC= DC−FCI = ₦42066945−₦21706543 = ₦20,360,401

DSC

DSC=0.25× ₦21706543 = ₦5,426,636

CE:

CE=0.3× DC = 0.3 × ₦21706543 = ₦6,511,963

CC:

𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 − (𝐷𝑆𝐶 + 𝐶𝐸)

= ₦900433315−(₦280417500.5 + ₦336501000.6)

= ₦283514813.9

WCI:

WCI= 0.12 × FCI = O. 12 × ₦221236687= ₦26548402.44

TCI:
TCI=FCI+WCI=₦221236687+₦26548
402.44=₦247785089.4

138
ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST

TPC:

CC ₦283514813.9
TPC=0.05 = = ₦5670296278
0.05

DPC:

DPC=0.6× TPC = 0.6 × ₦5670296278 = ₦3402177767

RMC:
RMC=0.25× TPC = 0.25 ×
₦5670296278 = ₦1417574070

UTC:
UTC=0.15× TPC = 0.15 × ₦5670296278 = ₦850544441.7

OLC:
OLC = 0.08 × TPC = 0.08 × ₦5670296278 = ₦453623702.2

MRC:

MRC=0.03× FCI = 0.03 × ₦221236687= ₦6637100.61

OSC:
OSC=0.14× MRC = 0.14 × ₦6637100.61 = ₦929194.0854

139
LBC:
LBC=0.1× OLC = 0.1 × ₦453623702.2 = ₦453623702.2

PR:

PR=0.03× TPC = ₦5670296278 =

₦170108888.3

CWT:

CWT=DPC−(RMC + UTC + OLC + MRC + OSC + LBC + PR)

= ₦3402177767 − (₦1417574070 + ₦850544441.7 +

₦453623702.2 + ₦6637100.61 + ₦929194.0854 + ₦453623702.2 +
₦170108888.3 = ₦49136667.9

DP:

DP= 0.1 × FCI = 0.1 × ₦221236687= ₦453623702.2

LT:

LT= 0.02 × ₦221236687= ₦44247336

IC:

IC= 0.05 × FCI =0.05× ₦221236687

=₦110619.35

FC:

140
𝐹𝐶 = 𝐷𝑃 + 𝐿𝑇 + 𝐼𝐶 = ₦22123668.7+₦44247336 +₦110619.35

FC=66481624.05

POC:
POC= 0.6 × OLC = 0.6 × ₦453623702.2 = ₦272174221.3

MC:

𝑀𝐶 = 𝐷𝑃𝐶 + 𝐹𝐶 + 𝑃𝑂𝐶= ₦3402177767 + ₦66481624.05 + ₦272174221.3=

₦3740833612

AC:

AC= 0.02 × TPC = 0.02 × ₦5670296278 = ₦113405925.6

RD:

RD= 0.05 × ₦5670296278 = ₦283514813.9

TE:
From equation (78): TE = RMC + OLC + DP + POC= ₦1417574070 +
₦453623702.2 + ₦453623702.2 + ₦272174221.3= ₦2596995695

TE = ₦2596995695

TI (R)= ASP × ADS (R) × NDY

= 250 × 165 × 355 = $ 14643750 / yr

/ yr TI (H) = CSP × ADS (H) × NDY

= 75 × 18 × 355 = $ 479250 / yr

141
 /
yr

TI (B) = HSP × ADS (B) × NDY

= 110 × 240 × 355 = $ 9372000 / yr

/
yr

TI = TI (R) + TI (H) + TI (B)

TI = ₦88,164,854

GI:
GI= TI − TE = ₦88164854 + ₦67875520 = ₦20,289,333

GE:
𝐺𝐸 = 𝑇𝑃𝐶 − (𝑀𝐶 + 𝐺𝐼) = ₦168436047 − (₦116297939 + ₦20289333)

GE= ₦31,848,774

DS

𝐷𝑆 = 𝐺𝐸 − (𝐴𝐶 + 𝑅𝐷)

= ₦31848774 −(₦3368721 + 8421802)

= ₦20,058,251

SIMPLE ESTIMATE EARNINGS AND RETURNS

NP:

From equation (79):NP= G1(1 − t) == ₦20289333(1 − 0.3) = ₦14,202,533

142
CF:
Cf= NP + DP = ₦142025333 + ₦4206694 = ₦18,409,228

ROI:
NP ₦142025333
ROI% = TCI = = 30%
₦4711498

PBP:
TCI ₦47114978
PBP = = ₦18409228 =2.6 years
CF

It is therefore concluded that this project is a profitable venture with net profit of
N7989100000, return of investment of 32% with a pay-back period of 1 years.

143