I.

VARIABLE LOAD PROBLEM

LEARNING OUTCOME

1. Explain the function of a power plant and compare it to industrial plant.

2. Identify the types of load curves used in power plant operation analysis and
illustrate how to construct these curves.
3. Explain the importance of load factors and demonstrate how to use these
factors in power plant analysis.
4. Solve example problems on load curves and load factors.

A. INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND POWER GENERATION

A power plant is considered as a factory that converts energy from fossil
fuels, potential energy from bodies of water and other non-conventional or
renewable energy sources such as solar wind, ocean wave, etc.
1. Kinds of Fuels:
a) Fossil Fuels - Natural
b) Synthetic Fuels – Man Made
2. Kinds of Power Plants:
a) Conventional Power Plants – These are generally used plants such as:
i) Thermal Plants – Steam is the source of energy.
Example: Dendro-thermal Wood is the fuel used to produce steam,
Coal Fired – coal, Fuel oil or Bunker fuel fired, Geothermal,
Natural gas, nuclear, etc
ii) Hydro-Electric Power Plants
iii) Diesel Engine Power Plants
b) Non-Conventional – Not widely used power plants such as plants using
renewable energy sources. Example: Solar, wind, ocean wave, etc.

The difference between an industrial factory and power generation is that

a power plant product is not completed until the instant it is needed and then only
in quantities exactly equal to the instantaneous demand.
There is no simple way to warehouse an extra supply of kilowatt hours
against some future period of extraordinary demand.
There is where the variable load problem exists in power generation.

Pictorial Diagram of a Typical Electric Power System

 Public Electric Supply System

Pictorial Diagram of a Typical Electric Power System

Power Distribution System Diagram
LOAD CURVE
The operating data of a demanded/generated load plotted against time
sequence. A graphical representation of the energy in kilowatt demanded in a
certain locality against time.

Time sequences of Load Curves:

1. Daily Load Curve – Kilowatt demanded plotted on the ordinate against hours
of the day plotted on the abscissa starting from 12 midnight to 12 midnight the
following day.
This may be obtained from recorded demands in substations if electricity is
existing or house-to-house survey if electricity is not yet available in a locality
or locality comparison.
Significance:
- To determine the daily plant capacity
- For plant capacity, add allowances for generation and
distribution losses.
- Plant use = 5%
- Safety allowance = 5%
- Pilferage loss = 10% to 20%
- Line loss = 5% to 10%

- Used as a guide in generating kilowatt energy

- For metering purposes
- For maintenance scheduling

2. Weekly Load Curve – Kilowatt demanded against days of the week.

3. Monthly Load Curve – Kilowatt demanded for the month against days of the
month. This is used in establishing rates.

4. Annual Load Curve – Kilowatt demanded against months of the year. This is
used to study load factors.

5. Annual Duration Curve – A graphical representation indicating the total span

of time in hours at which a certain amount of kilowatt is generated or
demanded in a year. This is obtained from the data in the daily load curve.
This is useful in financial studies and predictions.
 Example of load curves:

The daily load curve for weekdays of a certain power system is given by the
following average data:

AM
Time, hours, 12MN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12NN
Load, kW 380 220 200 190 180 180 200 300 410 560 540 610 605

PM
Time, hours, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12MN
Load, kW 500 620 670 760 1000 930 900 870 850 720 600 450

a) Plot the daily load curve to scales of 1cm = 100kW, 1cm = 1hour.
b) Determine the plant capacity and the average load.
c) Construct the annual duration curve.

Solution:
a) Determine the plant capacity considering the different allowances mentioned
above:

Plant use = 0.05 x 1000 = 50 kW

Safety allowance = 0.05 x 1000 = 50 kW
Pilferage loss = 0.15 x 1000 = 150 kW
Line loss = 0.08 x 1000 = 80 kW
Plant capacity = 1000 + 330 = 1330 kW, say 1400 kW

Draw the daily load curve by plotting the daily loads in kW on the ordinate
(y-axis) and the time in hours on the abscissa (x-axis), accordingly.
1800 1800

1700 DAILY LOAD CURVE 1700

1600 1600

1500 1500

Plant Capacity
1400 1400

1300 1300

Reserve Over Peak

1200 1200

1100 1100

Peak Load
1000 • 1000

900 900

800 800

700 700

600 600
Average Load = 542.92 kW

500 500

400 400

300 300
kW-hr Generated

200 200
h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h23 h24 h25

100 100

12 MN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 NN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 MN
kW-HR Generated = Area under the load curve, AT
AT = 1/2 ( h1 + 2h2 + 2h3 + 2h4 + 2h5 + ….. + 2h23 + 2h24 + h25) (1 hr)
Where h is the load in kW
AT = 13,030 kW-HR

Average Load = Energy Generated/Time Specified

Average Load = 13,030/24
Average Load = 542.92 kW

Annual Duration Curve

a) Number of hours that 180 kW is demanded or generated in one year, N 180
N180 = 24 hr/day x 365 days/year = 8760 hours
b) Number of hours that 200 kW is demanded or generated in one year, N 200
N200 = 20 x 365 = 7300 hrs
c) N300 = 17.5 x 365 = 6387.5 hrs
d) N400 = 16 x 365 = 5840 hrs
e) N500 = 15.08 x 365 = 5505.4 hrs
f) N600 = 10.17 x 365 = 3710.8 hrs
g) N700 = 6.92 x 365 = 2524.6 hrs
h) N800 = 5.17 x 365 = 1885.8 hrs
i) N900 = 2.42 x 365 = 882.1 hrs
j) N1000 = 0 x 365 = 0

Through 73% of the year (6,387.5 hours), not more than 30% (300 kW) of the
maximum demand was required.
1800 1800

1700 ANNUAL DURATION CURVE 1700

1600 1600

1500 1500

1400 1400

1300 1300

1200 1200

1100 1100

1000 • 1000

900 • 900

800 • 800

700 • 700

600 • 600

500 • 500

400 • 400

6387.5 hours
300
73% of the year • 300

200 • • 200
300 kW
30% of the maximum demand
100 100

365 730 1095 1460 1825 2190 2555 2920 3285 3650 4015 4380 4745 5110 5475 5840 6205 6570 6935 7300 7665 8030 8395 8760
 B. FACTORS AND RATIOS
- Factors or ratios which give numerical expression as to the
performance and efficiency of a power system with respect to power
generation, transmission and distribution according to the daily
demand.

1. Reserve Over Peak :

Reserve Over Peak = Plant Capacity – Peak Load

2. Average Load :
kW-hrs Energy demanded or generated
Average Load =
Number of Hours
kW-hrs Energy demanded or generated = Area under the load curve

kW-hrs of energy generated in a day

Daily Average Load =
24

kW-hrs of energy generated in a month

Monthly Average Load =
24 x 30

kW-hrs of energy generated in a year

Annual Average Load =
24 x 365

Generation Factors:
3. Load Factor: Expresses the relation of the peak load to the average load.
Average Load
Load Factor = < 1, The greater, the better is the plant
Peak Load

4. Capacity Factor or Plant Factor: Measures the degree of utilization of the plant

Capacity Factor = Actual Energy Produced

Maximum Possible Energy Produced On the same Period
 5. Annual Capacity Factor :
Annual Capacity Factor = Annual Energy Production (kw-hrs)
kW Plant Capacity x 8760 hrs
= Average Load
Plant Capacity
6. Use Factor :
Use Factor = Annual kW-hrs
kW Plant Capacity x No. of Hours Operation

Distribution Factors:

7. Demand Factor :
Demand Factor = Actual Maximum Demand <1
Connected Load
Connected Load – Sum of the continuous ratings of all equipment and
other outlets in a customer’s circuit

8. Diversity Factor :
Diversity Factor = Sum of Individual Maximum Demand
Maximum Simultaneous Demands
Diversity Factor > 1. The nearer to one, the better.

Demand and Diversity Factors shows the capability of an energy

distribution system to supply enough energy to numerous groups of
consumers with different maximum demands at different times of the day.

9. Utilization Factor :
Utilization Factor = Maximum Demand of the System
Rated Capacity of the System

10. Operation Factor :

Operation Factor = Duration of Actual Service
Total Duration of the Considered Period
Example of Load Factors and Ratios:
1. A central power station is supplying energy to a community through two
substations. One substation feeds four distributing circuits, the other, six. The
maximum daily recorded demands are:

Power Station ------------- 12,000 kW

Substation A ------------- 6,000 kW
Feeder 1 -------- 1,700 kW
Feeder 2 -------- 1,800 kW
Feeder 3 -------- 2,800 kW
Feeder 4 -------- 600 kW
Substation B -------------- 9,000 kW
Feeder 1 --------- 620 kW
Feeder 2 --------- 1,500 kW
Feeder 3 --------- 1,000 kW
Feeder 4 --------- 2,900 kW
Feeder 5 --------- 2,200 kW
Feeder 6 --------- 3,000 kW
Calculate the diversity factor between (a) substations, (b) Feeders on substation
A and (c) Feeders on substation B

Solution:

Power
Station
12,000 kW

Subsatation Subsatation
A A
6,000 kW 9,000 kW

Feeders Feeders

1,700 1,800 2,800 600 620 1,500 1,000 2,900 2,060 3,000
0
(a) Diversity factor between substations

Sum of individual maximum demands

Diversity Factor =
Simultaneous maximum demand

Max. Demand of Subs. A + Max. Demand of Subs. B

=
Diversity Factor = Maximum Demand of Power Station

6,000 kW + 9,000 kW
12,000 kW

Diversity Factor = 1.25

(b) Diversity factor between feeders on substation A

Sum of individual maximum demands

Diversity Factor =
Simultaneous maximum demand

Sum of Maximum Demands of each Feeder in Substation A

=
Maximum Demand of Substation A

1,700 + 1,800 + 2,800 + 600

Diversity Factor =
6,000

Diversity Factor = 1.15

(c) Diversity factor between feeders on substation B

Sum of individual maximum demands

Diversity Factor =
Simultaneous maximum demand

Sum of Maximum Demands of each Feeder in Substation B

=
Maximum Demand of Substation B

620 + 1,500 + 1,000 + 2,900 + 2,200 + 3,000

Diversity Factor =
9,000

Diversity Factor = 1.247

 2. A distribution transformer supplies a group of general power customers having a
total connected load of 186 kW. Demand Factor is 0.75. If the load factor for the
group will average 45% and the energy sells at PhP15.90 per kW-hr, what will be
the monthly (30-day) income from energy delivered through this transformer?
Assume motor average efficiency of 75%.

Solution:

Actual Maximum Demand

Demand Factor =
Connected Load

Actual Maximum Demand = Demand Factor x Connected Load

= 0.75 x 186 kW

Actual Maximum Demand = 139.5 kW

Sum of individual maximum demands

Diversity Factor =
Simultaneous maximum demand

Sum of Individual Maximum Demand

Simultaneous Max. Demand =
Diversity Factor

From Table 2.2, page 42, Power Plant Engineering by Morse (see table above),
Diversity Factor for General Power Service between consumers = 1.5

Therefore,

139.5 kW
Simultaneous Max. Demand = = 93 kW
1.5

With 75% motor efficiency, the Simultaneous Maximum Demand on the

distribution transformer is
93 kW
=
0.75

= 124 kW

Average Load on Transformer

Load Factor =
Peak Load

Average Load on Transformer = Load Factor x Peak Load

= 0.45 x 124 kW

Average Load on Transformer = 55.8 kW

Kw-hrs delivered in 30 days = 55.8 kW x 30 days x 24 hrs/day

Kw-hrs delivered in 30 days = 40,200 kW-hrs

 Income from energy delivered = (PhP15.90/kW-hr)(40,200 kW-hrs)

Income from energy delivered = PhP639,180.00

Exercises:
1. A daily load curve is defined as follows:

Time, hours, 12MN 2 4 6 8 10 12NN 2 4 6 8 10 12MN

Load, kW 140 150 160 170 170 170 170 160 240 365 320 220 160

Plot the load curve to scales of 1 cm = 2 hrs, 1 cm = 50 kW. Determine the Load
Factor and the Total Energy Produced.

2. A power plant is said to have had a use factor of 48.5% and a Capacity Factor of
42.4%. How many hours did it operate during the year.

3. A central power station has Annual Factors as follows: Load Factor = 58.5%,
Capacity Factor = 40.9% and Use Factor = 45.2%. The reserve carried over and
above the peak load is 8,900 kW. Find: (a) Installed Capacity, (b) Annual Energy
Production and (c) Hours per year not in service.