Power Plant Engineering

COAL BASED THERMAL . .
POWER
- PLANTS
INTRODUCTION
In vapour power cycle the phase of the
•·· Learning Objectives ••• working substance changes alternatively. In
steam power cycle the most common working
• Introduction substance is water. The steam power cycle
• ~nklne Cycle continuously converts heat energy into shaft
work. The heat transferred to the water to
• ltnprovlsatlons
produce steam in the boiler with help of
• Layoutofmodernco11powerplant · furnace. The high pressure steam in the boiler
'
, • Super crltlcal ~ollere expands in the turbine to produce shaft work.
• . FBC ~ollere The generator coupled ,vith the turbine
• Turl,lnas
generates electric power.
• Conde11aers 111c important steam power cycles are,

• Steam and Hat rate i) Carnot cycle
5u~eyetame of thermal power pints it) Rankine cycle
·.
• .fuel and Aoh hlndlln9 iii) Reheat cycle
'
Dr,ughtsystom
iv) Regenerative cycle
Wlkl'trta.tmellt ~ .
v) Binary vapour cycle
811\ll'Y cydesand Co91asratlolt systams
YI) Combine cycle
The Carnot cycle is a theoretical cycle
which has maximum efficiency. It has more
practical difficulties. Therefore it is not used
in steam p9werplants.
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Carnot Cycle:
A nn1ot vnpow· cycle is executed with in saturated dome.
l - 2 = Reversible ndiabatic expansion
2-3 = 1 othem,a\ condensation
• I • •
3 - 4. = Reversible adiabatic compression
4-1 = Reversible isothennal heat addition
.a
The.h~at c\dgitio~ ~urin~ process 4 - 1, \uration .
. Q1-:- T1 (s1 -S4)

The,heatr.aj_ected•duringprocess 2.- 3.,
Q2= T2 (~2 -s3)
Q2~ T2 (s1 - s4).

Tiiem1al·efficien~y of camot cycle
s
Network
11Cnrnot ,
Heat supplied
.,
Q1 -Q 2 _ _ T1 (s 1 -s 4 )-T2 (s 1 -s 4 )
- ~ 01 - 1'1.(81-s4)
11 Cnrnot., =
Reasonsdfm:·~ot·consider-ing,Carnot.cycle·as.a·standard·cycle .for. steam ·power
plant:
1. The condensation is stopped (at point.3) before saturated liquid condition is
·reached:
2. It•is-imp~rtartUo.reaeh.saturate~Uiqµidit:ondition after.compr~ssion •..
3' :r.he comp~ssonis.not.desi~to:comRr,ess both,water,and·:vapour.muturei
4.·-Speci:.fic·:v.0lutne:0£theconil)n!SSOr1s lar-g~ thereforevery·Iarger-size compress0F·
is-required1• , . · .
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5; .Plant size:for.the,sp.e.cifi.ed' poweroutputisJarg~ ~ml specifie·steam,consumption,

is also·large.•
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GOA~ B~SED rHERMAL POWER PLANTS 1.3
1.1 STANDARD RANKINE CYCLE

The ideal Rankine cycle consists of the following four process.
1- 2 = Isentropic compression in a·pump
.
2 - 3 = Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
3-4 = Isentropic expansion in a turbine
4-1 = Constant pressure heat rejection-in a condenser
The simple steam plant shown in figure 1.1. Water enters the P1:ll?l_p at ~tate 3 on
saturated liquid and is compressed isentropically to the operating pr~sure of tl;ie _b,oil~r
water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 4 and leaves as a supe:f~~at~d
vapour at state 1. The super~eated vaopur at state 1 enters the turb.ine where it e_xp~c;is
iseptropically.
~
Boiler
CD
\Vturbine out
0
G) 'lout
Con<:}~nser
The pressure and temperatures of the steam drop during this process to the values
.at st~te 2 wb,ere steam enters the cqi;i9~n~or. At this st~te.~team is usually a ~~~~ed
-' ,liquid-.vapourm¢w"e.\Yitp.
. .: . . a l)igh quality.
.
. .
~·Th~T::-S.cli_agram _of a.s~pl~ Rcµ:ikiJ:ie cycle.~oV{Il Al·B~ l.2.11J.~ P.I'9.':~s c_uzye
. 4~1.r~pres~nts-the heat transfeqedJo.t,he water.in the b9iler, a,qd.thee area under the
' r , • - • ~ '
··,process.cury~ 2-3 ~7pi:~s~nts tQe heat ryie.~t$ ,in:$~ co~de~.~r.(JJ1~·diffe.rence.~e~_~en

_t'.th~setwo is the,net.workproduced bytµe _cy~le.· . .
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p ~ERPLAN
1.4
Ent1-op,y
~aure 1.2: T-s diagTGJl<t.of Rankine c,ycfo.
· The'stearn flows round the cycle.and each proc~ 1ml) be analysed Wt~ t~ , ·,, l'.'i,
flow energy equation, changes in Kinetk energy and _potential energy Ill~)' ~ -lb h . ,.
then for unit mass flow rate.
q +w = dh
[ qin - qouJ + [Win - W ouJ = dh kJ/Kg

The boiler and the condenser do not involv \\:Ork. The pun,p aud th t\\tt'.h,
assumed to be isentropic pump.
q=O
w pump in.= Tu\ - h3 .'
'
Wpump in= V (P1 - .P2J
whereatP 1
h3 = hr, v vr
::,c::
Boiler •(w = 9) .'lin = h1 -:-14 = Qi . . ' .

Turbine (q=O) Wturbineout=h1 ~ h_
Cond~nsor (w = Q)
qout = ·hi _:h3'=·Q2
the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is gi,1~py 1
I
(or)
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COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS 1.5
w,ict = qin - qout
= V:'turbinc out - Wpump in
(or) ·Wnct - Q1 -Q2

(or), Wi-Wp
1.2 IMPROVISATIONS OF RANKINE CYCLE

O Increasing the temperature at which evaporation take place in the boiler
(i.e., increasiµg.the boiler pressure).
it) Decreasing the temperature _at which the condensation pr~cess t~es place
(i.e.,.reducing the back pressure).. . 1
iiO By increasing temperature

.
of steam
. ifit is in super heated condition.
.
.· . , •',
_iv) In addition to that the efficiency is also improved by
··a) ' by reheating steam in between two operating pressure.
'
b) by adopting
. regeneration of steam.
' .
• I • I •
c), by using both reheat and regeneration.

1.2.1 The reheat cycle
The ideal reheat cycle differs from the simple ideal Rankine cycle as shown in
figure 1.3 in that the expansion
. process take place in.two stages.
3 .' JI.
I' '
Boiler Low
pressure pressure ' . ; , ;j"
turbine---- turbine - -
P4 = P5 = Preheat
5
2 Pump. · · :·. . ~ondens_e·r l I ••
Ideal reheat cycle , I I .
Figure 1.3: An ideal reh:ecit cycle -- .
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~------------_:P:....:O:...:..W_E_R_PLA_NT_E--.:NG1N~t ·
~
1
!:6
' High pressure
turbine 1
Low pressure turbine

t'
Pump work
, . Condensor .
E~tropy
Figu;e 1.4: T-S 'diagram of an ideal reheat cycle'
r
In the first stage steam is expanded isentropically to an intennediate pressure and
sent back to the boil~r wh~re it is reheated at constant pressure, usually to the inlet
temperature of the first turbine stage. Steam then expands isentropically in the second
stage ·to th~ condenser pressure. Thus the total heat input and the total turbine work
output for a reheat cycle become. I •
- · ,· Q in-= Qprimary -~ Oreheat =. (h1 - h6) + (h3 ~h2)

and Wturbine out= Wturbine I+ Wturbine II ' = (h1-h2) + (h3 r \4)
. • , · WTtoinl
T\ -
1 - • Qin total
The incorporation of the single reheat in a modem power plant improves the cycle
efficiency by 4to 5 percent by incr~~ing the average temperature at which heat is added
'
to the steam. , · ··
1.2.2 Ideal Regenerative cycle
.. .
In the cycle its deviation froin_carnot cy~l~-is only in the process of heat addition
at constant pressure. If we can re~9v~ t1t~.~~~sible h~at addition ~uring this process
this will be identical to carnot cycle:':. · · ., .:,··..i . . ,_ · ··
,. " • ,• • *,· • '., , ,J : 1 ... - I
Further the efficiency of any,~y~~~:can be 4tipr9ved by reducing the heat rejection:

The amount of heat to be rejected-iil'the-condenser 'is reduc ed by partly supplying 1
to the feed water supplied to ~he boilei:. ,1he ideal regenerative cycle as shown in
figure 1.5(a).e_mp~~~~g the ~boye._me~?d is ~~p}a~~~- ~s.~~ij~~s_._,. ~ 1 -.•_·, .•
1
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The feed water supplied to the boiler is passed through the turbine caring in
counter flow direction. The feed water enters the turbine at 2 and is heated to
saturation temperature at inlet to the turbine. The heat rejected by the steam in the
expansion through the turbine is equal to the heat gained by the feed water.
. . .
The temperature-entropy diagram as shown in figure 1.6.Thus the area under
2 - 3 is equal to area under 4 - 5. Steam expansion is not isentropic, because it looses
heat to water its entropy decreases . .
Condenser
I I Boiler .
- . ..
I•
2
. '
., . . -,
High Pressure pump
"I
Figure 1.5: An ideal regenerative.cycle .
• I
.'
• •• I
.-,. '
I
I .. ,.,·
. , . '.
- -. •
r
I '
• •
•
To--------
' t 1'
" '
' j8: t
', J J
.· • ,r-·
'2
. ....
" ' ..._, .. l , .. •' 1 ~ .
1 , ~, .
, I 8
d.) T ' .
, . t •
f-4 c---- f f .. .
.' .1 1},: .. . . r • •, .. , 1 1 , "'· ! 1 • 'J ·_ ;..J • •.~ ' . :.
'·,
a b . ._ c d
'' I • • , • • . ' .. I " t:' .. .I • \ : I
~ ·Entropy ··· •t • : • '~ - -... .
,·I ·. • . . 1 • 'I . I I. \ I '
Figure 1. 6: T-S diagram ofan ideal regenerative cycle
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The efficiency of regenerative cycle = 1- HS = 1- 3 - 4
'
· 6-1 Tc[Sc-So]
4 = l ~ Tb [Sil -Sb] :::: l
= 1_:_ _3___
The area under 2-3 = are under 5-4 since heat lost by steam is equal to heat gained
by water. Further under ideal condition .. the lines 2-3 and 4-5 are parallel. Hence the
entropy change in both the process must be also equal i.e., Sb- Sa= Sd -Sc
Byrearranging Sc -Sa = sd -sb·
Substituting this in the efficiency fonnula
T\ reg = 1- Tcond
I
boiler
: . ~egenerative cycle efficiency - camot cycle efficiency
..PRACTiCAL REGENERATIVE CYCLE

The ideal Regenerative cycle is practically not possible and the turbine operates
with wet steam. Thus practical regenerative cycle slightly differ from the ideal regenerative
cycle. The practical regenerative cycle shown in figure 1.7. Instead of sending total
steam to the condenser for he.at rejection, partly steam at an intermediate pressure
is extracted fr~m the turbine and is mixed with feed water which is pumped to the same
pre~sure. The mixing is done jn a component called feed water heater or regenerator.
) I • • I • • ' - •
•-t~.♦, .... t. ,-~ .. • '• •••• '.1 I
-------1
I
• I • ~ '; 1 , .. \ ; • - l kg
Turbine - - - - - - - 7
5 I f I I I f
,1 I '
Boiler
-'
3 __ __ . . 2
- - - 1
Feed water·lieater
Figure 1. 7: Practical regenerative cycle
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C©AL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS 1.9
.. .
..
. mkg
:, 'I
(]-in)
. .: '
, "--+ Entropy .,
Figure 1.8: T -S diagram
The 'ni.' kgs·of steam at •intermediate pressure is bled off from the turbine and sent
to the feed water heater. The feed water heater at subcooled conaitiori (5) absorbs beat
from the steam and reaches s~turat_io? point (6) ..The bled steam also condensers and
reaches condition (5). Thus heat lost by the ble~ steam is equal to beat gained by the feed
water. By'applying energy balance ~ro~d the feed water heater resuits in. . . ·. -~- ' .
• I
.' . _.. __ - - --- ""
. . _. :This will help us to .estimate the amount ofbled steam required to a£.l\ieve thi~'. Tb.is
method of bleeding reduces the works of expansion. · ---~- _. , _.__ __ __, ___ j ,
· ·' · ·· Wr ~ [(h 1 -h 2 )+(r-m)(h 2 -h 3 )]0/kg ofsteain · '
.. ~ I • ' • ' ' I f .• • i I ' : . I • • • I . • • ' ( . • . •• • • t
. .However the h·eat supplied i~i the boiler ~educes HS ~ 1 (li.1:.... h7}: Similarly the
amount of-heat rejected•ip:tbe condens~r decreases to (1 - m) (h 7 -h 1) . Due to this the
efficiency of the cycle increases. It is observed from T-S diagram as·shown in
figw-e 1.8(b) that tlie ·serisihie h~_at req1.iired for reaching saturation temperature T7' is much
less when ~ompared to the original one. Thu~ by ad~pting Iribre number of regeneration
the point 7 can be brought further close of 7' th~ minimizing the sensible heat requirement
and the efficiency approaches to that ifcarnot cycle.
Pump work Wp = Wp 1 + Wp2
,
__, ..,., _,
Wp1 =•
-~4 .(~~
.•
~ P3) = · (1- m) (hs-lLi)
• .' , ' " • I
- f I I . . .
-\Vpi ·= V6 (PI ~._P2) ~ 1(h7 - h6)
... . - I •• • ••
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/- 1.3 LAYOUT.OF STEAM .POWER PLANT
6
1
Steam is an important medh.1111 for producing electrical ener~~ grouping or syste
u i ~ h con,verts ·t}le availab~e,h.:at ene~gy of s!eam mto mec~er lll.
,..en into electrical. ener i's knowrt as. steam or thermal-~·""""
't---------,i;N-----
~.
ant._/ gy
The pressure· r~n · .~ a'y vary from 1 bar-to super critical r~ssures and the
temperature range may vary.from 250°C tq 9~>° C. The development of thennat plants
becomes a necessity
.
and:advantageous
. .
one as about 60% of total power developed.ltl
India is by ~e~~~ power plant only~ -
A steam po~~r plant can perform t\y.O purposes.
1. '0~11~\"a~tric poWeFOnly. . . .. ,
:·~ 2. G~i;i~tion ofde~tric power along with production of steam w~ch could
I:·, ~e)JS_ed f~r other ·industrial p~oses. - / .
-1.3.1 Workinif principle of steam power plant
' • I f
Fµ-st, steam;i{generated in the boiler by ultilizing the chemical energy released due
to the c~mbustiori:o.ffuel. The steam generated in boiler is then expanded in the prime
I ! . ~ . . I
mover (t\lfbine),,_whe~re a art ofheat ener _ of the steam is converted int9 mechanical
energy.~ e ~bin~'.~~ _poupled tQ the eJec_;_tpc.altern~tor.or gener~torw c ,,.co.nve~~ the
power plants.
.
.. _. _.-· . .-
t • '
------------- .
in:echariical energy ipfo electrical energy. Thus, electrical ~ i s produced in steam
.
• ' '(
.
-- - • ,.. - • • ' • - - ..
Since only the· art f the heat eh gy is.expanded in turbine, the remaining part of
••• • I --
the energy is cond~ns~d in the conde~se~ a:µ~ the_~resulting condensate is then supplied
. . ' , . ' :·. . . ---~-:--::--..,- ----:-~--.:. .: . . .
b ~ e boiler with the help·of the 'f~~p -a~d _the cycle is repeated. '
Th~ figure 1.9 shows the gene~1ayout bf ~oal-fired thermal powef plant It mainly
I
a ~ • "I
consists offollowing fommain circuits: : !

1. Coal and Ash circuit
·l
2. Air and Flue gas circuit .. •• I
:i. i
3. Feed water and steam flow-oireuit

4. Coolingwatercircuit
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Coal :-.'I '
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:::a
storage ·
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-1' 3-phase P01.ver r
- I ~ - Air - ~ l u e~ga~es 7J
Coal -, preheater '- transmission 0
· handling"-: l .·a;....
/· tower ~
1 m
0 :::a
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Ash ·•. · Ash
"" --: 1-. Super~ea~ed steam ·
-f
(./)
storage handling -
Hot water
.Econcfmiser
·~ - '
::-
;'
ti. High l..ow Cooling water

0
p) pressu.r e t- ...._, - · pressure pump
Feed pump · heater 1~-.F~d·pump . ,h eater
~ L...----- Conden~te
~ - extract pump
(1) I
,- -.
A
~
.... . .'Figure_l.9':
. . . . Layo~t
... .~
of
. Themial
. power plant
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P' ..,,, 1
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__ NT_E_N_G_IN-.:.::~G
2_:12 ~
1. Coal and Ash circuit

This circuit consists ofcomponents . sueh as coal storage and coal handling systeIlls,
ash storaoe and ash handling • systems. Tl1e handling system"includes ~ belt conveyors
w sc
0
k t l t s skip hoists, flight conveyors _:--..._t
-CUuJ1:1v:e~y~o~rs~,~bu~c~k~e~te:l:ev:a~t~or~s~,gr~ab~bu;c;;;,e~e=ev~a~or~,~~;;-~ ..--- , e c.,

~ crrcmt a so me u es eparator, pu venzer,
This · burn er , drier
· and crusher. Coal from the
storage yard is transferred to the boile~ furnace through coal handling syS tem. Ashe:,__oducec1
due to combustion of fuel (coal) in the furnace is removed to ash storage yard througnash
handling system. Indian coal normally cop.tains 30 to 40% of as and h e n ~
space is nece~ nearer to the power plant for ash disposal
2. Air and Flue gas circuit
'
This circuit consists of air filter, airpreheater, e~omiser, dust collector, ch~ney,
blowers and draught fans etc. Air needed for combustion is drawn from the atmosphere
through the air filter to the air preheater where the air is preheated by using the waste heat
from the flue gases flowing through the chimney. The preheated air is then suppli~d to the
furnace of the boiler through dr~ught fans and blowers. After burning is completed, the
heat is transfen-ed to the boiler feed water through the hot gases to generate steam. The
flue gases are then exhausted to the atmosphere through economizer, air p~~-~eater and
dust collector. Some of the waste heat in the exhaust gases isrecovi~~d in ~1e air
preheater and economizer. This improves the overall efficiency of the plant.
3. Feed water and steam flow circuit
This circuit consists of boiler feed pump, boiler, turbine, feed heaters and feed pumps.
The high pressure and high temperature steam generated m the boiler is fed to the prime /
mover. The work obtained by the expansion of st~am is utilized to develop mechanical
power in the turbine. After expansion, the lqw pressure st~ is C(?ndensed~ the condenser.
The condensate leaving the condenser is first hea~ed in low pressure (LP) he~ter and then
in high pre · gthe steam tapped from ~ o i n t s of
the turbine. This hot water is then supplied back to the boiler through economizer where
the hot water is further heated b ~gases.' . .. -
• I • _' • f • ; • t ....
4. Cooling water circuit

This circuit consists of circulatin -_water umps, ·cond er, ·cooimgwater · s um
and cooling tower. Wat~r circulating through the condenser niay be:taken froi:n various
sofiM~s?ich~L.]ak(Qr..sea ·The water for condensing is taken-from tne uppet side
of the river. Abundant quantity of water is' required for condensing the steam in the
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COAL BASED TH~RMAL POWER PLANTS 1.13
condenser: Ifsufficientqu.antity is•notavailable, the water from the condenser is passed

through the cooling tower. In copl\ng tower the condcns~te is cooled with the help of air
JI, - - - - -
-· • I ••• ,.
current and then recircul~t~_d( • · , ~. .1 •• 1 • •• .J .1

---- ' . • , •• ''~· ·',• .• · l • . l ' L tl' ·, .,, , • .,·I I f. (,.
1.3.2 Advantages of steam power plant '
I. Plant can be located nearer to load centre and heric~ transmission losses and its
associated cost is less.
- ·, . '
2. Cons~ction and commissionµig of~ermal power.plant requires less time than
that ofhydel plant. ' - ' ' -- J. ' I , •
3. Power generation does not depend on the natural phenqmena.

4. Fuel us~d is quite che~p. r
---
I
'
'' .
-:
5. Less space is required than that ofhydel plant.
--
' . power plant.
6'. Initial cost isfos'ser than hydro elechi'C .,
1~3.3 Disadvantages of steam P,Q~er plant

' .
I ._;Fuel used is a fossil fuel and hence.may be e~austed by gradual use. •
·-
. 2. E~ciency ~~~le ~)ant decreases wi~l time. - ··
- ~-------~ 1
-------
3. Life is hardly less than that ofhydro-power plant. I -
... ~
-. • '
4. Air~
pollution is a major problem
~
tn thennal power plant. . I •
- - ..-- ,,,,,. . ,,. . .. . - . ... - . ·t
I· 5. Transportation of fuel and ash disposaJ are the major.difficulties in:,team power
\ I ••
plant. ' •
· · --
·6. Power generation cost is ~igh .. ' • I
.7. It cannot be us~d ~s a peak'load plant, as its part load efficiency decreases very
rapidly with'decreas~g foa_d.'~
SUPER CRITICAL B ~ ·
Boilers are usually designed for high working pi-ess~es f~r ~te~ generating plants.
Large number of steam generating plants are designed to.work between the range of 125
atm and 510° C to 300 atm and 66CEC. These types of steam generators are basically
f f • • • • • I -
-
.categoris~d intq sub~critica_land super-critical boilers. Ori~throtighl,oilers are the only
.
.type suited to superc;:ritjc_al op,eration (above 221.2-bar ror steam) because the latent heat
ofvapourizatjon,at and.above the critical pressure i_s zero.
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l. Heat transfer rate is considerably high.
~
2. It is possible to maintain more stable pressure level. __,

. - ,,-
---
3. The p~oblems ~f erosion and ·corrosion art,minim~ due to th~ absence of
tw~-=phase mixture.
4. It.is possible to achieve higher thermal efficiency (about40 to 42%).
5. Greater case in operation and flexibility makes the uni~more adaptable for load
fluctuations. ·
6. It can be used to generate peak loads by changing the operating pressure.
1. 5 LAMOUNT BOILER · ·
Lfilllount boiler i~,R,~se~ _circul_ation,~ressurewater tube steam boil_s'.jn which
th:,c~r~ulation is maintabre a~fugal P!!!IDtwhich is ~ven y as earn turbine by
usmg the steam from the boiler outlet. The pump ciJculates water equals tQ 8Jo 10 times
the m~s.'ioisteam-e.~: T is prevents the tubes fr~-m being overheated. The
p~ncipll:i· :valved is,~mployin hi veloci wate · te o . eat transmission can
b e ~ - The fi~e 1.-1~ s_~ows the components oflamount boile~. · ·
Constru oil and working ··
..
It' consists of steam separator drum, Circuiating pump, Distribut~r head~r,
Evaporator, Ecop.omizer, Superheater and an air preheater. In usual design, the ste~rn
separator drum is located outside the bpiler which contains a mixture of steam·and water.
1 Initially, drum receives feed water through ec<?nomizer from the well by means of feed
lr pump. Then, circulating pump draw_swater from.~ antj ~elivers it ~q the-evaporator
through distributor header that contains sm~ ?rilices .at p~sure.above the drum pressure.
. . '. . \ . ' . .. ·. ..· '
The water is now partially evaporated in the evaporator and a mixture of steam and
• t f • 1 •
water from these tubes enters the steam separator_~ . Here the vapour is separated
from the water which is in nearly saturated c·onditidn..Toproduce·~~~heal~d steam, a
convective superheater is 'used. The superbeater is iocatecf in-the path ofhotflue·gases.
The saturated st~~ froqi the~ ent~~ ~~ ~P.~rh~ter.~q. i~ ~_supe~ted ~y hot flue
oases coming from the combustion chamber by convective heat transfer.
::, .
~canned. w1tn (.;am~canner

I
I
C ED THERMAL POWER PLANTS , ''1.15
~\;,Lb,
ct,lmney .,,
(Exhaust gasasy'
l)
Hot air to
combustion +-
chamber ------,;:.~-i
Convection
.,-+,,1---- superheater
Steam .-------1-- .....- - - - - - + - - ,
separator._ _ _ _.,;;
drum
Su~rheated
,~:,;:.:;:,.~!,r''"-=•-..::::;;;;.._~---to:t--D<~ steam outlet
to Prime mover
., .. ..
Distributing
header--+----..
Water circulating ' ,.

pump • ,} I ' 1
I I '
., .
Figure LIO: La-Mont boiler I •
. .The superheated steam leaves the boiler and enters into the prime mover through
steam outlet to perform wor~. Air preheater.is.used for preheating.the air required for
efficient combustion in the combustion chamber by using th~ .w. a~te ~~
. hot
. .f'l~~ g~~;~s.
. . ..
capacity of this boiler is about 45 to 50 tonnes per hour ofsuperheate~ steam at a pressure
• I o , , f " ' •., \ o / , '
ofl30barat540°C. -. - - - · ' · · · ··
. ~ -. , ' . ' • • I
Ad~~nt~ges · · · ·
I. Light in weigh,t.
I • I 2: I:.:ess'ritimberof drums are rt!quired. ''. . . ., ,· . ' . . . I I • . • • I ·, · , .'·. \ " . ·,
, ', .
• I•' -3. Qui~k-~~ginevencolci"co~diti~~~: ,, :· ,,,/., . • l • ·'· ' · ' .: · , '·. ·. '
' ·, . , ·1t .Higli'evaporatioh rate. . '.'

I , I , o , , • • ,., I I I , t I , • , f • I t "'1 ' t •
I I . . . . . ' . 1 ' ' ' · ' •• ' I .' •. .., . , .
~ J' ' • ' ' ' • .• , ' ' ~ •• ' i ' ' • ' , i • • • i ' • ' ' • J , ' , I J r . •' , I'
•
... , .·s..Absence ·o f ~~a~iµg troµple in th~ pipes.
4 • ' • 1· • • • I • • I • I • • I.
'' I • • I If ' i ' • I '
I
• I ' \ •
Qls.~d".',ntagel · '1 .'
·, · ·I. 'Salts and sedimen'' ts'.are deposited on the:inn'er surfaces bf th~nvatettubes .

.·,.1 , I .,
, · , ,' . , .
,1 .; ' '
, . , • .
· ' , '; '.1

J /.
\ · \ ·t
, '
i; :, ,
. r,':.
,.,r
1 , .
I • •~~11 : . _1_'': t ~,. _. , •

; ,• : . ,· , i .• •, • • . ' • •
- ' .. •
.scanned. w1 tn cam.scanner
1.1~6~__:.;.....__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.:,_PO:..:W..:...E_R_P_LA_N_T_EN_G--.:.:INEED1N
...:. ~
1.5.1 Loeffler boile~

. · d'ffi
111e maJor l · __ -1· 1
1 cu ty expenenu:u m amoun
tboi'leri·sthedepositionofsaltandC'
. ·
~1Jllent
0
~
on the inner surfaces oflhe water tubes. This deposition reduces th e heat transfer rate and
the generating capacity. Due to reduction in heat transfer rate, the tuhes get overheated as
it has high tl;ennal resistance. This problem was solved_in loeffler boiler by preventing the
I
water tlow in the boiler tubes.
- Chimney
(Exhaust gases)
- '•
Hot air, to
combustion+--.._,.,'----'
chamber
Radiant
superheater
Superheated steam
Steam out let to prime mover
circulating
pump
• I
------------------------------------
-----------------------------·
------------------------------------
-----------------------------·
+
Blow off
· Evaporating drum
lock Fi~re ~.11: Loeffler boiler
Most of the steam is generated outside by evaporating feed water by using a part of
superheated steam coming out of the boiler. • · ·
The figure 1.1 r shows the schematic ~geinent details or~efiler ooil~r. The
high pressure feed pump draws water and supplies to the ec~~omiser:·fu ~~ economi~r
heat is ·exchanged from hot exhaust gases to feed wa\er-. Tlie hot feed waterthen.enterS
the evaporating drtnn situated outside the boiler were the feed is evaporated into saturated
steam. Toe saturated steam is then drawn. by steam.circulating pump. .
This pump -fortes
l iScannee1 w1 tn {.;amiScanner
COALiBASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS 1.17
the steam to first pass through into radiant supcrheater nnd then into convective superheater.
In superheater the steam is beated to the required temperature of about 500° C, About
two- third of the steam coming out of the superheatcr is tapped and passed through the
evaporator dmm for evaporating the feed water. The remaining on~-third is used to produce
useful work in turbine. Mixing nozzles are pro~ided i~ evaporating dru~ for ~ixing and
distributing the steam throughout U1e water for efficient ~vapo!ation ofwater into saturated
.
steam. , I
The capacity of this boiler is about I 00 tonnes per hour of superheated steam at a
pressure of 150 bar at about 500° C.
Advantages
1. It can cany higher salt coqicentratiops than any other boiler-type.
' -
2. Sy~tem is mo.re com_pa~t and can·~~transported.easily.
. -
-- I •• I -
.1,·,. .,
1.5.2 Benson boiler ·' . · · · .-·_ . ~' · ·'
The ffir drawback in the !amount and other high pressure boilers is the formation
ofsteam bub'61es in contact ~th tJ)e tube surfaces. This affect the heat transmission from
the flue gases to \\'.ater. This drawback 1s o:vercume by benson boiler in which the boiler
pressure is raised to critical pressure (221 :2 bar). 1At the critical pre e water and
~
steam have the same density and no bubbles fo · ~ ,

' .'
Benson boiler is a high pressure, water tube diumles boiler _wor_ks on forced
circulation which is maintained ya ceptrifugal p~p, driven by a stear~ turbine by using
the steam from th~ boiler outlet. In Benson bmler, the whole proces~ of heating, steam
formation and superheating are done in a single continuous tube. But, raising the pressure I • • , • ,
of water to critical pressure-requires large amounf of work bf the feed pump which results
in_reduction in overa~l ~fficiency ofthe_pla~t. So~the B~bn_boile"r.wit ~ /~~,Eressure
slightly below the cnt1cal ressure which improves the efficiency of the p l a n t . ~
:J I
Construction and working (i}-_: . . . . ._ . ,'

It consists of the Radiant evaporator; . convection, evapor_aJor, convective
superheater,
,, · , I
economizer and an air preheat;. The figure 1.12 shows the various
I ' • , I ., • \ -~ . . • \ ' • , ' • : • • • • ' • • •• • • I . 1 • • , • , ·' . I , • I I ' ' I
components ofBenson boiler. ; · · ·

•, r, _', •, , •1 , -,.· 1. I • •~ .~ , ' " . ' ' '_.•,• , 1f '' ' . ' "' ., 1 .~ , •," •I • , ..,. ,., , I 1
_·. ·. ,.·:W~ter,{rom the hot w~U passes through tµe_fee_d,pump,:and.economizer to the ,radjant
¢v~po.r~tQr;.where pa_rt of the water is conv.~rted into steafi1 .. Th~ water receives _heat by
radiation fr9.m-bot flue-gases
. . . coming frQm combustion chamber. The.mixture ofsteam and
~cannea w1 tn c.;am:scanher
1.18 PQW~~ PLANT ENGINEERING
~
water is then ent~rs into the conyection evaporator where the remaining ~ater is convelterj
into steam. The water received heat by convection from hot flue gases con:µng for combustion
cb~ber.. The steam is no~ nearly in saturated condition. To produce superheated Sleatu,
a convective superheater is used.
Since, the superheater i~ Io~ated jn th~ path of hot flue g~es, the saturated st~arn
from the convectjve evap~~tor enters tq~ superheater and it is superheated by convective
heat tr~fer.- The superheated steam leaves the boiler and enters into the prime mover to
perform work.
Chimney
(Ex.haust ga:ses)
◄ Cold air in
Hot air to
combustion ---------,
1
chambe't·
Feed .water .
from·•
'.
M fwell--
'
I ' o
-
·, :
~
. , ,. .,.~-
Fi,ure,:l.-l~:·lf~9ri -~oi!er.-
Air ,preh~a~er,is .used'f0r preheating.the.air r~q~iI.e~.for ,etficient combusti0n•

in,the,combustionchani~e~~Y.·~ ~~-~astehot.flue g~es. The-capacity•ofthis-boiler,
is about :l 5.0·tonnesf.hri: Tifo,pr~ss~~~~<Hemperatw;e of.this boiler is 2,1.o·bar and,
'I ' .. • - . .....
650°'G,
~cannect w1tn c.;am~canner

Advantages
1. The total weight of the boiler is 20% less than other boilers due to the absence
of drums. This also reduces the cost of the boiler.
2. Boiler is compact.
3. Transportation of boiler parts is easy as the majority of the parts are carried to
the site without pre-assembly.
4. High safety.
5. Benson boiler can be started very quickly within 15 minutes because ofwelded
joints.
6. Benson boil.er is an once through boiler as there is no drums and·hence,thefeed
water enters at one end and discharged at other end as superheated steam.
7. Circulating pumps and down comers are absen't.
8. Since there is no pressure limit, supercritical pressure may be employed.
9. No bubble formation and hence high heat transfer rate.
10. The furnace walls of the boiler can·be more efficiently protected by using
small diameter and close pitched tubes.
Disadvantages
,
1. Qep·osition of salt and sed~ents in the tubes surfaces..
~ ' .
2. D1:fficult to clean.the tubes.
3. Tubes are subjected to corrosion.
4. Tubes maY. get overheated, if the water 'flow is insufficient.
-' 1:6· 'FLUIDIZED 'BED 'BO[LERS

Today, the world of conventional coal~ thennal power plant is using pulverized
fuel firing technique for co~bustion ofcoal. Pulverized.fuel firing meanstlte coal is•ourned
.'in'its-futely'powdered form. There•are certain major·dtlwbacks in pulverized fuel 'firing
·.system.
• The furnace design dfpulverised fuel firing system·is-based on.particular ofcoal
· and·~annorbeused for other.type fuel witli the·same·effi:G"iency and safety. t"
• ' Coal p~cle size is J..imited (to 10- I00 µ) by furnace-temperature, volatile
li1'ethod of fuel, ash content etc., So, large invest:li1ents,are needed in preparing
equipments and its maintenance with~€onsiderable effort fotacliieving such sizes.

1 _~~-----------...'..P..:::O.:.:.W~ER_P_LA_N_T_E_NG...;,,:,INEERi~1
.!_:20 ~ .
'I I , sily ignited only when Lhe fu
• The conl pnrticlcs could be stcn<l1 Yunc en . mace
0 c· I ich is very drfficull to maint .•
tempcmhll'c is in the order of I700 ,' w 1 . n1n at
pmt londs ns the tempcrnturc drops.
• High fumnce opcmtin~ tcmpcmturc increases the amount ofNOx aucl th e removal
ofSO2 needs nvery expensive fluc 'gns scrubbing system.
• I ,. o: ~ o J t • I I •
• High fomace opcrnting temperature causes subsequent corroston_and erosion on

boiler pnrts even with in 30-353/o ash content c.oal is used. So, lugh ash content
\ ' • -,
and low gmde fuels cannot be11sed. I I
, Fluidized bed boilers (FBB) offers a µx~q1 ising dey~lopment solution to all these
p~~J?.~~~s. In :fluidize~ bed boilers, coa_l upto 12 mm particle size even with 70% ash
content can be burned efficiently. Particle size can be extended upt~ 50mm. Fluidized
b~d boilers used fluidiz~d bed combustion (FBC) technique for burning th~·foel .(coal) in
susp~nded state made b.y air distribution: The rating ofFBB goes even upto' l 50 tonnes
per hours ~ta pressure of 150 bar and at a temperature of 400° ~-
~
1.6.1 Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) system

The figure 1.13 illustrates the arrangement offluidized bed poil~~- When a.packed
bed of finely divided inert, refracto!Yfil!Dd like solid particles over a perforated plate is
subjected to a evenly distribilled upward.flow of air. It experiences a pressure drop across
thebed. ,, ~ - ....
., Flue gases _, (i;/ ..
' I / t •, ; - I \ • 1 . : I , , I • .. .
, I '
1 1
. , \~~--~~er fl~~ :. .' • ,, ." •
' ~ubble/
:>~I'+-_;_ · ,· . ' ' , ·.·. '
,.
' .
I '
. ..
I '
I I •, .! I' . : t 1• , # · •: .t -
• - • • I ' • (
I I I ' t
t • • • I
•
I• • •
.- •
•1· I i
• t
-
• t •1.• 1 • • J •f rl
•
t t :
'
f.,,
.
It f
,', ·•·,: · Extemal'alrsupp.ly' , ;•, .. 1 •· , - • •• ..

• I ' I \ \. " '.) I l ' i • •
Figure 1.13: Princ~ple'of Fluidize'd·Bed'Qombu'stiiJ,t (FBO)
~cannect w1tn c.;am~ca.nner

Tilis press J is small at low oc~ of air and hcn~c the particles remains
initially undistributed. But at igher air velocities, the gravitational force of particlei,_js
b a ~ c t i o n a l f o ~ e fluid (air~d particles. This causes the
particles to becom~uspended in the air stream. '€!!6,~he velocity is increased stiJl
~ ~
further, the bed is left highly turbulent leading to_ vigorous mixing of particles. At this state,
the be,9 is_called, fluidized bed and burning the fuel is such a state is known as fluidized bed
combustion (FBCY The a ~ is maintained at a ~t~ ~at overcomes the gravitational
forces ort the particles withouJming them out of the furnace. The air had lreen EI91e~
to the ignition temp~rature of the fuel by burning an auxiliazyfuel b~fore it enters the bed.
The fifel"and inertmaterial(sintered ash, fused alumina, sand, mullite and zirconia)
~ fed on a distributor plate and air is supplied from the bottom of the distributorplate;as
shown in figure 1.27. Usually, the coal is fed
--- into the-furnace
-- -
wqen the
-- - -
bed temperature
has reached about 650° C. So that the high velocity air sustains the solid feed. material
.
in
suspended condition during burning. The generated heat is first used in keeping up the
temperature of inert material and the balance is rapidly transferred to the waterpassirig
through the tu~es. The ~team so generated is taken out of the furnace. · · · ·
To avoid c4-0cker formation and the emission of_s?i:ne undesirable substances, bed
.~mperatur~ sh~uld be co~troll~d to.950° <:; or below. Toe purpose of addin~Jhe inert
material is to control this bed te:µiperarure. Most of the bed is accounted for inert material
andonly4%isbeing_!hefu~l._ -~- .... ._:
Hence, high ash conf:e?t fuel c~ be used in FBB syst~m. The injection oflimestone
or dolomite directly in~ the furnace retains much ofthe SO2 fonned during burning offuel.
The molten slag~ tapped.from the bed surface. . ·
1.6.2 Advantages of FBC system ·
. .
1. FBC system offers more flexibility to handle wide variety offuels including high
ash content coals, "low rank fuels, domestic and industrial waste.
2. . 1:,ower and unifonn bed oper~ting temperature avoids the formation of clinker
- - and emission of clinker ~rid-¢~ssion .of°so~e liii~esirable substances like NOx,
3. Vigorous mixing of coal partic~es and air makes it P,O~sjbl.e.to use the excess~air
as very low as 10 to 15%. ·
4. ,~gh heat transfer rate between the particles and the heat transfer tulifes immersed
iri the bed due to-gouttrapid mixµig and efficient combustion: This leads to
appreciable size re<lYption of bQiler
__...
and hence the weight._ ' ,, .
~canned. w1 tn cam~canner
124 P WER PLANT ENGINEERING
b) Atmo~pherk irculating fluidized bed boiler

In bubbling ed. ilcrs~th , nlt mnti, e fuels (su h n~ garb,,ge-1 pupcr, ngri u\tumJ
waste and "timilar light mate.tin.ls mny tl \\ ff th bed. Th .U, .r hem mnt tin I· such ns
whilstmetrus) and in ombn tible tuc.kntth bottom fth bt."Cl tn!l blo k U, distributor.
To overcome thes diffi.ct1ltie"'?circulating b d boilers a.re de ign ·d, ith Ute; following
modifications.
1. Providing sloping distributor plate to gh e an nir-slid"' effect.
· 2. Providingnon-1.u.ufom1 fluidizing velocities ove.rthe bed .
.1 : ; i 3. Benting one of the FBC walls over the bed to contain the light particles.
Flue gas and dust to
electrostatic precipihitor (ESP
Steam Drum t '

Multi Cyclone
Dust Collector
Furnace water walls
• • ' L...
2
ro Ill
G) G)
-E .g
~I-
~ 0---------
Bed Drain
Figure 1.15: Atmospheric Circulating Fluidized Bed Boiler .. , '
The-figure•1.15 shpws.thetypical arrapgement of circulating :(luidized ~ed boiler.

This modification in the boiler design makes possible to us~ light materials
. .
as fuels~ (such
. as
polys_t)'relJ.~, polyamides, tyre rubber, PVC, wax cartons, Wc1$te p~pe~~-_etc,.) _. , _ .
In this system air at different velocities is·supplied at ciifferent points along the
surface of the bed and thus the bed become stable. At this stable condition, the bed
.::>canned. w1 tn cam-Scanner
. COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS 1.25
remains in fluidized condition nnd so all the light mntcrinls get burned in thnt condition.
The heavy materials accmuulntcd along with the ash produced due to combustion and
it is collected from the ash port. The burning is efficient becnuso of high lateral
turbulence.
)
1.6.3.2 Pressurized fluidized bed combustor ·
In pressurized fluidized bed combustor, tl1e bed is operated under pressure by
suppl~g the come_~sed air at pressure o f ~ , which results in slightly higher
heat-transfer rates. 11lis combustion in pressurized environment results in~ compact furnace
andimprovedc~. :
This process allows the use ofa gas turbine, driven by pressurized hot combustion
gases while in it might be bar~. -Like
fluidized bed combustors.
f\FBC,
units, there are two types ofpressurized ff8c
I. Pressurized bubbling fluidized
.
bed combustor (PBFBC) '
. .
2. Pressurized circulating fluidized bed combustor (PCFBC)
In a pressurized bubbling fluidized bed combustor (PBFBC), the s-,lid particles

are fluidized in bubbling fluidized mode by maintaining the superficial gas velocity to lie in
~tween the nurumum bubbling velocity of coarser particles 'and tenninal velocity of
fin'erp_articles. This velocity may be around Im/sec which is much lowerthanABFBC
(1.3-3.5 m/sec) due to the use ofpressurized air. · ' ' • ' j ' ...
Coal
. fed together with limestone is hllJllJ by _$Upp lying compressed air at an elevated
pressure of aboufl~ Ofo 16' bar=-Heatso
,.._ .
generated
.
.
in fluidized bed is extracted by water
carrying tubes inniiersed in the bed.. The-hot gas,is then giveruo cyclone separator for
"-.--- -
-, --
clearung ofgas. ,._ _ .
' f t • • • • •• t ' •• • t' l( rl ' • • • •• •• I • : ,• ~' • •
This cleaning stage ofgas is important to enhance the life ofgas turbine. The hot
cleaned gas is then expanded in gas turbine to gen~rate el~ctricity. The steam produced in
the co~bustqr or the waste heat recovery heat exchanger at the gas turbine exit produces
o I ,• • o ,! ' ' 1 • I • • I - • J• -- ,._,.. ' •
further power by expanding through a steam turbine. .

Pressurized cfrculatirig fluidized oed combustor (PCFBC) works'very similar with
•• , ' ~' . '. _i 1 .
~·.PBFBC excepf that the solid pattitles'are'kept in fast fluiilized conclition and hence, solids
are fully mix'ed thtotlghout the coinbustor. Figure 1.16 show~ ;~ch ~ arrangement which
,J'is:Yery ccmµJ\~Il to bptQ_fB.fB<;.,~dP.CFBC_syst~ms: ;, 1 ., •, •
I I
, - \ I .' 1 • ' . It. - ~ •' • I .. I : , • I ,•
~canned w1tn cam~canner

1.24 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
b) Atmospheric circulating fluidized bed boiler

In bubbling bed boilers, the alternative fuels (such as·garbage, paper, agricultural
\\raste and similar light materials) may flew off the bed. The other heavy materials (such as
whilst metals) and incombustible stack at the bottom of the bed may block the distributor.
To overcome these difficulties, circulating bed boilers are designed with the following
modifications. · ·
1. Providing sloping distributor plate to give an air-slide effect..
· 2. Providing non-unifonn fluidizing velocities over the bed.
l: J · 3. Ben ting one of the FBC walls over the bed to contain the light particles.
• \- 1. . I • .
Flue gas and dust to

electrostatic preclpitator (ESP,
Steam Drum
t·
.._Multi Cyclone
Dust Collector
Furnace water walls
.._ ,
Q)
ro
Q)
1/)
Q)
.c .c
.... :::,
I I
~I-
~ O---+-------'
.' -··--
· Seconclary Solid Recycle_llrJ~ .
• • • • I
'' I
I I J • • • o
Figure 1.15: Atmospheric Circulating Fluidized Bed Boiler .;

The figure•1.15 shows.the.typical arrangement of ~irculating Uujdized ~ed boiler.
This modification in the boiler.qesignmakes pos~ible tQ 1.1$~ li~t ~te~ as fu~ls: (su~h as
polystyrel)~, polyamides, tyre.rubber, PVC, wax c~ons, w~te pape~~-_etc_.) . ,
In this system air at different velocities is supplied at dHierentpoints along the
surface of the bed and thus the bed .become stable. At this stable condition, the bed .
i:Scannea. w1 tn c..;ami:Scanner
remains in fluiruzed condition and so all the light materials get burned in that condition.
The heavy materials accumulated along with the ash produced due to combustion and
it is collected from the ash port. The burning is efficient because of high lateral
turbulence.
)
1.6.3.2 Pressurized.fluidized bed combustor -

In pressurized fluidized bed combustor, the bed is operated under pressure by
supplying the compressed air at pressure o f ~ , which results in slightly higher
heat-transfer rates. This combustion in pressurized environment results in~ compact furnace
and improved c~on efficiency.
This process allows the use ofa gas turbine, driven by pressurized hot combustion
gases while in fr:3C, it might be hard.. Like ~ Cunits, there are two types ofpressurized
fluidized bed combustors.
1. Pressurized bubbling fluidized bed combustor (PBFBC)
2. Pressurized circulating fluidized bed combustor (PCFBC)
In a _pressurized bubbling fluiruzed bed c0mbustor (PBFBC), the sglid particles

are fluidized in bubbling fluidized mode by maintaining the superficial gas velocity to lie in
~tween the mmtmum bubbling velocity of coarser particles and terminal velocity of
tin'er !!articles. This velocity may be around 1m/sec which is much lower than ABFBC
( 1.3 - 3.5 m/sec) due to the use of pressurized air.
Co~l fed together with lim~is bl!fll} by §1.Il)plying compressed air at an elevated
pressure of about 10 to 16 bar:-Heatso generated.in fluidized bed is extracted by water
------ !"-- - • _ _ _ _ _ _ ___,
carrying
"-.- tubes immersed in the bed. Thehot gas.is then giveruo cyclone---..:::.._
-----<---- separator__for_ _ __
clearung ofgas. __ .
This deaning stage of gas i~ important to e~ance the life ofgas turb~e. The hot
cleaned gas is then expanded in gas turbine to generate electricity. The steam produced in
the co~bustqr or tqe :waste 4~a~ recovery_beat exchanger at the gas turbine t::xit produces
further power·by expanrung through a steam turbine. - - - ~ - ·• .
• , I •
. Pressurized circwatirig-fluidizedbed combustor (PCFBC) works very similar with
., l ' •
~··PBFBC except' thatilie solid paitidei rliefkept in fastfluidized

-- condition
.
and hence' solids
- "'\.
are fully mrt.edthtoughout the coinbustor. Figure 1.16 shows s~ch'an arrangement which
,Asyery_c .o~~n to bpt1_1 fBF.BC'!-IldJ>CF)3C syst~ms: 1 • •
'. ' \ ' .' ' • ' • ... • • J •
~cann·e a w1 tn L!am.::>canner
POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
To power
~ansmission
tower
Fuel recycle
feed line
Steam To stack.•.. -- ,. --- -·,. · · -

• I
compressor
• I
Atmospheric
air in
'•
Feed pump
• • I • • .,: ( • I + • '
Figure 1:i6: Pressurized fluidized-bed combustors.,
Adva11~agesofCirc~latiogFluid~ed,~e~'B_oiler; . · ., ) ,
CFB boilers has more advantages than other sohd fuel fired b01lers.as follows.
·.,:~ ·. ,1. I ~F~.~~w~~ ~nows.an e~~~1eps~~\s9l!~ ~ o l i d mixing.,

.· 2. AnY, ~d p_ffuetc~ ~e.J?prnt~fti.c.iency wj~m~t tp~ support ~fap auxiliary
fuel. ·
' J ., • • I , J • • ' ' I ·~ • ' ' • • • • I ' I . '. I ' • • ' I
3. Addition ~flimestone and dolomite retains the sulphur in the bed.iii the solid from
._~ ' ~
and thus avoiding the escape of same. ·

4. Low NOx emission in the range of 50 - 150 PPM can be achieved in CFB
boilers·~ tingtemper~t( · · :·,·· · ·. , · · ··.: .' · : ·,_ ~.: ·.:.1
• '. l ·•
j • I
?, Ifreqtill'es sifopler 'fuel·handling Systehi and feeds· stem. ' ' ; ' ~
1
' \ •, • I ' I • I
1
1 , • ' j -~ ' ,;, • .,. ~ ' • •

I ... . ' ; .:
' I' I I 6,-. if ~~q4~~.s-,l~'. . ··¥~~~~i~h·r~s~lt~-~°hig4he'at rele~e rate;per ~i'furiiaf{~ 'I

1
··.·.: · ·c~~sss~cti~ri·:-· ·0 . ''" __ · , : (,"..~ · ' · ·, ·· :•, :t/.· '•.'') ' :· , ·'.·~ ·' ··.·,::.·1.:
,, 1, , i • .J . • , /·, r 1l f, 1 ·,·) i \l d t •· 1\ t•1dJ~ 1l f· ..,\l ' . . .. • ·, )' .
• ~ ~• •- • , ... i ,. 1 • ' , , 1 , •• ' • •• I_ ' . I • : ) • •, . •' 1 , ' I l _ ·,
•,}.,..G.oo~ ~qqwq ,r~tip.s.y~~.P.~ •Y1i,i~t~i9-~d.~~q; p_~n,rapid\Yi .[~~1?9~.d.tpJ q~~ .:

changes.
.::>canned. w1tn camScanner

1. 7 TURBINES - INTROD~CTION
During the early days, the heat -energy: is .con:vert~
. ·- iptp useful .mechanic~l work by ' •,
m~ ofste.am engine. But, n_qwadays,.

st~ turbines
. .~e emp,oyeq_
-
for this .purpose. In
'
steam turb~nes, the action of steam is dynruivc

.. .•
. :· . . ...
._
Asteam flµ'b~e is a prirpe moy~r, in w~cli ~e pg~~ptitaj ~PeIW (h~t) o(the steam
is converted into the us~ful mechanicaJ ~Qrk by ~fop1µng:fi.rst i~ int<;> }9n_etic en:ergy
and then into use~l mechanical wo.rk in the forµi ~f ni~tion d~~ tq.the ~dQal ro~cy
ch~geofmomentum.oftl?es~eam. . . ·
-1.7.1 .Advantages -of steam turbines.
1 ·' l , , • ·· ~ •· · ·,, • • • 1
The ~dvan~ges_of ste_~ ~bµies over ste.am engin~s are _. . .

1. High th~~ effici~cy. · ,~-~): : .- · ·' · · :
2. Torque developed is unifom.i ~d ev.~ y clj~~buted. flence, the ra~ of~wer
~ · g~r;ieration is unifo~. ·
3. M~ch higher speeds are possible as.only r~tary motion is involved.
4. For a given output, steam consumption is less. '
5. Due ~o_f!te. ab~~~c~
-
c;,_fl);lb!,_i~gp~, n~
.,
ipt~maUubncati.
.
~n .is- required.
6. Since there are fewer sliding parts, frictional loss is less.
• ... • I .. ~ , • • • ' : • • : ~.. : l\ --
7. Since all-the moving parts are·enclosed in a ca~ing, the steam turbine is

comparatively safe. · · :' ' 1
I I : •
8. Steam turbines can be designed for an output ~ge of.I000.~W in a single

' unit." Hence, they are more sujtable for large steam powe~plants. , ·:
9. Balancing probl~m is reduced due Jo th~ ~bsence of recrjprocating parts.
I- 4 • • '' I • i • • • . • .
IO. Steam turbines cari talce copsideqible ov~loads with a slight reduc~on in its
overall efficiency.
' ' .
1.7 .2 ·Prin(:iple of Steam .turbin'3 .. . . · _. I • 1 J •• ·. 1• • 1 • • r _ J •
Steam from the steam generator is c_aused t9 .flow. through nozzle where the steam
.. • • . I ., , 1 1 _.. I J
• I
pressure get reduced. Due to the fall in pressure, paq of heat ~nergy is converted into
!Grietid e~e~.;So the' velod~'of the'steam gets iri~re~~d: No~e used'irl thrbin~s are • t
1
known as fixed blades. The high velocity steam when impinge on the moving part ofthe
'I \ I • I i
t r
a
• · , •
tu.mine'sufter change in direction of motion and tlius give rise to change in'momentum.
..
•.
~cannea. w1 tn cam~canner
1.28 POWER"PLANT ENGlN~~RlNG
1
·-
••
o'tci Rotor
... q"i . , .. J '
Nozzle~
Force
-7"---:f'-n-~~~=-j--Blades (vanes)
,
,/
..§:- . .......-uo~---Shaft
s\~~. I
Figure 1.17: ~ri'nciple of Steam turbine

I •
Due to this dynamic action, a_force is exerted on the biades. The direction of motion
(steam) is changeq. d~e to the shape of the blades (curved shape). Moving buckets converts
these high velocity jets to mechanical workjn a rotating shaft.
I • '
I
1.7 .3 Classification of .Steam turbines

Steam turbines may be classified in the following ways according to various criterias.
l. According to-the action of.steam
a) Impulse turiine
b) Reacti1n tureine
c) Im19ulse-Reaction turbine · · ·
2. According to the dire'ction of steam flow I
a)Axial flow turbine

b) Radial flow turbines • I • J '
c) Mixed flow turbines · .' · · · · ·.· ·

3.Acc~~g t~the·~~berbfs~g~_s :_ · ·i
• • I • \ • .: • ·: \ • • • • • • ••- •
.. ~) Single stage turbine · . ; \: . . } . ... -·.- ...

b) Multi stage turbine . ··
.•
4. According to the steam pressure

I , I ~ • , ,
I •
. ' •, , ,a)~9~1press~e~qin~~..(uptoram9, I ••• : • •,
, • 1 • _ • , I l \ - I •
<, J'l '"
• , • • J '"• •• -
1
,
••
t,
,
• •
•
#e ,
• , •,
• • , (. ,i
1
.... -, •\ . - .. .b).M~diiµµ:p~~.~~~~.~~in~s.(2:\<?.1P.a~).-;-; ..•, •,· .- .;._~_,.,, ;i_. _. ;,_... ;~-:\r.i·. ·.::.

• l
.. • .. . .c)Highpr~ssuretµrpines:(abqve~O:~trPJ ··:,·1 :·: .... _< ·1.-.::;~ : .;.~'- -~·~yr · '..·

• I : • . . . ... .·5. •.Accor:dingto.the.methodofgo"(emmg:!.' r .: ';I . d) .... . 1' •• Lr,', :,',! ,_. J . i:,;. .I
a)Throttle-govemedturbines :-:. __. _, . ,·l .. i~(; • . ~1: ·:·;·,::.l ·-: ·':;,r
b)No:zzle-govemed tumiiles·:- ; '.-' ·/_' .: · r 1\ :.,(:":::iii,·;,:, . ,r ;' fl U : ',rj ')
o) Bypass-governed turbines
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1.7.4 Impulse turbines

Impulse turbines work due to the change in Kinetic energy ofthe ~uid flowing through
the rotor when the pressure remains
'
constant.
.
Boiler steam
LJllt---Turbine blade .,
Turbine wheel
·.· . -:· . ~ ' Shaft
·....., .. . .
I • •
Turbine blade
Condenser pressure
Figure 1.18: The simple impulse turbine
. Figure 1.18 shows the simple imp~se turbine in which_the uppef portion show the
portion
• 1 • I • • • • . •
longitudinal section through the upper half of ilie turbine, the middle shows thee
development ofnozzles and blading and the lowerpait ofthe di~gram shows the appropriate
chwiges takes place in the pressure'arld velocity duruig the flow of steam through the
turbine. This turbine is known as simple-impulse turbine since the expansion of the steam
talces places in one set of nozzles. . ... _.. _. _
The example of this turbine is De-laval turbine. ·.
..
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Classification of Impulse turbine

i) ~ingle stage turbine (De laval turbine)
it) Mu!tj stage velocity tufbin~ (Curtis turbine)
l' f I
I
t t
iit) Multi stag~ pressure ~Rine (Rateau_µ.rrbine)

j I I • I
iv) Pressure V~l~ci~ co~pounded turbines .,

' 1 • ,
1.7.5 Reaction turbine : · · :·. • · : , .l\1,• -. 'I I j •,, l • '

·
,, ·., -- ' · I t '
Reaction turbine is ~~~•in which,the_pre$sµre'. decreases-~duallywhen the steam

flows over the set of fixe~ ~~ m~ving blades ..)'he function of the fixed blades is to alter
the direction of the ste~ ~d-to increase the Kine.tic energy of the steam.
• • •' l -:, ,Il l ' •• ' • ;' 1 ' I •
I '
·:. •·'.• .<, .
Shaft
t I , • 1
' ,
••• • • I _{ ' I -
' ; _•I". •." • ' . ~. .. • • • •
. ,; , .
' • i l •
M= Moving blades"'
~ .=,Fixed.blades \..-' t '
•
.. '
f •.
, ·
•
,ii
'
.....,,. •
, ' f ._ • I; . I ~- . : • ; • I '
• I 1 J
.' . .. '
Boiler \ initial
pres~ure : steam
!velocity Lost velocity
' ' , c°c;nden~~r . . ' .
I
pressu~ •
." • , ,r, ,' r. ·;r \ •
..
'.· \;
Figu~ 1.19: Reaction tri,;bine (three,stage/
•
•
J
I \.
•
• f ',
A parson turbine is an exampl<?, 9fi~•~µlti-;whye\ r~~c.tiq1;1:~te~ nµ:bji:i~.

I I
~canned. w1 tn c.;amScanner
Moving blade
Fixed blade Casing
. ,.
• f. l ·...·. ,, '
J • •~ ' ' / •_; ._ • ' · , ;
Figure 1.20: Parsons reaction turbine
The turbine consists of a set of moving ~d fixed blades .. The moving blades are
mounted on a drum, while guide (fixed) blades are fixed t9 the cas!fig. Wheil high pressure
steam enters the reaction turbine, it first passes through a row of guide blades where it
expan~ slightly causing a fall in pressure an? ben9e increase~ yelocity. When this steam
is then passed over moving blades, it imparts an impulse to these blades, where the steam
further expands results in a high relative vel9city_in a_direction approximately opposite to
4he movement of the blades, thus exerting a force due to·reactiori. · .,,·
So, the reaction turbines work due to the. energy·
.
transfer
. ta1ces place through the
rotor blades. Pressure reduction and rise inKinetic:energy takes places when the fluid
flows through ~~}~xed blades.
'• .
1.7.6 Impul~ -reaction _turbine _ l
I •
! '
Since, the_~ding ofpure reaction turbine~ very qillicult, impulse reaction turbine
are widely employed in nowadays. In practjce, the Impulse reaction turbine is known as
reaction turbine. The example of this type ofturbine is parson's reaction turbine.
Degree of reaction .
- . .
Degree ofre·action is·defined¥ the raJio oftJie enthalpy
• t ' I I
in moving blade to the
I •
chop
total enthalpy.dmp. · · '.- :, '. . ·_-· - · -~· ·
~ - , - _ ... _ - . _., - :::....-"- · - - • • . ... 1 • •• ' . . .. . ...... - - - - "- ·
·, AhMB
where,
.:AfiM's1- :' 'erithhlpyiliop-innio~gbliide,·-·.r, •; . · 1: 1• •
Aflra - enthalpy drop in fixed blade

~ - degree of reaction
1.32 POWER PLANT E~G-INEERING
Classification of Reaction turbines

. ' .... . . ... ' ; . ... . .. . . ." :
Reaction turbines are classified based on the degree of reactions as
• : • ••, '• • • • • t.l - • • • I ' •
l} 0% reaction turbine 2) 50% reaction ~ine .

3)
- 100%
-
reaction turbine
.. , .
4). Negatiye reaction
- . turbine
1. 0% Reaction turbine .
..
. ' ,.
" • ' I • •
:figure 1.21: (a) h-_s diagram of zero percent reaction turb~ne

• .• I •• •. • - \0 • • ' - IL • •
"l-2➔ Nozzl~:(futedblade);
. .. . . 2-3➔ Rotor(movingblade)
' .
,. '
J '
,. t ••
\ I •• t
'I
.0 = h2 ~ ~3 .... . . -
: ,.., I '
I
~1-~3
. .
.~ = h3 i.e_., entire wor~ is done by"nozzie;
0.5 ~i~·?h 3 =11i - h3

~-~Ql1 .~ h3~ ~ 11i- h3
0.S (Afl)total
. ..
7 (4h)MB
.. ; ':"
s
(Ah )MB= (Ah),. = ( Ah1·"'." . Figure 1.21: (b) h-s diagram of
50% reaction turbine
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3. 100% Reaction turbine

I2
~B = 6.hlotnl
I= h2 - h)
h1 - h3
h1 = h2
3"
Entire work is only done by moving blades.
---+
s
(Ah) mB = (Afl)total : Figure 1.21! (c) h-s diagram of 100%
· 4. Negative reaction turbine reachtion turbine
'
hI r -----r------- l ,
. .. .. . .. . r
h
. . .. ,--
• I
h3 1-----1-----~ii,...3_
h2------------------- ... .,. ... . ' .

• I •
L-------------,--.~f ·' •,· t ... , • . 't • , I'

s~
/ f I 1 (
Figure 1.21: (d) h-s'diagram of negative reac'tfon turbine
. h2 - h3 wen
Rd=-------- h h > h2 • I
3
h'i - h3 · . . , 1 ... 't
I , I I • ' I • I ·, .
· · ·.this is due·to friction in the turbirte stage. I

i •• f" • I
,... . '
I f f I '
· ·· ·II· -- · ·•
'• I
..
I
'· I
· · · · · · · · - ·· -· ·· · ·· · · J
;\', . :,-. • -
J t ' \ •
,.
.,
I I I 1
I • , ,_,
1.7 //' Difference between Impulse and Reaction turbine

-
5-. No.
..
1MPUL51: TURBINE REACTION TURBINE ---
'
l. Impulse turbines works due to change Reaction turbine is one in which the
m kinetic energy of the fluid flowing decreases gradually &Kinetic energy
through the rototwhen the pressure is increased, when the steam flows
.remains constant. over a set of fixed and moving blades.
. . . .. . ....
·i . Relative velocity remains almost Relative velocity increased slightly, due
constant. to the continoous expansion of steam.
. .. - - .. .. - . . ..
"3. Pressure remains same ·on both side's Different pressure exist on the two
of the rotor blade. side 9fthe moving blades. -
. . ... - - . ... ... - .. - - ' ...
4. Less number of stages are·required for More number of stages are required
same output power. for same out put power.
. - - .. - I • • \, ~ • • ' • • . ,.
$. ·.Impulse
. tilfuirtes_are. sui.table for small Reaction turbines are suitable for
·po-Wer.tequiretpehts~ medium &higher power requirements.
. ' .. ..
'6-. Ftuicl'velocity and otade spcfod is very Fluid velocity and bl~de speed is
high. ~omparatively low.
... .. . . . . .. .. - - - . ' .. - . - . ..
7. Blade passage is of constant cross Blade passage is of converging type.
.. .. .
·sectional
..
area. . .
. . . . - . . - .. .. . .
' ' ' . '
8. .Less·lloor Space-is requit¢4, · Mote floor space·is required.

. - .... . ' .. . . . . . - . . ' .. .. .. . . . . . . -~ .
9. Draft-tube is not required. • Drafttube is required. ..
. -- - - . - . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. .
' ~ ...--. -. -
10: ·Blades shapes•ateprofile ty.pe·. ·Blacie•shapes are aerofoirtype.
.. . .- . . . -. . • j . . . .. .... .. . .. . ..
11. Steam is adtnittethwer the.part of the. Ste·am is admitted over the ·eiitiI'e ..
circumference ofthe wheel. circumference ofthe wheel.
12. Efficiency is low. Efficiency is high.
.. . . ... ... - - . . • .. .. - - 'I, .. . - . ,, . . -·
n.... . .. ........
Bfai:ie' numuractute is•easy;
- . . . .. . .. . .- . . . ... . - . ~- \ ~ ,. ... -
.Blade manufacture is difficult
· ··· · · •• ; ,. ., .... . .. . . ' . • 'I•
14. ·'SteanHully·expands•isnoz:ile . Steam expands in both noiizle-and

: ~ovfug.blaiies
. .- ... . - • I ..... . .-· . . . - • .. - ,. ... - . -
,. :. .... .. . ... . .. _... ~_ . .i, _... ... - . . . ... . . . . .. >
-ts. : --Plow·can,be~~datoo\vith'.0ut l~ss. . ffow cainiotbe regulated.without.loss. 1
. . - .., - . .. . . . - .. . .... - . ... .'

.. .• • • • __ _ .,.,...,d, •--. ~ • •· • • •• • " ., . ,. .,. _.,.~ __ ..,_ _ _ ..
.::icannee1 wi tn (.;am.::icanner
17.8 Governing of steam turbines

All the turbines are designed to run at aparticular constant speed. Practically, load
on the turbine varies with respect to time. This results in a change in speed. Load is
inversely proportional to the speed. In order to maintain the constant speed, the flow rate
may be varied. This is called governing of steam turbine. Gov~mors are used for this
purpose in engines. The main objective ofgoverning is to maintain the turbine speed constant
·irrespective ofJoad variation by varying the flow rate.
1.7.8.1 Methods of Governing
The principal methods ofgoverning of ste~m turbines are
1) Throttle governing
2) Nozzle control governing
3) By-pass governing
4) Combination ofThrottlc and nozzle governing
5) Combination oftbrottlc and by-pass governing
J, Throttle Governing
In this arrangement of governing, the quantity ofste~m entering the turbine is varied
by the throttling of the supply steam. Throttling is done by means of double beat bal'an'eed
valve which is operated by a centrifugal governor through a servo mechanism. This method
is also known as servometer method.
Turbine
Figure 1.22: Throttle governing
The centrifoga\ govemor is driven by a wom1 gear or bevel gear at a speed less than
that ofa turbine. Throttle govenung are most widely used in small turbines. If the load one
the shaft (turbine) reduces, the shaft rotates at higher speed. The governor sleeve moves
up and the govemor balls tly up and widen. The lever ann actl.iates through the fblcrum and
the throttle valve is opened. The flow of steam is restricted until. speed comes to normal .
limit. If the load on the turbine shaft increases, the shaft speed gets reduced. The governor
sleeve slides down. Due to this action, the throttle valve allows more quantity of steam.
The throttle valve returns to its original position after the speed comes to nonnal limit.
Advantages
• I
1. Initial cost is less

2. Mechanism is simple. . (
2. Nozzle Control gover11i11g

In this method, the nozzles of the turbines are grouped together and each group is
fe~ with the steam supply controlled by valves. Different arrangements of valves and
groups of nozzles may be employed. But the nozzle control is necessarily restricted to the
first change ofthe turbine, the nozzle areas in the other stages remaining constant.
. '
I •
. ' '
f;
·--·-
..
N1, N2, N3 = Groups of nozzles

V i,V 2,V3 = Valves
Steam inlet
1
Figure. 1.23:
'
Naz~ie governing
. .·, .. .... - . . . . ..
"'; .
-:
'
Generally, under the full loa4 conditions, all the.valves VI: V2 and V3 remains open
fully. When the turbine speed increases, ;th~ supply of ste*•,to a particular group of
is the
nozzles shut off. Then, after spe~d teaches the rated value, the valves comes into
original position. It is similar to pressure-~e\ocity c?mpoun~g.
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The main ndvantnge of this m·ethod is no compounding is required for the admission
of tream into this unit. This is most efficient method and is suitable for only impulse
tmhines.
Throttle governing Vs Nozzle governing

S.No. I'RROTTLE GOVER.i.~ING NOZZLE GOVER.i.'JL~G
l. r fore throttling losses occur. Throttling losses are negligible.

2. Partial admission losses are low. Partial admission losses are high.
3. Less heat drop is avai lab.le for work 'Nlore bent drop is nvailable for work
4. Employed for both impulse and Employed only in impulse turbines.

reaction turbines.
5. Less efficient method More efficient method
6. Suitnble for small turbines Suitable for meditun and large turbines
3. By-pass governing
When the load is maximum, the additional steam could not pass through the first
stage as there are no additional nozzles are available. By pass valve is throttle governed.
By pass regulation allows for this in a turbine-which is throttle governed by means of a
second by-pass valve in the first stage nozzle. \Vhen throttle valve is opened partially, by
pass valve will open. So, steam is by-passed through the second valve to a lower stage in
a turbine. It is used in reaction turbines .
.
By pass valve
By pas~ steam
\.To lower stages
Throttle
Figure 1.24: By pass governing
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STEM\ CONDENSERS
n ... ~cr i a cl ' t: vcss"\ hcnt cxchnngcr in which lhe steam coming
i is , n en~ . b u · rbing th~ heat from the steam by continuous supply
ling\\ teratatm sph~ric ~mpemture. The steam condenser works by maintaining
· e ~ re&7.Ire =-1 ,w atm spheri level and this improves the overall efficiency of the plant.
H ~ -team ndensers are, ef) important devices for them1a land nuclear plants.
1.8.1 Functions of steam condensers
The functions ofstefilll condensers in steam power plant i~ two fold .
.
l. The steam e)..11anded in the turbine, if directly let out into the atmosphere, theh
• o • I •
the final expansion pressure will be the allnospheric pressure. Now, a condenser
1ID.itis attached to the exit of the tmbine and the pressure is maintained far below
the atmospheric level. In this case, the final expansion pressure will be les·s
than atmospheric pressure and higher pressure ratio for expansion is resulted.
This increases the workdone by the prime mover and improving the overall pla11t
efficiency. Thus, the function of steam condenser. is to decrease the exhaust
press1rre of steam below the atmospheric level.
2. To recover high quality feed water in its original fonn 'and feed'in•back to the
steam generator without any further treatment. This eliminates the cost involves
in treatment process for the supply of fresh wateE .
1.8.2 Elements of a steam condenser plant

The various elements of a ste~m conden~ing plant ~re listed belo~: •.
1. Closed vessel heat exchanger (condenser) in which steam is condensed. , ·
2. Supply of cooling water to absorb the heat from the steam.
3. Pump to circulate the cooling water.
4. Condensate ex~action pump to extrnct the condensate from the condenser.
I
5. Hot well to discharge the condensate and supply of feed water to boiler.
6. Air extraction pump to remove air and other non-condensable gases from the
condenser.
7. Cooling tower t~ r~cool the circulating w~ter, _if smfa9e condenser i~ used.
COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS 1.
1.S.3 Advantages of condensers

l. Plant etri "'iency is incrt\.'r cd duet higher ':-.:.1 •m:i n 1,1lh. whi -h pro,1ilk~ lnrg'
enthalpy drop.
-· Condensate can be recovered und r 'lls~d a - h t feed\\ t'Cr to th' boikr. Thi'
results in the savings ofamount offod bu.mt
j. Reuse of condensate eliminates the fut i wnt 'r trcatm~nt ,, hich n::duc.:~ the 't
o'ftheplant.
4. Boiler is prevented from saltdepo~ition b · th :s u-e 'cond'"'n ate.
1.8.4 Classification ·of surface condensers
Steam condensers are broadly cla sified into two t ,µe~.
1. Surfuce condensers (or) Non-mixing conden "rs.
a) Down flow (two-pass) surfa e ondt:n ers
b) Central flow surfuce condensers
c) Inverted flow surfuce condensers
d) Evaporative condensers
e) Regenerative surface conden ers
2. Jet condensers or N[ixing condensers.
a) Low level parallel flow jet condenser
b) Low level counter flow jet condeu er
c) High level or Barometric jet condenser
d) Ejector jet condenser
1.8.4.1 Surface condensers
Surface condensers are shell and tube heat exchangers in which steam and water do
not mix with each other. Therefore, they are aJso caJled as iudfrect or non-mixing type
condensers. They are used in large plants.
A surface heat exchanger essentially consists of a number of tubes annnged inn
certain pattern to give complete cond~nsation with minimum losses. Cooling water is
allowed to circulate t11:rough the number oftubes and steam from the turbine is passed over
these tubes. The steam is condensed by giving up its latent heat to cooli11g ,~1ater circulating
through the tubes.

p
1.40
Ad antagcs of surface condc1rncn,

1. High vacuum as much a~73.5cm of Hg can be created which rcaults in hlgh
thermal efficiency.
2. Condensate is free from impurities an<l hence, it can be directly reused aa b<Jiler
feed water.
3. Poor quality of cooling water can be uacd <lue to the absence of contact between
steamandcoolingme<lium.
4. Lesser auxiJiary poweris required du.e to reduced air Jcakagc.
Disadvantages of surface condensers
1. Complicateddesignamlthecapitalcostis more.
2. Equipment is bulky and occupies more space.
3. v1aintenance cost is more.
4. It requires more circulating water and hence running cost is also more.
LS.4.2 Down flow (Two-pass) surface condensers
Exhaust steam steam dome

Support plates from turbine
!
Tube Sheet
Divided
= Water box
'll
P.Jr Out Cooling
water In
Figure 1.25: Do.wn flow (Two-pass) surface condenser
Figure 1.25 shows the schematic of most commonly used down flow, two pass
surface condenser. It is composed of a steel shell with water boxes on each side. The
water box at the right end is divided in two parts by a baffle plate to allow the under for
two passes, Vertical steel plates are located at intermediate points over the tube length to
support the long tubes. Thewatertubesarerolled into tube sheets at both ends to prevent
SD THERMAi., POWER PLANTS 1.41
lh I nkng ol'olroulnting wnter inlo tho slenm nncl 1.0 prevent l11be vibration. The hot well
, lv ~ lh nclommle nnd nots ns reservoir, The nir pump is fitted at the bottom to suck
nul nn I nil'.
\~'hen nit· pump exlrncls nny nir wil.hin the condenser, a partia] vacuum is created.
This "{l\lSes tho slonm lo enter nl top and flows downward over the nest of tubes through
'
whlllh cooling w11lcr is circulnting,
In Ihis i;onclcnscr, cooling waler enters into the divided water box from the bottom
ol'shol 111nd pnsscs lo the undivided wntcr box through the lower half of the tube nest.
Th n the cooling waler reverses lhc dircclion nnd rel11rns back to the divided water box
through tho u1 por hnlf oflhc tube ncsl.
I uo to Iha slcnm flow over lhe nest of tubes, steam is condensed by transferring its
hunt 10 tho cooling wntcr flowing through the tubes. The resulting hot water comes out of
th ondensor nt. the lop nnd discharged in river or pond. The condensate is taken out
from the condenser by 1111 extraction pump. Since the steam flows at right angles to the
dll'oclion ofwntcr {low, down flow condensers are also called as cross flow surface
I I
condonsors.
l.8.4.3 Contt·nl flow surface co11dc11scrs
Stear:n and Air
I I
- - To Condensate Pump · ··
. ,. '.' , . ' •
1
•
I I
Figzl.re 1.26: Central flow surface condensers

·' '• t r • ,
·'Fhc figure ,1 .26 shows the cross section of central flow surface condenser. In this
case, the air extraction pump is ·located at the centre of the tube nest and this causes the
steam (entering at the top) to move·radially inward towards the centre. .

1.,4 ~2:.__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~-~PO_:_W_E_R_P_LA_N_T_E_NG_l-.:.:NEERIN
...:. ~
The condensate then leaves at the bottom where the cqndensate pmnp is located
This type is more effi.cient as the steam comes into contact with the whole periphery of tb~
tubes.
1.8.4~4 Inverted flow surface condenser
In this type, 'ti1e arr suction pump is fitted at the top and the condensate pump at the
bottom. Steam enters the bottom and flows upward over the nest of cold water tubes.
Steam then reverses its path and returns to the·bottom of the condenser as condensate by
flowing near the outer surface.
1.8.4.5 Evaporative surface condenser
A simple sketch of a_n evap_or?tive 99ndenser is shown in figure 1.27. Exhaust
steam from the turbine is allowed to pass through a coiled and finned tube over which
cooling water is sprayed by the nozzles. When air is drawn over the surface of the tube, '
part of the water is evaporated by absorbing the latent heat from the steam. The excess
water falls down into the cooling pond from where it.is pumped again to the header by a
circulating pu~p. This type is employed where cooling water is not available in large
quantity.
t ' ' :. ' '
I I • •
l •
I •
Coiled Tube
Wat~r Pump
J'
------------
---------
------- ~---:..:·
== __ I I
Cooling Pond
Figure 1.27: Evaporative surface condenser
.::>cannee1 wi tn (.;am.::ica:nner
- -- - - - - - ·- - --~-.. . . ,. ,. .,
1.8.4.6 Regenerative surface condensers'

In this type, regenerative method is eµ1ployed for heating the condensate. Here, the
condensate leaving the condenser is allowe4 tp come in contact with fresh exhaust steam
coming from the turbine and thus the temperature ofth~ condensate is incr~ed. This high
temperature condensate can be reused as boiler'feed water as it quickly evapora!es in the
boiler and resulting in minimum fuel consumption.
1. 9 STEAM AND HEAT RATE

Steam rate:
It is nothing but the rate of steam flow (kg/hr) required to produce tiriit'shaft output
(1 kW). Normally the capacity of steam power plant is expressed in terms of steam rate.
3600 .
Steam rate (SSC) = - - (kg/kW-hr) I •
WT-WP . .
Heat rate:
The rate of heat input (Q 1) required to produce u.IJ.it shaft output (1 kW)
Heat rate = 3600 Q1 (kg /kW -hr)

WT-WP
It is the amount of heat required by a power plant to produce 1Kwh of power,
Heat input(kJ/sec) x 3600 S/L
I kWh of power Heat rate = _ Net power output in kW
Its unit is kJ/kW h
1.10 SUBSYSTEMS OF THE'RMAL POWER PLANT, FULE AND ASH

HANDLING, DRAUGHT SYSTEM. _
r -
i /7,.10.1 Fuel handling system .
V Fuel (coal) handling system is a very important asp~ct in power:plants, because
I supply of fuel in its suitable form to the power plants from various sources is one of the
~ t considerations. This fuel handling sys~em is done in two stages.
1. Outplanthandling
2. In plant handling • I
. '
t44 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
1.10.1.1 Outp\ant handling

Out plant handling system deals with the transportation of coal from coal mines to
the site of the power plant. This can be done by the following ways.
1. Transportation by road (through self-tripping lorries)
2. Transportation by rail
3. Transportation by sea or river (through ships or barges)
4. Transportation by ropeways (used for less than lOkm distance)
5. Transportation by pipelines
1.10.1.2 In plant handling
Figure 1.28 shows the typical outline of inplant coal handling system'.
Coal Delivery
Unloading
I f
Preparation
'
Transfer
' ..
Outdoor Storage
{Dead Storage)
;
Covered Storage
· {Live Storage) - .
' r -. -' "I
lnplant Handling
,__......._ _ _, ,-.
Weighing
"\ :. · ,·, . ; "
and Measuring '

'
' I
. - . \
Furnace Firing
Figure 1.28: Outline of Inplant coal handling system
.scanned. w1 tn c.;amscanner
COALBASEDTHERMALPOWERPLANTS 1A6
Inplant handling system deals with the processing of fuel after receiving the coal
/
from the coal mines at the plant site. The inplant coal handling o1;stem should be designed
in such a way that the inplant transportation should be minimum.
a) Coal delivery
Coal from their supply points is generally carried out by the following modes.
1. Ships or boats, if site is situated near to sea or river.
2. Rails, ifsite is away from sea or river.
3. Trucks, ifrailway facilities are not available at the site.
b) Unloading
Selection of suitable unloa4ing equipment depends on the out plant handling. If
coal delivery is carried out by trucks, then no unloading device is needed as the truck
may dump the coal ·to the outdoor storage.
Use of life trucks with scoops are advisable for more easy coal handling. If coal
delivery is carried out by railway wagons, then car shakers, rotary car dampers, coal
accelerators, unloading towers and bridges, self-unloading boats, life trucks, cranes
and grab buckets are used as unloading devices.
If coal delivery is by ships or boats, then portable conveyors, unloading bridges,
(
coal towers, self-unloaaing boats and coal accelerators are used as unloading
devices.
c) Coal preparation
I
The coal preparation plant include crushers, breakers, sizers, dryers and ma etic
separators. Coal is prepared to suitable con · · uc t at it ensures efficient
combustion process. Figure 1.29 shows a typical arrangement of coal preparation
plant
Coal from mines ·is given to coa\ ~~her for preparing it into required size. This
stage of coal preparation is necessary to ensure efficient combustion. The crushed
coal is then passed over the sizer to remcr{eunsized coal whic 1s agam feedback to
the crusher. The sized coal is thell'drie_4·il!~the drier where the excess free moisture
--- - - ~
present in the coal is removed by pas_s_i~g_!h~ h~t flue gases in closed spaces.
c--------- .,____.-------------
.\ . I • • •• •
~cannect w1tn c..;am~canner

1A6 POWER PU\NT ENGINEERING
Uncrushed coal
~ Coal crusher
Belt conveyor Hot gases out Coal to

+.____ __._ __, storage
hopper
Closed Hot gases in
co?I s~orage
-Coal drier
Belt conveyor
• •.' I
Bucket elevator
· • ' Figure 1.29: Coal preparation pl~nt
TI1e coal may contain some iron scrap and other foreign particles which are removed
with the help of magnetic separators. Magnetic separator is usually a magnetic pulley over
wliich loaded coal belt is run. ·During the run, iron particles stick with the belt and travels
around the magnetized pulley and dropped off.into a reject chute.
d) Coal transfer
This stage ofcoal preparation deals with the equipments involved in transporting the.
.
coal from unloading site to the dead_storage (outdoor storage). These equipments include
' • I I • • • • t 1 •
1. Belt conveyors
2. Screw conveyors
3.. Bucket elevators
: I , j ,. • ~l l ' I • 1. I ~I , 1 I' ,
4. Grab bucket elevators

COAL BASED THERMAL P.OWER PLANTS 1A7
i) Belt conveyors
Ii
Supports
Return Roller
Figure 1.80: SecHonal view of Belt conveyor
Bell conveyor is a flexible type hoisting and conveying device used for transporting
large quantities of coal over large distances. Belt conveyors give a continuous supply of
material and high capacities are possible.
Figure I .30 shows the arrangement ofbelt conveyors. It consists of endless belt
(made ofrnbber, canvas or balata) running over a pair ofend drums or pulleys and supported
by a series of rollers (known as Idlers) lo~ated at regular intervals.
The return idlers which support the.empty belt are plain roller~ and are spaced wide
apart. Average speed ranges from 60 to I 00 m/min. The load carrying capacity of the belt
~onveyor may vary from 5~I ~ __ . . _. ...... , . ..
Advantages of belt conveyors
I. Low power consumption.
2. Smoo"th, coritinuotis, clean and rapid discharge of large _qua~tiJi~~ of coal is
possible.
. , ..
3. Lesser repair and maintenance cost. .. , • f
; . . , -
4. Most econ~mical method of coal transport in medium apd large capacity
' • • r ,II; • • I
plants. · · ·

l.~~---___.:,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,.;..P_O_W_ER_PLA_NT_E_N-..:..:.GINEE~
~48 ~
Disadvantages of belt conveyors

1. Not suitable for gre~ter hei~ts and short distances.
2. They are lfrryted to less than 20° inclination and capacities are reduced by
5-10% when used on inclines upto 20° to the horizontal.
. '
3..•Installation and
•
replacement
I
of belt is very costly.
• r
ii) Screw conveyors
I .
Coal Supply
In
i
Ball Bearing
Drive
·i . Sere'!"
Coal Discharge
...
. . . . Figure 1.31: Screw Conveyor
., Figure 1.31 shows the internal arrangement of screw conveyor.

'
It consists
.. . ' an
. of
. endless
. ' , . .helicoid
~ . . screw
... fitted to a shaft.
One end of the shaft i~ connected with the driving mechanism and the other end is
.__ su1morte~ ~ an e!}closed ball bearing.
Rotational movement of screw in a casing ~~~s.the coal from one end to the other
·, endoftheconveyor......-. ····-· · J•·· ··. -,.::.::...:..:__ __ _ .. __,
I
I• , , ,
Advantages of screw conveyors
1. Unit is simple, compact and dust proof.
'.
,
' '
_ .
•
. . : 2. .Low initial cost

I
... 1 • ' t " • l· • •

and requires miniinuw space:· . '_
•
· , · .. ,.
• • •
•. . ·I
••
• · ~• , '
.
I \ 1 t '
Disadvantages of screw conveyors 'l • I I
I. High power consumption.

2. Excessiv·e wear and tear which reduces the life of the screw conveyor. '
i:Scannect. w1 tn lJami:Scanner
iii) Bucket elevators
·, . Coal out
' '
(a) Centrifugal (b) Continuous
Figure 1.32: Bucket elevators
:. Figure 1.3 2(a) shows the centrifugal type of bucket elevator. It consists of steel
buckets tjgidl¥ fastened to a continuous steel chain, which runs over two·wheels. The
buckets are loq1ted on t~e cha~n at equal spaces and i~ is lo~ed at th,e bottom by dJQP~g
'·h-mtoi coal pocket or boot. . _ . . : · .
..
' The material elevated may be positively discharged at the top either by.centrifugal
::force or by-drawing back the buckets at the discharge side. ·
Figure l .32(b) shows the continuous type ofbucket elevator which operates similar
:.to the former one. . . .: ·. • . , .. , .
- However, more amount of coal can be handled than the first type. Bucket elev~tor
is generally enclosed in a casing in order to get a-dustless operation.- - -. .:
- - - - ,
iv) Grab bucket elevators
.., Grab bucket elevator i~ ~-device used for h?~ ~g and convey C?al ~n a single rail
or track from one point to tne tJtfiet: °The coaTli~edby grao buckets is transferred to
overhead bunker or storage. '' ·'
I , • r 1 • , ,
f '
..
·'
• I
- .scanned. w1 tn cam.scanner
1.1,;5~0~_ __.:,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __:_PO;;_W~E_R_P_L_AN..;_
_T_E_N-.:GtN(:~1:11~,
- ~
.'
Grab bucket
Figure 1.33: Grab bucket elevators
Due to its high cost, this equipment is used where other ammgements are not possible
'
however, its operating cost is less. The grab bucket conveyor ~an be used with crane or
tower as-shown in figure 1.33.
e) .Outdoor storag~
Outdoor storage or dead storage can be open space in one comer ofthe plant. Its
capacity can be six months or one year requirement of the plant. Stora~ves
.p ~•~ainst ~ntem1ption of coal supplies when there is delay in transportation of
coal or dueto strikes in-coal·mines. When the fuel prices are low, it can be pure msed and
stored under.proper c0nditions for future use C~ is stored generally in dead storage in
the form of piles laid directly on.the ground.
'-- -•
t) ·Covered storage
Live storage or·coveFed storage is a space provided in the pla1;_!- near the boiler
furnace to meet one day requirementofthe plant. Live storage can b?provided with
-------------
butffiers and coal bins.
g) IIiplaJit handlirtg
)
-
Handling ofeoal fr2,m live st£_nige to firii1geg_uipm~pt i~ known as inp~handling of
cdal. The·· equip'm.ents us'eci for inpfatit hanclling are same as used for coal transfer.
Efiu:ipmerits 'from :simple chutes for•stoker-firing to pulverizer, feeders etc., for pulverized
fuel -firing•ate•als0·-mcluded. 1Iri,adtlitiofl to 'this, gates and v~es are also used in the system
to control the .flow ·accordm.g to the foad·of the plant.
i:)canned. w1tn c.;ami:)canner

- - -- - -~ - - -- -- ~-----····1._,.__.______.._--=---------- -----
h) Weighing and measuring __,

It is necessary to 'Y£igh the coal at the~ding p~nt and the s ~
individual boilers in order to nm the plant in an economical manner.)
,____.---.-. ------....__,.. ~
1.10.2 Ash handling system ID
Ash handling is an important aspect to be carefuJly undertaken in aIJ the coal fired
steam power plants. The ash weighs even upto IO to 20% of the coal used to bum.
Thust tonnes of ash have to be handled per day in large power stations and hence
some mechanical means becomes indispensable to handle .it.
Handling of ash is a major and difficult problen1 for the following reasons.
I. Ash coming of the furnace is very hot.
2. Ash is abrasive and wears out the conlainers.
3. Ash is dusty and irritative to handle..
4. It produces poisonous gases and corrosive acids when mixed with water.
5. It fonns clinkers by fusing together in large lumps.
Ash handling system comprises the following operations.
a. Removal of ash from the filmace.
b. Transfer of ash from furnace (nsh-bopper) to isolated storage place by
conveyors.
c. Disposal of stored ash.
I.I 0.2.1 Principle requirements of a good asb handl~ng system
I. It should be able to handle large clinkers, soot and dust with little personal
attention. ;....--------------
2. It should be capable to deal with ~ I t ~ . { ;·
3. It should be able to handle both
4. Precautions must be taken to minimis-ashes.
~ --------
wct a~ry ash and operate with little noise.
5. Operating and mruntenance char .es should be minimum possiblf'

-_,,,-
.... > ?£ZLEll& 4 1°#.:.2 , .... _:;:w - - - L L
1n
4. tc~,lm· t . ~m
a ::\{ecbanictl ·•. ·rem
Control v lvo
~ Truck I
@ @
Figure 1.3.J: Uechanical ash handlin a system
Mechanical handling (belt cmwe or) tem i a continuou uischnrgl! y tcm u d

for low capacity coal fired power plants. The figure l .., 4 hm s the nmrngcmcnt oflhc
system. In this system, ash is quenched (cooled) by allowing it to fall o\icr the conveyor
through a water seal. The quencb~h is then carried continuously to a dumpmg sttc or
overhead bunker. Ash carry proce from ash bunker to dumping itc is done with the
help of trucks. Manually operated valves are lo ated and open d and closed to load the
truck.
b) Hydraulic system
This system carries ash along with the flow of,vater ,vith high velocity through n
channel and finally dumped to the sump. -Hydraulic system is clnssificd ihto two types:
I • '
4, I t ,, , ,' , • ,: •,• ' I • 1
1. High pr:e5sure system ', l . 1

t . :.
2. Low pressure system
.::icannee1 wi tn (.;am$canner
.1. High pressure system
Wateriet
..._-
High pressure water-. 'I----~
0
High pressure water

Cast iron walls
Trough carrying
water and ash
Main sump
Figure 1.35: High pressure ash handling system
The figure 1.35 shows the arrangement of a high pressure hydraulic ash handling
system. In this system, the hoppers below the boiler furnace are fitted with water nozzles
at the top and at the sides.
Ash is quenched by the top nozzle and side nozzles provide the driving force for the
ash. The quenched ash with high velocity water is then flow through a trough to the sump
where the ash and water are separated. \Vater can be used again while the ash is removed
to the dumping site.
1. Low pressure system
The figure 1.36 shows the arrangement for low pressure hydraulic ash handling
system. In this system, a trough is provided below the boiler furnace and water at low
velocity is made to flow through it. Ash directly falling into the trough is carried by the
water to the sump. In the sump, the ash is separated from water with the help of screen
and water is pumped back to the trough and used again while the ash is carried to tbe
dumping site through carriages.
Boilers
r • '· ~ - - -I -
Watitc:::=:::::=::=::::::::~\========~
One standby
➔ :::=::::========·===~
----· -=========::: trough to
r •••
I
~ __ .: ) Water troughs Sump pennit repairs
Watetr:=::=:::::=::=::::::::=:::;z::
., =======t
➔ c=::=::t=:::::!===·=="'========~
~--v--··
Boilers
Figrire 1.86: Low pressure ash handling system
c) Pneumatic system
In this system, air is used asa medium for driving the ash through a pipe as shown in
figure 1.37.
Ash from Boiler Primary Ash

Separator Secondary Ash
i ;separator
h
opper
i To Storage Site
Figure 1.37: Pneumatic ash handling system
A h from the boiler is pulverised in the ash crushers and fine ash is then passed into
a tr am of air. High velocity air stream picks up the ash and carries it to a primary and
econdary separator. The separator removes ash and discharged through the hopper
, hi! the lean air is exhausted to the atmosphere from the top of secondary separator.
Thi y tcm i employed particularly for handling fine abrasive ash as well as fine
dusty material (fly ash and soot) over ~con id~rablc distance for final di posal.
d) Steam jet system
In this sy tem, high pre sure steam jet is used for driving the ash along the conveying
pipe. High pressure steam is blown into a conveying pipe where ash is flowing through
from boiler furnace to ash hoppers. This system is employed in small and medium size
plants where the path of travel of ash is not straight and the space available is not sufficient
for other systems. This system operates at high wear due to abrasive action ofash which
requires the conveying pipe to be lined with nickel allay.
1.10.3 Combustion equipment for burning coal
The efficient combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber is the most important
factor for the economic operation of power plant. Hence, it becomes necessary to know
the principle and types ofvarious combustion equipment used for burning the coal in power
plants. Two major methods are commonly employed for this purpose.
1. Stoker firing methoa for solid fuel burning.
2. Pulverised firing method for pulverised fuel burning.
Firing of solid fuels like coals usually require a grate in the furnace to hold the fuel
like a bed. Hence, solid fuel fired furnaces are also known as grate fired furnaces. This is
used in stoker firing method and the equipment is known as mechanical stokers.
Firing of fuels in their powdered fonn is usuaJly supported in chambers and hence
pulverized fuel fired furnaces are also known as chamber fired fi.unaces. This is employed
in pulverized firing method and the equipment is known as pulverizer. The combustion
equipment used for coal burning can be classified as follows.
I. Handfiring
2. Stokers firing
J°. Pulverized fuel firing
Owing to the J_11ajor disadvantages of hand firing like low C(?mbustion efficiency.
Unable to respond quickly to fluctuating load and difficult draught control, hand firing is not
used in modem power p1ants. · ,· ·
1.10.4 Mechanical stokers

. Mechanical stokers arc power operated fuel feeding mechanism that uses grate for
feeding solid fuels into the furnace. In earlier days, coal feeding is done by means ofhand
(hand firing), over a stationary grate. Owing to the major disadvantages in hand firing,
mechanical stokers arc designed lo continuously feed coal into the furnace by moving
grates within the furnace and also to remove ash from the furnace. Use of these stokers
ensures more uniform operating conditions, higher burning rate and greater efficiency.
Advnntngcs ol' stoker firing
l . Continuous supply of coal for firing in the furnace is ensured.
2. Ability to use poorer and cheaper grade of fuel with less smoke and higher
cmcicncy, I
3. High opcmlionnl flexibility.

4. Greater com bu. lion capacity can be obtained in a furnace.
5. System is very relinble and maintenance charges are reasonably low.
Disndvnntngcs of stoker tiring
l. Con trnclion is complicated.
'
2. Initial co t may be higher U1an pulverized firing for very larger units. .
3. Troubles due to slagging and clinkering of combustion chamber walls are
experienced.
, · 4. Sudden variations in the steam demand cannot be met to the same degree.
5. Banking and stand by losses are always present.
1.10.4.l Classification of mechanical stokers
Mechanical (automatic) stokers are generally classified as given below
1. Overfeed stokers
a. Travelling grate stokers b. Spreader or sprinkler stokers
-· Under~ ed stokers
n. Single retort stoker b. Multi-retort stoker
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I. Ot•,:~ft~ ul. la~,.,.·

ln ov 1·fi I . t lk 1·., th µ1·n1 ,. , Iv n n· uh ( ,. n) ·oul ,11 1,, lop urfitci.,
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nl nv th 1oint l f' (prlmn,· 1) 11 Ir 11dml , It 11. Fl ui· I .. II lu lml ·H tho prl11clplo of'
\ "rt'\ cl. lok r. ,
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r n conl , ·~ ~
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1
oc~nd:~ n1:
1
1 VM• o~c •N 11 2
lnco ndoo ont
coko I
R~\ .,, co,co ~N II
/\oh
Grnt
Primary olr supply

Figur· 1.~18: Pr-i11ciplu ofoverfi' •dHtolwr
Primmy nir(with ils v1tpourc ntcnt) from the forced <lrnught fnn enter the bottom
of the grntc und r pre~ ur . The nir moving through the grate opening is heated by
nb orbing the hcot from the grutc it clfnnd o the grate is cool d. The warm air then
move through layer of hot nshcs nml pick up additional heat energy.
The.nir(nt nbout 1200°C) then pn cs tl1rough a lnycrofincandcscentcoke where
exothcm1ic renction occurs between cnrbon nnd oxygen to form carbon dioxide. This
cxothcnuic reaction provide the heat release for continuing the combustion process and
continues till nil the oxygen i consumed.
The wntcr vapour present in nir nl o reacts with carbon in incandescent region and
fom1s CO2, Co and free H2. Upon fiu1hcr travel lhrough the incandescent region, part of
the CO2 react with coke lo fonn Co and hence no free 0 2 will escape from incandescent
region .. .'.. , . ~ .. . .
' '
Fresh fuel (raw conl) i continuously supplied on the bed surface thus fonning the
top-most layer of the fiicl b d. Here, the fuel undergoes distillation and loses its volatile
1' t • • t
matt r.
Heat for dis ti llarion and eventually ignition comes from the following four sources.
l. By conduction from incandescent coke below the raw coal.
... •, I
2. Hot gases diffusing through the bed surface.
3. By_radiation from hot gases and flames in the furnace.
4. From the hot furnace walls.
TI,e ignition zone lies directly below the fresh fuel undergoing distillation ofits volatile
matter. The gases leaving the bed surface contains, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, hydrogen, combustible volatile matter and water vapour. Then sufficient
secondary (additional fresh) air is fed at right angles to the upflowing gas stream from the
fuel. bed to burn the' remaining combustible ,
gases: The combustion gases entering the
boiler consist ofN 2, Co 2, 0 2 and HiO and some Co, if the burning is incomplete.
a) Travelling grate stokers
' i • I
· Travelling grate stokers consists of grate which moves from one end of the furnace
·to the other end. Based on the grate construction, this travelling grate stokers are divided
into three namely bar type, chain type and vibrator type.
Over fire or
secondary
•• .. • t I,_, I
ai~po~
l I • '1
·Adjustable Furnace
fuel gate
. ./. .·.
Primary air
supply ports
A bar grate stoker is made up of a series of cast iron grate bars mounted on carrier
bars which are joined together to fom1 an endless belt riding over two set of sprocket
wheels.
.scanned. w1 tn c.;am-Scanner
A chain grate tokcr is made up of a series of cast iron chain Jinks connected by pins
or keys to fonn an endless flexible chain running.over.two sprocket wheels.
A vibrating grate stoker has a travelling grate whose movement is controlled by
vibrating mechanism by shaking the fuel bed intennittently. Here, the fuel bed is inclined so
that the fuel moves towards the rear of the boiler by gravity with the progress ofcombustion.
Figure 1.39 shows the chain type travelling grate stoker.
It consists of a grate in the fonn ofendless chain which fonns a support for the fuel
bed by running over two sprocket wheels one variable speed driven at front end and
another idle shaft sprocket at rear end.
Coal enters the moving grate from a hopper through an adjustable gate provided at
the hopper outlet so that fuel bed thickness can be regu]ated by raising or lowering the gate
as shown in figure 1.39. ·
-
Simultaneous adjustment ofgrate speed, fuel bed thickness and air flow controls the
burning rate so that nothing but ash remains on the grate by the time it~eaches the furnace
rear. The ash containing a small amount ofcombustible material is carried over the rear
end of the stoker and fa11s into the ash pit as the grate turns on the rear sprocket to make
the return tip.
The airrequired for combustion is supplied through the air inlets situated below the
grate. Air pressure are varied by dampers from front to rear of the stoker to admit gradualJy
reduced quantity ofprimary air. Over fire air (secondary air) is supplied through the ports
provided at the deflection walls.
Merits of chain type travelling grate stoker
1. Very simp]e, reliable, accessible and maintenance charges are low.
2. Initial cost is low and light in weight
3. It is self-cleaning stoker.
4. High heat release per unit volume ofcombustion chamber.
Demerits of chain type travelling grate stoker
I. Not suitable for hjgh capacity boilers.
2. Specially designed ignition arches are generally required.:
3. Slagging and clinkering troubles are very common. ·
.. ,·,
1.60
b) Spreader stoker
In this system, instead of burning the coal into the lhnmcc the cont i bu med pnrt ly
in suspension and party on the grate. Here, the function of gmh! ii only l ·upp rt a be I
of ash and move it out of the furnace.
TI1e assembly shown in figure 1.40 consists of three prU't nnmdy vnrinblc focding
device, a mechanism for throwing the coal pipes uniformly on the grntc. The coul
feeding and distributing mechanism are located above the gmtc in the front wall of tho
furnace.
The raw coal is delivered to the furnace by nseries of rceder unit which mny be n
slow speed rotating drum, reciprocating ram, endless belt or pirnl worm. ·Feeders nrc
operated with variable speed drive to control the qunntily of fuel supply.
Furnace
Feed ...·············•·L. .....

Spreader ...
'. Fuel bed ''
-..::: :-:..:--.:=------ -"'::..."':..--~":."!-::::::::=~~.:::::.:::
.,
Primary air
Figure 1.40: Spreader stoker
Spreader consists of a rapidly rotating shaft with short twisted blades for distributing
the coal unifonnly over the grates. A portion of the coal pieces are suspended into the
furnace on the top of the fire.
During this process, fine coal p~cles in_suspension will ignite as they pass into the
flame and bum out in suspensi~n and the remaining falls on the grate.
I • •
1l1e primary air supplied by fan efiters tlie furnace through the openings provided in
the grate. Aportion of this ai.ris.used to bum the-fuel
. on the grate and the remaining air is
used to bum the volatile matter and fine particles in suspension.
• • I I f
i:Scannea. w1 tn c...;ami:Scanner
Secondary air is supplied above the fuel bed through nozzles. This air creates high
turbulence nnd completes the combustion of volatile hydrocarbons and fine cool particle .
TI1c unburnt coal and ash arc deposited on the grate which is removed periodically.
Merits of spreader stoker
I. Wide variety of cont can be burnt easily.
2. Lesscrdimcultics due to clinkering effects.
3. Volatile molter i easily burnt
4. It i po iblc to use high t mpcraturc preheated air.
5, Opernting co ti n idcmbly low.
Demerits of sprcndcr ·tokcr
'
1. Fly n h i much m r .
2. Su pension burning uld lend t rry omc unburnt fuel particles with exhaust
go -•
3. It i dinicult t pcmtc with _ruying coal iz - with varying moisture content.
U) Underfeed stoker
Incandescent Coke
Green coal
Tuyere
' .
Figure 1.41: Principle of underfeed gtoker
lt \ fl ~ .J ik rs, th oal i fed into th fumac below the point ofair admission.
.. ,..ure l Al ilhtStrotes th principl of und rfeed tok rs. H re the fuel and air move in
Prin , ·rp.: _, in~ through th hole in th tu re diffuses through the spaces

it n nl. The air mi. · ,, ith th \ olatil matter released by the raw
l ugh th combu tion zon .
\\"h n h ~ ~ .. tream then pa e into the region of incandescent coke, the
\ l tit· m t'"'r break up and reaclil bum ,, ith econdary air which is fed at the top.
Th ~· ·... min~outofthera,, coalb d.i th npa throughalayerofashwhere
dditiomtl h at n rg and finall , di charged to th furnace.
a in~l rr.:lorl ..Joker
Th fi~nre 1.4_ (n ho,, th arrangem nt of ingle retort stoker. Fresh coal is

~ in lurge. h pp r on the front of th furnace and fed into th horizontal trough by
ating mm or sere, com or.
Air rt_:.quin.'<i mbustion is upplied through the tuy rs provided along the upper
th grnte. Th ash and clink rs are collected on the ash plate provided with
dump in~ arrnngement.
Boiler
n) Schematic ofsingle retort system
iScannee1 w1 tn {.;amiScanner
MAl I <lWU ~111.AN I '
A h Discharge
..
(b) Princlpl~ l'liring lu n rntort :-1lokc1·
J, i,:ttt• • 1.42: /11f.!/O I' •lorl llYHlcm.
h) ,H ulti-r tori ,'tlt1k 'r

The ti lure 1.4 sh w · thu mulli rel rt stoker. II consists of~ cries ofaJtemate
J mllcl tr ugh' cnllcd r I rl int which c nli · pu hed by fitting a reciprocating ram with
coch ofil. lusher .I h,tc ' nrc pr vidcd f r unilbl'lll di ·tribut.ion ofmw coal. Coal _falling
fr 111 lh feed h ppcr is pushed f rwnrcl during the in word movement 9f the stoker ram.
' . .
Then the distributing rnm (pushers) scillutc pnrnllcl lo the retort axes to m~ve the ~nt~re
contd wn.
Front Wall or Boller

Coal Hopper
I
Inlet Damper ·
. ., ' . ""• :·.
Forced Air Duct "
t~ller
1 t • I 1 ,. 11 1 I ' 'f t
Figure 1.43: M1tlti-retort
coal down the length of the stoker. Air is admitted into the furnace through the holes in the
sides of the tuyers. The coal is continuously agitated by the plunger and plunger plates
along the bottom of the retort. When coal gets heated, all the volatiles in it are distilled. It
is in the form of coke and ash when coal reaches the zone of the a~tive combustion. Tue
I ♦• •
· ash fonned is collected at the other end when the combustion has been completed.
1.10.5 Pulverised fuel firing
In pulverized fuel ~ring syste1,11, t~e coal is reduced to fine powder with the a
help of pulverisers and then projected int~ the combustion chamber with the help of
bot air current. The amo~nt of air which is used to carry the coal and to dry it before
entering into the combust~on chamber is known as 'primary air' and the amount of air
required to complete the combustion (supplied separately) is known as secondary air.
Pulverised coal firing is done by two different systems.
1. Unit syste~ or Direct system
2. Central system or Bin system or Indirect system
1.10.5.1 Unit system (or) Direct system
In unit system, eacl~ bumet h~s its own pulveriser and handling unit. Figure 1.44
shows'the arrangement of unit system.
Air+powdered
coal
Raw coal bunker
...' .
Separator
---+-··
LO.Fan
• • l • I I "- , •
Pulverising . .• .• Preheated · ·• ·-
>
mill ' . • • ,• ••I • secondafY air of '.. .
i
,I 0 0
I •,'
: Hotair(or) . . \ ·.· ., , .. , 0 0
,• I • • t • f
. Flue gas in . .
• I I , • • ~ . t "' ' I I ' • • , • '- • • •• ' , t - • I I • ' •
Figure .1.44: Unit (or) Direct system
Cmshcd coal falls by gravity from an overhead bl;Jnker on the feeder at a controJlcd
rate. Cmshed coal is dried in the feeder with the help of hot air (primary air). Dried coal
is then fed to the pulverising mill where it is crushed into a fine powder. After mrning, the
pulverised coal is extracted tluough the separator by means of exhauster (ID Fan) and
carried to the burner along with the hot air. In the separator, oversize coal particles are
separated from the fine dust and fall down again into the mill.
Advantages of unit system over central bin system
l. System is simple, cheaper to install and operate and easy to regulate the
fuel feed.
2. Coal transportation system is simple.
3. System provides direct control of combustion from the pulveriser.
4. Greater safety and less maintenance charges.
5. Lower space requirements.
Disadvantages
I_. It requires some degree of reserve in the event of failure of burner auxiliaries.
2. Excessive wear and tear on ID fans as it handles air and coal dust.
3. Poor perfonnance at part load conditions.
4. Degree of flexibility is less than the central system.
'
5. Due to the limited fuel capacity, strict maintenance is needed.
1.10.5.2 Indirect (or) Central (or) Bin system
In central system,,the fuel is pulveri'.?ed in the central plant and then distributed to
each furnace with the help of high pressure air current. Figure 1.45 shows the arrangement
ofcentral bin fuel feed system. Crushed coal falls by gravity from an overhead bunker on
the feeder at a controlled rate. ·
Crushed coal i~ drie,d in the feeder with.~~ ,help_ofhot air and the dried coal is given
to the pulverizing mm;where it is crushed into a fine powder. After milling, the coal dust is
carried to the cyclone separator with the help ofair. The transporting air is separated from
the coal in the cycJone separator and the air is returned to the·mill ckcuit.
•• 1 1 • ,_ ~ 4 • I • f I I t • I • •
~canned. w1 tn cam~cariner
Raw coal bunker
LO.Fan
Control Valve
Cold air
out • • • • • • Feeder
Hot air Central

in pulverised
fuel bunker
• • I •
Pulverised
fuel feeder ' '•
... F.D.Fan
' I
• I
· ..Figure i45:
. Central. (or) Bin System
..,.
·· · · Ft6m·the cyclone, the separated pulverized coal is transferred to the central
coal bunker (bin) with the help of conveyor. From the bunker, fuel is conveyed to the
burner-by the FD. fan·through the pulverised fuel feeder where the primary air is mixed
wiU1 the coah
Advantages of ccntrahystem over•unit system

1. Larger de·gree of flexibility as the fuel and air quantities can be accurately
controlled.
2. Boiler plant is more reliable as the failure of coal preparation plant does not
directly affect the operation.
3. No wew problem in fan blades-as fan handles only air.
I
4. If offers better control'over tlie-fineness of coal:

5. Pulveriser can be operated·at constant lo·ad irrespective of the plant load.
6. Labour requiremen~ is less.
Disadvantages
I. Greater capital cost and requires large space.
2. Operation and maintenance charges arc high.
3. Greater possibility of fire hazard.
4. Power consumption by auxiliary units are high.
5. Coal transportation system is quite complex.
6. Driers are necessary in central.bin system.
1.10.5.3 Pulverised coal burners
Pulverised coal burners are equipments that are used to bum the dried pulverised
coal which arc suspended by air. These pulverised coal bumcrs arc different types
I.. Long name bumcrs 2. Short flame burners
3. Tangential burners 4. Cyclone burners
J. lo11gjlm11e burners
The c nrc al o called U-Oamc or trcam lined burners. In this type, tlie air arid coal
mixture is di charged vertically from the burner in thin streams with no turbulence aha
hence produces a long fi-nmc. Hot econdary air is supplied at right angles to the flame for
better mixing and rnpid combu tion as shown in figure 1.46.
Primary air &

coal-t-
Tertiary
air-t-
:.,·... ' .....

.. ..·
• •• • I
([ ,: i Ti
Secoa~,rdary t,~'!JJtL~ii!'!
_, ta , .
1 : •. :,chamb·er: :
.. , , .
:.:
!' · .:·-.:-:2...
~ ,.
;::.::..:::
,
~-•,-~~:'ii,·=:-: · ·:.·-..·;..
:J/ .
;!~,
·t
Molten asli
Figure 1.46: L·o ng flame bllmers
~
Te1tiary air i introduced aro, md lhe air and fuel mixture to fonn and envelope around
it, thus en uring better mixing. However, long flame can be shortened by supplying more
quantity of secondaty air.
2. Short flame burner
It is also called as turbulent burner as shown in figure 1.47. These burners are
usually located into furnace walls so that the flame is projected horizontally into the fi.unace.
The air and fuel mixt11re and secondary hot air are arranged to pass through the
burner in such a way that there is good mixing and the mixture is projected in highly turbulent
fonn in the furnace.
Due to high turbulence ~realed before entering the fomace, the mixture bums intensely
and combustion is completed in short distance. This burner gives high combustion rate
compared with other types and mostly preferred for highly volatile coals .
.'
Steam drum
Coal&Primary
i Air .
.\:
i.
ti,,
r ..' • I
L
.
Secondary air Boiler front plate
' '
Figure 1.47: Turbulent burner (Short flame burner)
3. Ta11gential b11r11ers
The figure 1.48 shows the plan view of tangential ~~ers._In this typ~ b1:1mers are
- lo.cated at the corners of the ~mace. They ~~ fired _ t·~:disch~?~ the ~\r~ fy~~ ~~e a~4
tangential to aµ ~maginruy circle fonnect'at tl1e ~·en~e of ~~e ~ace..tfi~.s.\YltI~_g a~~?n
produces ~dequate tur}?ulence in the furn~ce t?-~01?,Pl~te,the co~~~s~,~~jn'a~~o,~c·p~?~d
and avoids the necessicy of producing high turhuience at' th~ tur~i4etic~ i~elf: . .. .
l I ' 4 f I • f t • f • j "'11 • ~ ., ' , \ , f \. • • ••
.::>canned. w1 tn cam.::>canner
Burner
Figure 1~48: Plan view of tangential burners
4. Cyclone burners .'

In cyclone burners crushed coal is used and not the pulverised fuel. This is done to
eliminate pulverisers and to reduce the fly ash difficulties. Crushed coal with primary air
enters the cyclone at the left end. Tangential entry of the coal throws it to the ?urface of the
cylindrical furnace. Figure 1.49 shows the schematic of cyclone burner.
Primary Air 7
and coal 1 ..,
Furnace
~ :
Hot Gases
Tertiary air Cyclone

Cylinder Molten Ash
Figure 1.49: Cyclone burner
As the coal moves wi~ air from the front to rear, secondary air is admitted tangentially
at high.speed and creates a strong.and high.turbu.lent v~rtex.
This secon'dacy·· ai~ entry
':
completes the combustion in the cyclone burner. The fuel supplied is quickly consumed in
this burner. The burner is slightly deflected horizontally towards the boiler to enable the
easy flow of molten ash to an appropriate disposal system.
1.70 POWER PLANT ENGINEERIN~
1.10.5.4 Advantages of pulverised fuel firing over stoke firing

1. It is possible to use any grade of coal as coal is po\vdered before use.
2. Method is more flexible to respond for fluctuating loads on the plant.
3. Boiler unit can be started from cold rapidly and efficiently. This is highly important
in case of emergency.
4. Banking and standby losses are reduced.to lower level.
S. Higher efficiency due to complete combustion.
6. System is practically free from clinker and slagging troubles.
7. Furnace has no moving parts subjected to high temperatures.
8. Ability to use highly preheated secondary air (370° C) promoting rapid flame
propagation.
9. Increased surface area in the ratio 400: l gives high combustion rates.
10. It'requires less amount of excess air for complete combustion of fuel .in lump
fom1. ,
11. The furnace volume requirement is less due to shorter flame length.
12. The external heating surfaces are free from corrosion and bonded deposits.
1.10.5.5 Disadvai,tagcs of pulverised fuel burning over stoke firing .
l. Coal preparation plant is essential and this could increase the capital cost.
2. Lot of fly ash in the exhaust which makes the remeving.,, ef fine dust
uneconomical.
3. Maintenance c~arges on the furnace brick wall is high clue to higher working
temperature.
4. Plant is always prone to explosions, as coal bums like a gas.
5. Special st~ing equiprpen~ are necessary. . . . . _'
6. Larger building space is required especially for central system.
..' .
.. . • \ t • •
..
1.10.6 Pulverisers
Pulveriser is tl1c heart of the pulverized coal firing system in which coal is pulverised
to increase its surface exposure thereby promoting rapid and complete combustion using
a small quantity of excess air. Pulverisers are driven by electric motors with the feeders
either actuated by the main drive or by a smaq d.c. motor, depending upon the control
used. The different types of pulverising milJs used for this purp~sc are
Q BallMill
i0 Ball and Race Mill •• I
iiij Impact or Hammer Mill .

• I
iv) Bowl Mill

1.10.6.1 Ball mill
I •
Air out Air out '
- - Exhaust
Fanr-,,-______ ha
_.,,..~--=-""Fa
--.o:-==== ::::::():_
'. '.
I f Mixture of . I
hot air and

...
I fine coal ·
' 11
.Classifier
. Classifier
Bearing Rotating .
· . drum · , .•. · , : • ,
. ,- - - + - - -.~.~.-.. -r .
.,. . ' ...
Screw conveyor
r
Hot air
Figure 1.50: Double classifier Ball mill
Scanned w1 t.fi-'1JaiifScanner
1.72
The figure 1.50 shows the line diagram of ball mill. It consists of a slowly
rcvolvingdnun with 20-35%ofits volume is filled with forged steel ballsofmixedsize(30
to 60 mm). Raw coal from the feeders is given to the classifiers from where it moves to the
dmm by means of a screw conveyor. As the drum rotates, the coal gets pulverised due to
the combined impact action between the balls and the coal. Hot air from preheater is bloWn
over the charge held in the dmm. This air carry the powdered coal to the classifiers, which
feed back Lhe coarser particles for regrinding. The pulverised coal air mixture is passed to
tl1c exhaust fan and then to tl1e burners. The ball mill is reliable and requires low maintenance,
but it is bulky and heavy in construction, and consumes more power per tonne.
1.10.6.2 Ball and Race mill
Fine Particles
discharged to burners
Raw Coal Feed
Rotating
Classifier .----"---'---L--..........
Spring
Grinding
Elements
• -+-
Lower Race
Hot Primary Ball Hot Primary

air Supply air Supply
Fi!!tlre 1.51: Ball andRace Mill
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__ _, ___
1.73
-
COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS
The figure 1.51 shows the line djagram ofball and race mill which i also known as
contact mill. Here, the coal pulverisation is achieved by admitting the coal between two
rolling surfaces again and again upto the desired degree of fineness. The rolling elements
are balls rotating between two races in the manner of ball bearing. The balls are held
between a upper stationary race and a rotating lower race driven by a wonn and gear.
The coal is supplied on the inner side of the races through the rotating table feeder. The
coal is crushed into a powder between the moving balls and races. Grinding pressure is
varied for the most efficient grinding of various coal by externally adjustable springs on
the top of upper race. Hot primary air supply caus the coal feed to circulate between the
grinding clements and when it becomes fine enough it becomes suspended in the air and is
carried to the classi ficr from where o c iz d coal pnrticl arc feed back for regrinding.
The fine conl particle nrc cnnicd t th bumc \ ith air from the top ofthe classifier.
t. l D.6.3 lm1u1ct or 11:ammcr mill
Coal feeder
♦ *
Stalienary pegs
Primary alr&coal
to burners
I
Primary air fan ._ .,.._,,.._1-.111
burners 1
Motor
FinaJ
• , grinding stage Rotating pegs Pn·ma ry gnn
· diing sta ge
Figure 1:52: Impact (or) Hammer mill
1 ·!:~-------------~P~O::.:.W.:.:E~R:...P_LA_N_T_E_N_G_IN_E...:.;,.,,:E~G
~74 ~
· ·11 · h' h 1 en·sation is accomplished due to

The figure 1.52 shows an impact m1 mw 1c pu v ..
hammering action. The coal remains in suspension during the entire pulvensmg proeess.
All the grinding elements and the primary air fan are mounted on a single shaft._ ~en hot
primary air is given to the pulveriser, the coal is carried to the primary Slate IS grmding
where coal is crushed to fine granular state by impact with a series of hammers. After
primary stage, the coal is then carried o~ a rotating disk and travels between stationary
pegs of a final stage pulverisation. The finely pulverised coal is then carried with the air to
the burner through the rotating scoop shaped.rejector anns which throws the large particles
back into the grinding section.
1.10.6.4 Bowl mill
Coal
-:l ;.: ' ~ ....., .. . ;.. :.,.
lt►"
~
-.i·
~ .
~) Tob
;,,~
i;'j\i
~ ·:
',k;.!.
'1',fi
J·
,..
-~:-1
i:~:·~ ,;~
Hot air
Figure 1.53: Arrangement of Bowl mill
Bowl mills are \Vl~ely used for grinding coals. Figure 1.53 shows the arrangement
of bowl mill. It consists of a stationary rollers and a power driven rotating bowl. Toe
pulverisation tal<es place when the coal passes behveen the sides of the bowl and the
rollers. Coal fed on the centre of a rotating bowl is thrown outward over the bowl sides by
centrifugal force where it is pulverised by rolling under spring loaded rollers. Heavy particles
are settled below the bowl and are discharged from the mill through a specially provided
~canned. w 1tn c..;am~canner

spout. The·fine particles arc w cpcd from the bowl to the classifier by an aircuJT nt. The
classifier fed back lhe oversize particles to the bowl for furl her grinding through tl1c centre
cone of the classifier. The pulverised coal is carried to the burner through the fon.
1.10.7 Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
Electrostatic precipitator is an electrically operated dust col!ector that is located in
the path of nue gas between the furnace/boiler and the stack (chimney) to remove the
particulate matter especially flyash in case of pulverised fuel burning.
Electrostatic prccipilalor consists oftwo sets of electrodes, which arc insulated
completely from each other. One set of electrode .is composed of rows of electrically
grounded, positively charged vertical plates which are called as collecting electrodes and
have a large con tant surface as shown in figure 1.54.
Grounded Plates(+)
W//1//11/1/43 f1//117ff/////lA
~_.@@ @-.o@ @-.o o @_.
rn ~.,.....,..__,-.-.~ ~------...................... i
~ VWl//171/7/21 . Y/1////ffe/lm f1/l///l/2½o/A ~
~_.@ 0 o-.o@ @---@@ @ _ . c :
Ol
~
N ------------ -~~----
11////////////hl f1/ml/////llA D
,..,._.,.....,.........,.,...,..,...,~
W/4'/1///////21 ~
1
::,
n-.@@@-.@oo-. ~@-+
o W/li'l//11/2½1 W/7lll&IIA ,r-7",,~~=====-:::-.::-.:::..=-'....,

Wire Electrodes (-)
Figure 1.54: Schematic view of ESP
The second set cssentjally consists of number ofnegative charged pieces in the fonn
of U1in wire, which are called as emitting or disc barging electrodes and are placed centrally
between each pair ofparallel plates. The wire electrode cany uni-directional, high voltage
current (in the order of20 to 1OOkV, typically 40kV) which generates a non-uni fonn uni-
directional electric field as shown by dashed lines in the figure 1.55, and thus a high voltage
electrostatic field is maintained across the two electrodes.
When the dust-laden flue gas is passed between the charged plates~thfa high voltage
electrostatic field ionises the gas molecules. So that the particulates in the gas gets negatively
charged and are attracted to the electrica1ly grounded positive electrodes. Thus, a clean
gas is letout through the outlet ofelectrostatic precipitator into the stack for discharging
into atmosphere.
(a) Charging (b) Collecting
(c) Discharging (d) Rapping
Figure 1.55: Basic operations of ESP
The figure 1.55 shows the electrical schematic arrangement ofan ESP consisting of
all essential components. Thus, there are four principle steps in the dust collecting process
ofelectrostatic precipitator.
1. Ionisation of flue gas and charging of dust particles.
2. Attraction ofthe negatively charged particles to the positively collecting electrodes.
. 3. Deposition or clischargirig of the charged particles on tlie collecting electrodes.
4. Dislodging ofthe deposited particles from the collecting electrodes by mechanical
rappmg, \' • 1 . ' I. 1., ' 11 • 1 • 1
These four principle steps.are illustrated in the above figure. _._ : . ,, , •
COALBASEDTHERMALPOWERPLANTS 1.77
The fourth principle step i.e., tJ1c periodical removal f collcclcd ptirficulatc maUcr
is much important to ensure the efficient opcrntion of L P. This removal iHunually
accomplished by a mechanical rapping in which the plntcs nrc subjected to Rh ck vibrations.
It knocks and shakes the particulate matter to fall off the c llccfing pl oles inl the hopper
at the bottom of the precipilator. The effectiveness ofon ~lcclroslalic prccipilc1lor(E P) is
expressed in tcnns of overaJI collection efficiency, which is defined as,
Mass of particles retained by the collect.or
Tlo = - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -
Mass of particles entcri!)g the collector
20-100 KVD-C
440V, 50-, Insulators
3+ Supply
High Voltage -t-Clean Gas

Control Rectifier
Cabinet Transfonner
Emllllng Electrode
Dirty Gas-.
Collecting
Electrode
Figure 1.56: Components of ESP
Merits of Electrostatic Precipitato~

I. Very small particles (0.0 I to I µrn) which could not be removed by wet scrubbers
and other mechanical dust collectors, can be easily removed by ESP.
2. Overall coJlection efficiency is as high as 99.5%.
3. Minimum draught loss is po$sib1e at easy operation.
4. Maintenance charge are very low.
5.. Dust is coIJected in dry fonn but can be removed in dry or wet.
i:)cannect w1 tn CJam~canner
Demerits of Electrostatic Precipitator

· l. High running charges and capital cost
2. More space requirement.
3. High efficiency is ensured only when the gas velocities are maintained with in the
design range ofthe plant.
4. Protection is needed for both the electrodes from sparking danger.
1.10.8 Draught system

Draught is one of the most important system to be provided in thennal power plant
for its efficiency operation. Inadequate draught results in incomplete combustion which
' I
affects the steam output from the boiler plant and cause fuel wastage due to poor combustion.
Hence, draught is essential for power plants.
Draught is defined as the difference between absolute gas pressure at any point in a
gas flow passage and the ambient atmospheric pressure measured at same elevation. This
pressure difference is required to maintain the constant flow of air and to discharge the
gases through the chimney to atmosphere. The draught system folds three main functions:
1. To supply sufficient quantity of air through the furnace for complete combustion
offuel.
2. To remove the gaseous products of combustion from the furnace.
3. To move and ex.haust the products ofcombustion to the atmosphere through the
chimney. ·
Draught system is classified into two major systems based on the way of draught
produced. · · · ·'
r
1. Natural(chimney)draught ·
2. Artificial (Mechanical) draught
a. Forceddraught , ..
. I '" • -
.... . .. .,
• • • ._ I f -
b. Induced draught
I I • • • • • '1 • •• I ' • I
c. Balanced draught
l.10.8.1 Natural (chimney) draught
Natural draught is produced by a tall chimney and i~ suitable only.for small capacity
boilers. It is called natural due to the absence of mechanical appliances. The draught is
.::icannee1 wi tn (.;amScanner
caused by the chimney due to tl1e temperature di tference and consequently density difference
of hot gases in the chimney and cold air outside the chimney. The temperature ofgases in
the chimney is much higher than the temperature of the air ou_tside the_chimney. Therefore
the density ofhot gases inside the chimney is less than outside air, and hence the pressure
also. This pressure'difference causes the flow of air into the furnace and pushes the hot
,gases through the chimney. Amount ofdraught depends on the chimney height above the
furnace grate level. Mathematically, •
.... .
where,
~p = draught or pressure difference, Pa
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
Ii =· chimney heigh~ m
pn = density of atmospheric air, kg/m3
. ', '
Pg = density of gas inside the chimner, kg/m3
A.dvantages of Natural draught .
' '
I . No external power is required for causing the draught.
2. Less capital investment and maintenance cost is almost nil. ·.
, . . 3. Cleanliness is ensured and thus less air pollution.
' I ,', . .'

Disadvantages ·
I. AvaiJable maximum pressure for producing natural draught is hardly lOto 20mm
of water.
2. Draught decreases with increase in outside air temperature.
3. Greater amount of heat utili7.ation from hot gases is not possible.
• . I• •,.
4. Low velocity of air results in poor combustion and increased specific fuel
• I
consumption. J .,. 1 • i , • I
5. No flexibility in creating the draught under peak lo~·conditidns.

6. · Weather conditions and boiler operating condition affect the draught produced.
.. . ' . .
~
, · . II '
' I I I • t ' t
I·,
. l •• • '
• '.
' . ' , ..... ' .· . i. ~, . . .

1.1 O.S.2 Artifici!ll (~ lcchnnicnl or Fnn) drnught

Today. th dmught requirement i high nough of nb ut 400 mm ofwntcr to meet
th power requirement. Producing uch n large drought by nnturol drought y tcm requires
to build n, ery tnll chimney which r fleets in economic point of view. There nrc nlso
,arious-heat xchnngers like superh nters rehentcr cconomiscrnnd nirprehcntcr. When
hot gase flow through the hent exchnng rs the finnl temperature of hot gases get reduced
and that is not sufficient to cause large pre sure lo scs. Hence nrti ficinl drought (produced
by adding the fans) are used for large power plants.
Advanta 0 es of Artificial draught o,1cr naturnl draught
1. Higher rate ofcombustion and inferior quality offucl ~111 be economically burnt
2. Do s rtot depends on weather conditions.
3. Easy control of combustion and evaporation.
4. Plant efficiency is improved.
5. Reduced chimney height.
6. Prevention of smoke fonnation.
7. Efficiency ofthe artificial draught is nearly 7% which is comparable to that of l%
. for chimney draught.
• I
. 8. About 15% less amount of fuel is consumed per

. KW than
. natural draught.
.
,a) Forced draught
In this system, a fan (FD fan) is located before the furnace that is near the base of the
boiler. It discharges airm1~er pressure into the furnace and to the stack ofchimney th~ugh
the economiser, air preheater as shown in figure 1.57.
To exhaust
Boiler
Blower
·-;-
I •
'. ( (( Stack or
Furnace
l, Econ~~iser
l Chimney ·
I I
Grate C ~
-~
Alr preheater.: ·. · ,
Fig,ire 1.57: Forced draught , .
.
In this ttystcm, the pressure inside the system is higher than the atmospheric pressure
and hcnc il is also called as positive draughl sysfcm. Chimney provided is to discharge
gasc high in the atmosphere to prevcnl the air pollution.
h) /,u/ucetl tlra11ght
In this sy Lem, fan (JD fan) is located near the chimney base such that it draws the
burnt gases from the furnace and blows into the chimney as shown in figure 1.58. This
, re ulLq in pressure drop in the furnace and crcales partial vacuum due to which, atmospheric
air flows tJ1rough the furnace freely.
To exhaust
Boiler
((( Chimney
Furnace Blower
%'-'---...J
/f Grate
Alrln .__ _ __ ,
-
Air preheater
Figure 1.58: Induced draught
The action of the induced draught is similar to the action of chimney. The draught
produced in this system is independent of the temperature of the hot gases. So, the flue
gases may be discharged as cold as possible after recovering its heat in air preheater and
economiser. This draught is used generally when economiser and air-preheater.air
•, i,ncorporatcd in lhe ~ystem to reduce the gas temperature before entering the fan.
c) Balanced draught
a
It is con°tbination of forced draught and induced draught system. When the furnace
of an forced draught system is opened for firing or inspection, the high pressure air tries to
escape suddenly and the furnace may stop. On the other hand, when the furnace of an
induced draµght system is opened for firing or inspection, cold air tries to enter into the
fum~cc.d~e.to the partial vacuum created in the furnace. This reduces the effectiveness of
the draught and combustion is affected. To overc~:m:ie.botb the limitations, it is a better
I • •
choice to prefer b~Janced draught system. The figure 1.59 shows the arrangement of
- - I
balanced draught where the pressure inside the furnace is nearly atmospheric and hence
there is no danger of blowout of flames or there is no danger of in rushing the air into the
furn.ace when the furnace is opened for inspection.
To exhaust
Boiler
C!.! - I Economiser Blower

Chimney
Grate (2
Air preheater
Figure 1.59: Balanced draught
The pressure of air below the grate is above atmosphere and it helps for proper and
unifonn combustion. The pressure of air above the grate is below atmosphere and it helps
to remove the exhaust gases as quick as possible from the furnace.
1.10~9 Cooling. tower
In modem fossil fuel fired thennal plants, about 48 to 52% of the heat input is
rejected to a cooling water system through steam condenser and tltls amount could be of
about 67 to 68% for nuclear power plants. It is therefore clear that enom10us amount of
cooling water is required to cool the circulating water is steam condensers.
Therefore, the cooling water system is one of the most important factor to be
considered for selecting the site for new plant. For this purpose, the power plant can be
located near the source of natural water. But, this in not possible for all the cases due to
power transmission constraints. The modem trend is to locate the steam power plants near
the load centre instead of near a somce of nah.iral water to avoid huge transmission costs.
Moreover, natural water contain free acid, sewage contamination and other foreign
materials which could deteriorate the condenser parts and other parts through which the
water flows. This needs to construct a very large water treatment plans which is also very
costly. Thus, enom10us quantity ofpure water may not be available for cooling purposes.
This makes to use cooling towersas·a necessary codling water system in power plants·.
1:10.9.1 Principle of cooling tower
Cooling tower is an artificial•ae·vice that isused to cool the h'ot cooling.water coming
out ofthe condenser more efficiently by the supply ofair. To this cooling tower, liot circulating
water is pwnped into troughs \vhere the hotwateris finely_atomized and unifonnly distributed
~canned. w1 tn c.;amScanner
1.83
-
COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS
through nozzles. The nozzles located at the bottom of these trough projects the hot water
to down in the fonn of fine spray so that it comes in contact with the air moving in the
opposite direction.
As a result of this a small percentage of water is evaporated by taking its latent heat
and thereby cools the remaining water. Toe air gets heated and leaves the tower at tlie top.
The cooling water falls into a pond or tank located below the tower and this can be
pumped back into the condenser.
1.10.9.2 Types of cooling tower
Cooling towers are classified in the following ways, according to the n·ature of tlie air
draught
1. Atmospheric cooling tov ers
2. Natural draught cooling towers
3. Mechanical draught cooling towers
a. Forced draught cooling towers
b. Induced draught cooling towers
E Atmospheric cooli11g towers
Water In--►.
Figure 1. 60: Atmospheric cooling·towers
Figure 1.60 shows tlie atmospheric coolingto\ver. Iri tliis type, hot water from the
condenser enters the top most tray or louver and falls down one over another. The air
flowing across the tower in transverse•direction cools the wa:ter. Water delivery by spray
nozzles increases the rate ofcooling. These are normally used'fotsmall'capacity power
is
plants. It also known as natural draught spray filled tower.
p
1.84
..... i\ atural dra11n-lzt o/fri, ftH
in ·in.:ul ·ti n u ,,ilh

h ;perbo\ic Y rti \~ H
profile i er ru th .m din"
(pressur duet tron
Figu 1.61: ~nturol drauJhl o/in lou· •rs
In thi typ" m rti n flh t w r int ri r i fill~ with w \:ll hul\lk an

di tributin::i h :a kit int :mall r rti k .
Hot\\ kr from t
nnd tra . The\\ kr
Headers spra the\\ t r in th m,

ofthetowerthrough1ir pen.in~~ Th risin~airwillm . ttl" allint, - ra r fh t,,. krllld
carri th team\ urswhi hareli2.htertllllnirandthus led 11 "h t.. "th
some apours lea, e the tower t t p aft rp in throu_h lhe liminat r nd led
water falls do\\11 in th form f rain int the nd from where it" n:, m ircul ted t the
condenser.
3. Uec/,anical drauul,t oo/ina tow rs
In m hanical draft ooling t w rs, th air fl , ·- ff ted b. mech::mi 1mean
uchasfans. Pro\'si n ffunsgiv - tter ntrol verth ilifl wandthusthe,,ata
temperature can be c ntrolkd. These coolin~ t ,, rs can - eith fi n.~ dr.:m ht r
induced draught type. . .. , ...
~canned. w1tn c..;am~canner

COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS 1.n ,
1. Forced drnught cooling Cowers
Air out lJ lJ lJ
r,nn
Air In
¢:l
Figure 1.62: Forcetl clra11gl1t cooli11f! lmvcrs
Figure 1.62 shows the forced draught cooling tow r. In this type, fim. nrc plnccd nl
the bottom of the tower and air is forced through the descending wntcr. The cntrnin d
water is removed by water eliminator.
l. Induced draught cooling towers
Air out
LJ LJ
C:~~::=:=::::::;::::::::=:=:::~
Wate:...:rl~n
, ' .
• I
Water out
Figure 1.68: Induced drar,g/tl cooli11g towers
/:)cannect w1 tn cam/:)ca.nner
1.86
Figure t .63 shows the arrangement ofinduced draught cooling towers. Here, the
fans arc located al the top of the tower and draws air in through the louvers extending all
around the tower at its base.
1.11 ECONOMIZER AND PRE-HEATERS

The Economizer and Air Pre-heaters are provided for the purpose of heat recovery
in the boiler. They are the important accessories of boiler. The boilers arc provided with
economizer and air pre-heaters to recover heat from the flue gases. An increase of about
20% in boiler eflicicncy is achieved by providing both economizer and air pre-heaters.
To chimney
Flue gases
Alr
Prohoator Alr
Flue gases
..
Economizer - -
Feed water
Flue gases
Super
heater To turbine
Steam
Figure 1.64: Economizer and air pre heater
1.11.1 Economizer
The economizer i the feed, ater heater deriving the heat from flue gases of the
furnace before it enters the boiler. lt is_a gas to water heat exchanger and it is used to
nb orb the wa te heat from the flue gas.
es
Flue ga from boilei-s are typic'ally in the·range of230 - 345°.€ depending upon
boiler. The stacK energy loss is typically 18-22%. The economizer is placed in between
boiler and chimney. The feed water enters the economizer and takes up heat from flue
ga es nfter the low temperature superbeater. Many typse of economizer are designed for
pi king up heat from th flue gas.
i::icannect. w1 tn t,;amScanner
COM. & SEO THER, IAL PO VER PLANTS .87
Th mpcrarure ~m ~ ~ ~ C3I1 ~ 1 w CtoIO'C •

th m Ct ID
·Th enthal , ~
tn
h ..............."""""th unt
Hen
- aninline r
nrr.m~em nt
E \\l [\
1. Pllin~
Gilled tube~
Flue gases
IN
Fi~ure 1.65; Economizer
1.88
It cons its of a vertical tube of cast iron 2. 75 m long l cm thick and with external
diameter of 11.5 cm. The vertical pipes are connected at the top and bottom by horizontal
pipes. These.horizontal pipes are placed in between the main stream of flue gas of the
chimney and boiler. The water is pwnped to the lowest horizontal pipes and then passes
through the vertical pipe. The water in the vertical tube is absorbed the waste heat from the
flue gas passes over the tubes. The h~t water enters the upper horozontal pipes and it is
fed to the boiler. -It is always keep the economizer water outlet temperature to about 25 to
35 degrees below the drum saturation temperature.
. .
To remove the de~osits of soot from the surface of the tubes scrapers are
provided. The scrapers are connected by means of chain passing over pulleys. The
scrapers are move up and down slowly with a speed about f .25 cm per second. The
important function of scrapers is to increase the beat transfer rate and efficiency by
cleaning soot deposits. ·
The econimizers are used,
l. To increase the efficiency by reduction of combustion rate.
2. To reduce emission of carbon dioxide .
. , 3., ro reduce fuel cost.
4. To reduce the thennal stress by preheating.
·· ·5. · · To reduce scale formation in boiler tubes.
6. To increase the life span of the boiler.
1.11.2 Air preheater
Air preheater is a gas to gas heat exchanger is shown in figure 1 66 Th
of the air preheater is to absorb the waste from the
· flu e gases present. m. .the ecbJmney
p~ose
and transfer_s the same heat to the air enters the furnace for combustion.
. The flue gases from chimney are typically in the ran e of 230 - o •
poss1ble to conserve about I 2% extra fuel when w .dg h . 345 C. It ts
boilers. It is placed between the economiz d h' e prov1 et e atr pre-heaters in
er an c mmey It also allow 1
the temperature of gases leaving the stack to meet erruss1ons
. . . . regulations.
. s contro over
There are two types of air preheaters are available n .

preheater, ii) Regenerative air preh t In . . amely; 1) Recuperative Air
ea er. a recuperative air pr h t th
the flue gas is transferred to air thro h . . e ea er, e heat from
ug a meta111c medium .
- - Flue Gas IN Air

Flue gas
.,.
Fresh air IN
►
J
Flue Gas to Stack
\ . ' .
,
. ...
Hopper
Figure 1. 66: Air preheater ·
In a regenerative air preheater air and flue gas~s are made t;~ass alternatively
through the matrix: When the hot ga'ses passes through the matrix it receives the heat
from the hot gases and transfer it to the cold air. _,,. i.
This preheating air helps the low grade fuel,_thus-permitting a reduction mexcess
air and thereby increasing efficiency.
The main advantages of air preheater are I I :1 •
. ;•·,•. 1. ·lpcreasing,the the.rmal efficiency up to 12%

'' I
' 2. Imptoved·comb'ustion. ..I
,
3. Successful usage of Low grade fuel. ,·

4. Increasing s_team generation capac~ty.
, , . ;~- .5.. Fuel saving in consumption. I
• I
•., • ' ! • I I ' • • •• I • ' ( , • ,- I ~ , • I I
' . '\ ' " • . ' • ti J _. .,. I) • • •~ .' t ' f• I • • : • I ' ' ,
I . ,
I
•• ' ~ • , • t , II ., . ,. I . , ... ', • ' r , , t ' I I
' • I
1.90 , POWER PLANT E~GINEERING
1.12 FEED WATER TREATMENT

Purpose of Boiler Feed water Treatment
Boilers, Cooling 'towers and heat exchangers of the power plant utilize water
extremely. The natural watcr contains various amounts of suspended and dissolved
1
matter as well as dissolved gases. The physical impurities are colour, turbidity, taste
and o.dour and the chemical impurities are acidity, minerals and dissolved &ases such
as oxygen, ammonia etc.
The biological impurities are micro organisms such as algae, fungi and bactetja.
The quality of water is an important factor for steam generatiop in boilers. Feed water
mus~ be pretreated to remove in:1purities to control deposition, carryover, and corrosion
in the boiler system.
The important water treatment processes are
1. Filtration
' 2: ·coagulation and flocculation
3. Chemical precipitation.
I 1, I ! : .
4. softening
. ' process with Reaction
. .
oflime
. soda
•I• '
.
1' I 5.. : Ion exchange

,.
6. Deaeration of water
..
.7. Reverse osmosis
8. Internal treatment of boiler feedwater
1. Filtration
The first step in any treatment is filtration or'suspended solids'. The filtration
process removes or reduces all suspended solid impurities. The rust, chemical particles,
minerals, iron and silica are not filtered qu~. They leaµ to ~ev.ere sq.le formation,
'
which js difficult !01cl~an al)d reduce boiler e.f:fic_iency. . . ·
Some impurities such as hardness, iron and silica- a·re of iriore concern'thtin
sodiu~ salts. -r:he p~ri~ .r~qt~irements for any.feed-w~ter depe_nds particular boiler
pressure, heat transfer rat~, _et~: Feed-water purity.req~i.rem~nts therefore c;an vary
I , • ·' • • • •• I , , , • • •
widely.
I 'I I ~ • I • '
coALBASEDTHERMALPOWERPLANTS 1.91
2. Coagulntion nnd fl9cc~1lntion

If the suspended particles in water are so fine then the cartridge filters are
~<;1ble toTemove them. In this case, the q~rnguJants are us~d for water treatment. The
important coagulants are al~1m (almp.iniun:i,su]phate),.Sodium alun;tlpate, ferric chloride,
and ferrous sulphate. .,.
Coagulation is charge neutralization of finely divid_ed and colloidal impurities in
wat~r into masses th_at can be filtered. In ad~itio~, particles have negative electrical
charges,.\\-'.hich cause them to_repel ea~h other a~q resi~t adh~~ng ~ogeth~r.
Coagulation, therefore, involves neu~lizing the negative ~barges and providhig
a nucleus for the suspend~d particles to adhere togeth~r.
.
Flocculation is the bridging
.
together of coagulat:d particles.
·3. Chemical precipitation
Cbemical"precipitation is a process in which chemicals idded to react with
dissolved minerals in the water to produce a rel_~gvely insoluble.reac_tion product. The
most common example is lime-soda treatment. · .. . · . ..
The solu~le calcium ~d magne~iµm salts.are ch~mic~µy co~yerted in~ ~oluble
Calcium.carbonate and magnesium h.ydroxide. Then th~ precipitants are removed.
' .
Precipitation method~ are used in reducing dissolved hardness; alkalinity, and,;ilica.
4. Softening process
'
There are two types of softening process'. They are Lime soda proce·ss and Zeolite
process
Method_s of lime-soda softening
.a) -ii~e- Soda Process
Figure 1.67 shows the Lime-Soda process for softening. Lime-soda softening is
classified as hot or cold, depending oh the tempera~ of tlie'water. In this method cakulated
qµantity of lime and soda is mixed whh water atterriperature 80°C an~ 150°C. It involves
use.ofcoIJ]p~~e~ted tank~.,-.,. , . : .· , . .' . .,...... •; : ... ; _ •
. ·,' I I; a) ' I Rea·ction tankih which the water is rrtixedthoroughlywithch'emicalandsteam.
~
• I bj . Co~i~~l ~~dimentati~n t ~ i~ which ~iudge s~ttle

I.
. . . do~... \ ' .
c) Sand filter which ensures complete removal ofsludge from the softened water.
POWER PLANT ENGINEERING·
1.92
1 he hot proccs, sollcncrs incrcnse Lhc rnto of chemical reaclions, increase silica
r dnction nnd produce ovcr-u \l better quality water.
Sodium u\uminntc used ns nconguhmt in time-soda softening being alkaline and
also contributes to the sofiening reactions. Pm'licularly it reduce magnesium and coagulant~
help remove silica in the softening process.
Super heated
steam inlet Chemicals (lime + soda) feed Inlet
I '
Softened water
Fine sand layer

Conical
sedimentation - ~ - Coarse sand layer
tank
.
Precipitated sludge -
[CaCO 3 Mg(OHh]
Filtered softened
,' tttTl'.ttth'nTl"l'nTl"l'nTl"l:nTn~m"mm'n"m'n"l'n'ffmTI'ntn-nnTn'rfttttTl'.Trrn'ttT
ater outlet
Figure 1.67: Lime - Soda Process
The main advantage is that in reducing hardness, alkalinity, total dissolved solids,
~~ silica are also reduced. The main disadvantage is that while hardness_is_r~du~y~_it i~1
not completely removed.
b) Zeolite Process
Zeolite is hydrated sodium alumino silicate. It is also known as pennutits.
. . .• " !
Zeolites are two types.

a) . Natural Zeolites.(Non porous).
b) Synthetic :Zeolites (Porous) · ·· .,
' - .•• r •
,I
For softening of\vater by zeoiife process~hard water is•p~rc~lated·Jr~1specified·

f
t I I ' C 1
1' •• • J ,.. • ' ' • I> I· . • , 1 I ' l j f I , , , 1 ,,.'
rate through a heel of zeolttes and kept'm a cylinder. · · ·· · · · ' 1
r • • ' I \ ' 1 : • , I .. , . ·, ' I ' I • I .. , .. • '
The hardness causing ions (Ca2+and Mg2+) are retained by the zeolite a~ CaZe. t I , •' . . I I
and MgZe. The outgoing water contains sodium salt.The following rections are carried out
and water is softened.
.scanned. w1 tn c.;am.scanner
cbAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS 1.93
Hard water inlet
NaCl solution ,--.,...._..

inlet
88 -- ---·
------------
-----
Injector -+
------------
------- s- -----
------------
- - - - - I
NaCl solution :::.:

storage
-
Figure 1. 68: Zeolite process .
Na2 Ze + Ca(HCO3) 2 ➔ CaZe + 2NaHCO3

Na2 Ze + Mg(HCO3)2 ➔ MgZe.+ 2NaHCO3
Na2 Ze +·caCh(CaCO3) ➔ CaZe + 2NaCl(Na2SO4)
· Na2 Ze + MgC1 2(MagSO4) ➔ MgZe + 2NaCl(Na2SO4)
5. Ion Exchange··
. .
Minerals dissolved in water form electrically charged particles called ions. ~on
• • 0 f 4 I
exchange resins are two types:

O cation and . '
ii) anion
Hard water is passed through the cation exchange bed which removes the cations
like Ca2+and Mg2+. And equal amount H+ions are released from the bed to water. After
elation exchange bed t4~qard w~ter is pass~ ~ough the anion exchange b~d ~hich removes
the·all anions iike Soi-, CI- etc prese,n~in the water and equal.~oµpJ OH-: ions are
released from the bed to water. Thus the H+ and OH- ions get combined to produce water
. I•
molecules. :
I •
POWER pl.ANT ENGINEERING
1.94
CO 2 removed unit
(as required)
t
· Rawwater
Ca (HCO3 )
Mr(HCO3 )i
Strong.acid Strong ba~e
CaSO4 anion resin
cation resin
MgS04
CaCl 2
! •' NaCl
Si02 · H20
L...--- Treated water
Ca S04
. ~-Mg R--CI
·Na
_ HSi03
I •
HCO3
r • •
Figure 1.69: Ion Exchange ·
Some synthetic and natural materials have the ability to remove mineral ions
from water in exchange for others.
F~r example, in'p·assing water through a simple cation exchange softener all
Uie ·calcium anci'mag~esium i~ns are r~moved and replaced with sodiu~ ions. I~n
• • • • • • .... • • • - t • ., J
exchange res'ins u~ually_are ~mall_poi:ou~.beads that compose.a bed several feet de_ep
I • • . • • • ' ' - • • ,. I
through which the water is passed . .

. . - ..... .
Ion exchange regeneration
..
Ion exchange resins have a certain capacity for removing ions from water and
when their capacity is used up they have to be regenerated. The regeneration is
essentially reversing the ion exchange process.
Cation exchangers operating on t~~ sodium cycle, salt (NaCl)-is aaded to
replenish the sodium capacity. Resins.operating on the hydrogen cycle are replenished
. '.
by adding acid (H2S04 or ~Cl). Anion e>;9hangers·are normally regenerated with
caustic (NaOH) or ammoniu_m hydroxide ~OH) to replenish the hydroxide ions.
I • I
' r 1
..
-'·'·'· _·__
. ~
-
~•
...
~' ... f • ' I L ' • f • .. ""1 • •• : I " t
'
Advantages of ion exchange

l. Ease of process control. '
. .
2. Variations of hardness in raw water do not have an adverse effect on the
completeness ofsoftening.
. ' .' r
3. It takes up less _space tban the lime-soda system. ."
4. Produce better quality boiler feedwater at an economical cost
Disadvantages of ion exchange
I
The disadvantage ·is that the total solids, alkalinity, and siHca contents of the raw
water are not reduced.
I •
6. Dcaeration of water
The ilissolve? oxygen present in the water causes corrosion in boiler shell. It should
be removed before the water is put in the boiler. Feed water deaeration removes oxygen
.by heating the water with steam in a deaerating he~ter. Part of the ~t~ is y~~~~d, canying
fr ... ~witb it the considerable quantity of the dissolved oxygen. · ., · .. .. . - .;
• 'I' \ •• •• •
7. R.everse 'osmosis . I , ..
Reverse
• '•
Osmosis uses a semi-permeable
• •
membrane• that
- •
allows ions
I • • - - ,. I: ,•
to pass
from a high •concentrated solution to a less concentrated solution without
• •
allowing
•.
the
. • 1
reverse to occur. Reverse osmosis overcomes the osmotic pressure·wi'tfi a higlier

artificial pressure to reverse th~ proces·s and'c~n~en~ate.the_diiso!.~e4'i~F~~;9~-?~f
side of the membrane as shown in figure 1.70.
, ,t_
Semipermeable
f ' ... ' --
· ~Pressure , . · · membrane . '' :
I • -
.,
I
I , '.
. . .
, -. t t I '
J •
'
r
I
, i r I I ' .
I '•• .
I
I • •• I
Figure 1. 70: Reverse Osmosis
1.
Op r ting pre 1. ur · of' uh< ul 20 lO 60 bar nr re 111ircd tu' chfovc thirJ, Ii ever .
o: m . i. r du ce. the cJi1111c lvcd 1101idt1 of lh rnw water, makint1 comfortablerca<linc:is
fi r fur1h r 1rcotmcnt. ' hi11 proccn11 i 111uilahlc for any typ 'u f'raw water,
Int ·rnal tr nfmcnt of boiler fcctlwutcr
TI1c purpo c of an int.crnal water treatment programiJ:
I. Ti react with inc ming feed water hardncs!t and prevent it from precipitating
on the boiler metal as scale
2. To condition any suspendcdmattc-rguch as hardness sludge in the boHerand
make it non adherent to the boilG..r mc1:aJ
3. To p-rovide anti foam protcction_to permit a reasonable concentration of
dissolved andsuspc-ndc<l solids in the boik-rwatc-rwitnoutfoaming.
4. To ctiminateox:ygen from the fccdwatc-r
5. To provide c.-nough alkalinity to prc,vc.-ntboilercorrosion
6, To pre-vent scaling and protect against corrosion in the steam-condensate
syst£-ms,
Pnoophates conditionfag, coIJoidal conditioning and carbonate conditioning are done
'in internal treatment chemical, chelate and polymc,r ~jpe chemicals are mostly~ These
newchernicalshavetheadvantageoverphosphatesofmaintainingscale-freemetalsurfaces.
·Chetates and polymers fonn soluble complexes with the hardness, whereas p~osphates
precipit.ate tne hardness. ,
a) I11ternal treatment for hardness·
At boik-r operating temperatures, the calcium carbonate in the feed water breaks
dovm in to form calcium hydroxide and carbon dioxide. Since it is relatively insoluble, it
precipitates, Sodium carbonate in the water partially breaks down to sodium hydroxide
and carbon dio-;;.ide,
fntc"ITI.al treatment with phosphates changes calcium bicarbonate to ·calcium
phorphatc and sodium carbonate. Tn the presence of hydroxide alkaliruty, magnesium
bicarbonate precipitates as magnesium hydroxide or reacts with silica to fonn ~gnesiuin
silicate,
~cannea w1 tn c..;am~canner
coAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS 1.97
The boiler temperature makes the calcium and magnesium sulfates in the feed
water insoluble. With phosphates used as internal treatment, calcium reacts with the
phosphate producing hydroxyapatite, which is much-easier to condition than calcium
sulfate. With chelates or polymer used as internal treatment, calcium and magnesium
react with these materials producing soluble complexes tbatare easily removed by
blowdown.
b) InternaJ treatment for silica
If silica is present in the feed water, it tends to precipitate directly as scale at
hot spots on the boiler metal and or combines with calcium forming a hard calcium
silicate scale. In the internal treatment for silica, the boiler water alkalinity has to be
kept high enough to hold the silica in solution.
Magnesium, present in most waters, precipitates some of the silica as sludge.
Special organic materials or synthetic polymers are used to condition magnesium silicate
from adhering to the boiler metal.
. ~) Internal treatment for sludge conditioning
Internal treatment for hardness results in insoluble precipitates in the boiler tha~
fonn sludge. In addition, insoluble corrosion particulate (metal ox.ides) are transported to
' ' '
the.boiler by condensate returns and from preboiler feed water corrosion resulting in
• • •I
suspended solids.
. . . . The advantag~s internal treatment is basically simple. Scales or deposits,
corrosion and carryover are minimized thereby improving efficiency and reducing energy
consumption, preventing tube failures and unscheduled costly repairs, and reducing
deposits, corrosion and contamination in the downstream equipments or processes.
·! 1.·.1.J BINARY CYCLE

No single fluid can meet all the requirements of vapour power cycle. Normally
water is a good working fluid of vapour power cycle. But in high temperature range,
,_th~~e are few better fl1.~i~ avajlable, such as diphonyl ether (CilishO, Aluminium
. bf'9lpi~~ (Al~f.6) and Mercury. Among these fluidsrmercmy is widely used as working
fluid.~~cause_it dQ~s not decompose gradually at high tempera~e.
. ·.,
Gases Ecor:iomlser
.t. t ·
....__ _rf'.1, ..1.....- _-=-:...-- -----_-_-.,.-:_""!._...:_-:..-:..-:..-:..-:..-:..-=,-➔-t-, 1 kg steam
mkg Hg 1
uper
eater
.t Mercury
t Hot
gas·es
condense
Steam boiler
I '
Furnace
Down
Mercury feed
pump
.pump
Pigure i 71: Mercitry-steam plant flow diagram
' ..
,•
---s
I
Figure·1. 72: T-'s diagram orbinary cycle
For example·/at pressure i 2bar, 'the saturation temperature ofwater is 187° t

and mercufy is-.s·60°·e ..Metcuty·is tlius:~rbettet working tli.iid•at high pressure range,
because at•m·gii temperature·its\iapoutisatlon.pressureis low.
The ciitical pressure aild'.femjferatute ·of mercury ·ate 1080 ·bar and l 4o'0° C
respectively.
COA.L BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS 1,99
rn binary vapour cycle mercury is the working fluid for topping cyde and water ill
a working fluid for bottoming cycle as shown in figure I. 7J, Mercury-steam power cycle
is an example of binary cycle.
ff saturation pressure is low then it is too difficult to maintain vacuum pressure in
the condenser. Therefore in binary cycle the mercury vapour leaving the mercury turbine iR
condensed at a high temperature, and the heat released during this process is used to
produce steam is the bottoming cycle to operate conventional turbine, .
Process a-b-c-d -Mercury cycle
Jt is a simple Rankine cycle for mercury vapour.
Processa-b - Jsentropic expansion of mercury in tho turbine.
b-c Mercury condensation.
c-d - Feed pump (Mercury).
d-a - Heat supplied to mercury.
Process 1-2-3-4-5-6-Steam power cycle.
Process 1-2 - Isen tropic expansion of steam at turbine.
2-3 - Condensation
I •
3-4 - Feed pump (water) ·
4-5 - heating till it become a saturated liquid in the economiser.
' ' .
5-6 - heat added to boil the water to form saturated vapour.
(The heat rejected from the mercury condenser is used generate
steam in the steam power cycle).
6-1 - The saturated steam is heated to form superheated steam by
external source (Furnace).
Let, m - Mass flow rate of mercury in.the mercury cycle and the mass
flow rate of steam is I kg in steam power.~ycle.
,J'he heat supplied in the mercury .. steam power cycle
Q1 = m(ha-h<l) + (h1 -h6) + (hs-'h4)
'
The heat rejected Q2 = h2 - h3
t100 PQWER PLANT ENGINEERING
The mercury and steam turbine work,

WT = m(ha - hb) + (h1 - ·h2)
The pump wo~k (wp),
Wp =· m(bd- he)+ (114- h3)
' I • ' I
Q, - 02 WT - WP
T}Binary cycle = or ·
'I QI QI
'
3600 ' .,
Steam rate = Kg/Kwh ·
WT -WP
The energy balanc_e of the mercu~ ~ondenser-steam boiler,

m(hb-hc) = (h6-hs)
h6 :_ h5 Kg of mercury
m=
Kg of water (l~b - he) ·
To vapourise 1 Kg of water, seven to eight Kg of mercury should condense.
1. 14 CO.GENE.RATION SYSTEM
Cogeneration is defined as the sequential generation of two different fonns of
useful energy from a single primacy energy source. The two different forms of energy
may·be mechanical energy and thennal ·enertgy. The Mechanical energy may be used
to drive a g~nerator for producing electricity, motor, compressor, pump or'fan. Thennal
energy can be used either for producing steam, hot water for process heating, hot air
' I ,
for dryer or chilled water for process cooling.

' ' ' . ' ' . l I
The overall efficiency of co generation system can be up to 85 percent. For

example, a separate conventional electric power plant scheme shown below uses ~3
' '\ ' I • I •
units of electrical energy out of l 00 units are utilized to generate.electricity ·and rerriammg
67 units are wasted and rejected to the environment. Similary for a separate process
heating 80 units of heat energy are utilized and 20 units are wasted. The overall efficiency
. • • I • • I t I • ,
of the two separate processes, the efficiency is 56.5%.

j 1 • ,
1
•
0 1 ' t I l , • I , ; ' ~, ~' . I I • : ' • I I J \ ~ •I
If the plant had cogeneration then the fuel input will be only 100 units, 42 units
. .' ' .
spend for electricity and 43 units spend for process heating. Tn~~ &S·untt-s' e*pended are
to meet both electrical and thermal energy requirements:.The_efficienoy .o fcogeneration
plant is 85%.
• • ,•, •I f• 11 I I I, • •
.scanned. w1 tn c.,;am.scanner
100 rc.::.1\ Convon11onol 1, 1,1
l.LWll.y' p(J,11 ,r pf orn
.__-- ~ - - -J
100 rc.::.1\
l.LWll.y'
Convanfl nor boll ,
ho1 WtiW(
q f¼ % f fo~ ' lftt ,., ;;
V(J( ;J fl offyjt]( 1/;
ec
(ZZ + 12 YJ r; £e "A ,r: "J!J ¼
(a) Separate production &f eloe1r1r:Jv/ and hotrt
rc.::.1\ r-1,, 42 % EJr.cl/,. ' '/ ~/rf'Jl),N✓~/

100
~
l.LWll.y'
________, q
Cogeneraf1an
4Z % H?"di l1ficl~-rv_;J
°'(42'6+4Z
raui1fv.ie(J(. r;
I 100 ~ -8v u 8o ¾
(b~ Combined production of el.ectrf cttt:1 and hHat
Figure L 78: C<Jgeneratlon bene-fUa
For the industrial sector, potential sources of was1:e J-,~a:t jnc1une?

O Boilers ,
h) Conduction, convection, and ra<liatfrm losses from cq uiprn£-nt .;.urf3J'Je ,
m) Hot combustion gages
iv) Cooling water from furnaces, air compressors, and 1of£-rr1aJcom bu :ti n
engines.
v) Lubrication oil
VI) Inter cooHng of compressed (turbocharged or supc-rchargcdJ oomb-u ·tfon
arr.
Application of Cogeneration
Q Sugar industry
it) Cement industry
fu) Commerical buildings-including campuses, hospitals, and office 1:rui1drng;,,
iv) Steel industry
v) Desalination of sea water.
VI) Ceramic industry
vu) Gas and petrochemical industries
-- ~cannea w1 tn c.;am:scanner
1) pc of og n rntion
Th t, o major type of cogcncrntion systems urc
1. Gas 1\n-binc ogeneration systems
2. Steam 1\trbiue Cogencration systems
3. Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration Systems
1) Gas Turbine Cogcneration system
Exhaust gases
_ __.___,
- Condensate from process
HRSG
Fuel ' 1---~---------tJ> Q
to process
· Steam turbine
Com bus tor . ..
'
Gas turbine Generator
Figure 1. 74: Gas turbine cogeneration

(.
The schem~tic flow di~gram gas turbi~e ~'.i_th process heat,ing is shm~n in the
1
fi~~- Sp~cifically the power is generated from the gas turbine and t~e waste heat
f'
present in the flue gases are make use of gep.erating steam in the Heat Recovery
I • ' • ' , • , I f • : , •'
4 1
&te~m Generator fo_r process. The natural gas is most commonly used as fuel. The
typical range of gas turbines ~a~ies fr~m I ,MW to 100 MW. The efficiency of the
I • 1 • 1 ., ' I
co generation plant is · · · · · · · J
E + ~Hstcam
l'lcogen = Q· · . J
input
Where, r
I ,· ' 1 • " • '' • \' I I
E = Electric ,energy produced 1

• a, , • • , I I '
MI -. -·= EnthaJpy of s_t~am leaving the pla!}_tr:ti~ti~ ~n~h~ll?~ tjf condensate

returning to.the plant ' ·..
\
'
Qin .= Amoµn,t ofh~at added to the plant , ,
•• ., I • •• • ~
coALBASEDTHERMALPOWERPLANTS
,i\dYantagcs of Gas Turbine CogcncratJon Rys tern
0 Maxmimum operationnl Rafcly and availability

iij High power density
, .
iiQ ~food fuel efficiency
iv) Simple plant
v) Low civil canst. cost
vi) Less delivery period
Disadvantages of Gas Turbine Cogcncrati~n system ·

O Moderate part load efficiency
iQ Limited suitabilily for low quality fuels
2) Steam Turbine Cogcncration system
The steam turbines mainly used for Steam Turbine Cogcncration syr,tcms arc
O Backpressure turbine
iO Extraction Condensing turbine
. The thennodynamic cycle for the steam turbine is the Rankine cycle, !he bac~
pressure turbine is employed where the end-user needs thermal energy at two different
tempe~atur~ leveti. One is for gencra'tion and the other is for proccs~ hc~ting, 1n ihc
b~~k press.ure turbine the steam exits the turbine at a pressure higher or equai to the
atmospheric pressure depending on the needs of the thermal load'.
Steam Steam
Boiler
• • # ' '
• 1 t • 1 • I , I
Process
• , I f ' t • • .. • I> \ • t P
(a) Back-pressure Turbine · (b) Extraction-Condensing Tur.bl,ne

Figure 1. 75: Back pressure turbine and Extraction Condensing turbine
~cannect w1tn cam~canner

In Extraction Condensing Steam Turbine, the st~um for the thermal loud 18
obtained by extraction from one or ~ore intermediate slnges of the 8lcam turbine nt
the appropriate pressure and temperature.
T~e remaining steam is expanded to generate power. nnd then is condensed In
the condenser. The extraction condensing type turbine bas a higher cupitul cost thun
back-pressure turbine and it bas lower total efficiency.
Advan_tages of steam Turbine Cogeneration system ' '
i) Simple plant
ii) Well-suited to low quality fuelds
Disadvantages of steam Turbine Cogeneration system
i) More capital investment
ii) Low fuel efficiency rating
iii) High cooling water demand
iv) More impact on environment
v) High civil cost. cost due to complicated foundations
3) Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration System
The Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration Systems have high power generation
efficiencies in comparison with other prime movers.
-200 °C
I.C. engine
,___ ____,_..._· - -~ Boiler

I
I
I
Coolers I
I
I
: Process
. ·-·-·-
Oil
·-·-·-·--'
Air Water
Figure 1. 76: Reciprocating engi.ne cogeneration s,Btem

In IC engine, the following two sources of heat for recovery is possible.

0 Exhaust gas at high temperature (30-45% of heat is unused).
ii) Engine jacket cooling water system at low temperature (15-35% of heat is
unused).
The exhaust temperature is above 450° C. the waste heat recovery boiler uses
the hent of the flue gases as working fluid and generates steam for process. The low
tempernture hent energy present in the engine jacket cooling water system is used for
preheating. The heat recovery system of reciprocating engine is relatively efficient for
smaller systems. The initial investment reciprocating engine cogeneration system is
low. Their opernting nnd maintenance costs are high due to high wear and tear.
Clnssificntion of Cogcnoration Systems
Cogenerntion systems are nommlly classified according to the sequence of energy
use and the opcrnting schemes adopted as shown in figure 1. 77.
I
Cogeneration
.,
+
+ . i . .
Topping cycle Bottoming cycle '
(Sugar industry) (Cement industry)
+ -l
!
Primary heat used
for electricity
+
Secondary heat used
fy>r process heating
+
Primary heat used for
process heating
•
Secondary heat used
for electricity
requirements requirement
Figure J. 77: Classification ofCogeneration System
A cogeneration system can be ~lassified into the following two types.

1. Topping cycle
2. J3ottonupg 9ycly ,1 • • • •
In O t~ppit;g
cycle, the/u~l-~t!ppµ~d-is u~ed to first ge_ne_rate power (main) and
then thermal ene~gy (by-pr'oduct). Irl a bottoming cycle, ~e fuel supplied is used to
first produce th limil eneigyforp'roc'ess heating (main) and then power (by-product).
1
t\ POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
t) Topping C~ tl
Topping , . t cogen mtion i wid ly u ed and is the most popular method of
: ~nemtion. A gu turbiu or stennt turbine producing electrical power followed by a
h~at re ·o, ery boiler to create steam for process. It is called a topping cycle. The
topping , -le a.re used us din sugn.r indu try, lee industry.
Stearn pipe Electricity
Air--~
Boiler Turbine,1----- Generator
Fuel---
Steam to process
Water
Figure 1. 78: Topping cycle
2) Bottoming cycle
. Bottoming cycle· plants.are much less common lhan topping cycle plants. In a
bottdniing cycle the primary fuel produces high temperature thennal energy for process
heating and then the heat rejected from·the process is used to generate electricity
through a waste heat recovery boiler (Heta exchanger), turbine and generator.
Air Electricity
Combustion Heat
Fuel chamber exchanger
Process
~au:re 1. 79: Bottoming cycle
Bottoming cycles are mainly used in cement, . industry.

.
The cement industry needs
larger heat in furnaces and kilns and then it rejects flue gases with significantly high
temperatures to the atmosphere. This waste heat is recovered by waste heat recovery
bailer to produce steam to generate electricity as its by product. The bottoming cycle
are usedin cement, steel, ceramic, gas and petrochemical industries.

COAL BASl:D Tl·U: l~M/\L POWER PLANTS 1,107
Advnnf:ngcN of cogcnoa•nflon
I. ogc11el'Ulion syst.oms inc reuse tho ovornll efficiency of tho plant..

1
2. Cogcncrntion yslcms conserve the fuel ond incrcoso tho plnnt efficiency.
'
3. Cogcnorntion systems reduce tho harmful cmifrnions. (COf ond,qO),
4. Mi11imum NO% emissions
5. Opcrn~ionol flexibility
6. ·well-suilcd to low quality fuels
Oisndvnnb1gcs of cogcncrutlon • .• I'
I. Cogcncrntion systems require ndditionnl spucc heating equipment.

2. Increased focus ond need for power security,
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Exnmplc I: ,.
(n n stcnm power plnnt working on n idcnl Rnnklnc cycle, the Inlet conditions of
tho tm·blnc is 20 bnr nnd 360°C nlllHhc cxhnust pressure is 0.08 b~r. Determine
the nchvor·k nnd cycle cfflcicncy of the turbine. I ,I' ; I ' /
For ideal Rankine cycle .. I

• I I
PI = 20 bar
TI =- 350° C
P2 = 0.08 bnr
For 20 bur the snluralion temperature from saturated steam (pressure) table
T~Ill = . 212.4° C
TI > T~nl . . :., The steam
, ,
is superheated.
. , .,
From superheat table at 20 bar nnd 350° C

. ., I
hi = 3 l38.6 kJ/kg '

' . .
I • I I • I S1 = 6,960 kJ/kg.k , . ·' I I
'I J I '
I• ' • I
' '
1.108 .
For Adiabatic expansion in turbine
s1 = s2
S I = S12 +x2 Sfg2 at 0' 08 bar saturatfori pressure table.
6.960= 0.593 + x 2 (7.637)
,s = 0.8337
11i = ht2 + x2 h,g2 at 0.08 bar
= 173.9 + 0.8337 (2403.2)
= 2177.45 kJ/kg
~ = h~ at 0.08 bar ' '
~ = 173.9 kJ/kg ' l •
2 0.08 bar
Pumpwork = (h4 - h3) = - v dp f
'
= ·.. V (p I -p)
· 2
~. •!he specific volumeforpumpwork vis equal tov4 =v,at0.08 bar.

:. At 0.08 bar
V4 = VR = 0.001008 . .
,
~ I I
• I • ' ! •• .• • ' • t • • f •I, t I"',
. P1 = ·20 .bar . = 2009 -~ a , .'

I I • • '
· · ·p2 :..: 0.08bar= 8-kPa .'. · , ,..., · 1 • · •,, ,·:, i .- •. f · : ;
Pumpwork ·-= (h4·.:...nj ~ v·(pl _:P2) . ...... , .'. I,:: • ',: a··,, . .. "
• • J :···: '. =:=_' 0.001008(2000-:--8). '·· .. :,_. . ~-- ·:·:·:".-·' .'J, 1·,!. ~_' :,a",';
WP= (h4 - h3) = 2.008 kJ/kg

I
h4 - ~ = 2.008 ' ' . I
~ • J
h4 - 173.9 = 2.008 • • 4.... •:.. •
•• I ••, • 0 1 I 1-, l I,._ i I , , •

h4 = 175.908 kJ/kg
1 ' ' 1 ' • •. I • I • ' (. • '
' I • f.. I • • • • J
Turbine work = (h 1 - ~)
= (3138.6-2177.45)" 1
' :: ·, ·:,·
- ,,I
WT= 961..15 kJ/kg

Network = w -w
T P
= (961, 15 - 2.008)
= 959.142 kl/kg
Heat supplied - h1-h4
- 3138.6-175.908
- 2962.692 kl/leg, .,
• • I I
Network
.. ·Rankine efficiency =
Heat supplied I •••
Network
. Efficiency - ',:. .,
Heat supplied
. I
I
,·. · . 959.142 .
. Ti = . 2962.692
- 0.32374
.
·, ,n
. ' I • ••
'I Rankine
- ' ..... - '-·
• I • ,• • •
.. . . "'
Example 2:
The steam power plant works on ideal Rankine cycle betweeµ 30 bar and 0.04
. '' . . . .
bar. The initial condition of steam being· ~ry saturated . .Calculate the
(i) Pumpwork (ii) Turbine work (ill) cycle efficiency. qv.twork r3:tio (v) specific
steam consumption. Assume the flow rate of steam as IO kg/sec. • •_\, • ' I I f - • ~ , t • • •
For the ste~ power plant

. . :_,, ' "' . '. .. .
p1 = 30 bar and dry saturated
p2 = 0.04 bar I • •I I
r
m= IO kg/sec
At 30 bar and dry saturated condition.
From saturation pressure table. , I • • I 11• -
• • I
h1 = hgt= 2802.3 kJ~~·-•.c~l 1.

s1 = S81 = 6.184 kl/kg 1.) 0
1 : I I• •:.· :;._
.:>cannect w1 tn cam.:>canner
1.110 POWtR PLANT ENGINEERING
F 1rth :-1diabnti, x1 on ·ion proc • ·s entropy rcmuins constunt.,
l = Sf2 + X2 ~ fg2
Tite position 2 is at 0.04. Therefore from saturation pressure table
Sa= 0.423 11n = 141.4
sfis-, = 7.983 hr82= 2433.1
81 = ~n + >½ Sfs2
6.184= 0.423 + x 2 (7 .983) • • I
>s = 0.7217
11i = h12 +~h,g2
- 121.4 + 0.7217 (2433.1)
- 1877.37 kJf1<g
~ = b~ at 0.04 bar
02
~ = 121.4 kJ/kg ~ -.......- . - - - 1 2
0.04 bar
Toe pump work (h4 - h3)
' . . ,
I '
,' '
I "'
,. ,. ,t '. ' (, •
= -v(p2-P)
= V(pl -p2) ' •' • ,I J l 1 f • ,I
IO I
Toe specific volume for pump work vis v4 =v, at pressure (p 1) 0.04 bar.
At0.04 bar
I .
v = 0.001004 m3/kg
p 1 = 30 bar = 3000 kPa r • '· , I
. '·
p2 = 0.04 bar= 4 kPa

:. Pumpwork = v (p 1 - p2)
= 0.0QJ004 (3000-4)
= 3.008 kJ/kg
h4 - h3 = 3.008 kJ/kg
h4 - 12°1.4 = · 3.008· -
h4 = 124.408 kJ/kg
.- . r .
Q Pumpwork - m(h~ -h 3 ) ,, ~ J : 'l :
- 10 (3,008) ~ ' I .
w= . . . .,
p 30.08 kW ' , -- (
.,
it) Turbine work - m(h 1 -h 2 ) - 1·
.' . ~: i
w=
r 10 (2802.3 - 1877.37)
. 9249.3 kW
heat supplied _ - ri1 (h 1 -h 4 ) I I ·
- 10 (2802.3 - 124.408)-
= 26~78.92 kW I '.
I . .
'
..
WT-WP
iit) The cycle efficiency
Q\
I ♦ ', 1
,
0
, • 1 r I 0J 1
• "', 1i 0
9249.3-30.08
.
26778.92 -r~- ,,. ; ... --
- 0.3443, = 34.43 %
Network done .
iv) Work ratio - Turbine work .
• • l •
9249.3-30.08
- 9249.3 :..: r_ ) . .
l ,·
1 )I I, 1;
~
I t ;f! ' .' -'
'
,,
- 0.9967 :'9: I +· =- j l: .J i ,:, I ; r '
Scannect Wlth c.;am~canner

1.112 ._.. ·.·.. \ ·. · . _:~p0W~R PLANT ENGINEERING
3600
v) Specific st~am consumption= -- Network done·per kg of steam
9249.3-30.08
Network done per kg of steam
10
- 921.922 kJ
3600
SSC = ' .
921.922
I.
Specific steam consumption= 3.904 kJ/kW hr.
Example.~; __ .
A power plant'using steam as working fluid ope"rates on Rankine cycle. The boiler
and condenser pressure are 30 bar and 1 bar. The condition of steam entering the
prime-'moter is dry and saturated: Find the thermal efficiency of the cycle neglecting
the feed pump work and considering feed pump work.
I • I • •o l - • •
(AU-Nov/Dec 2005)
• •
,
-<t
' . '
Solution:
.. ... ... .. . '
' ... .. .
For Rankine cycle:
p 1 = 30 bar and dry sa~ted
p2 == · 1 bar
From saturater water steam (Pressure table)
hI =· hgl at30bar ··
h1 = 28023-kJ/kg :_•·
SI=· sgl·at 3~:~ai; - .- ,- .
SI ~ 6.184 kJ~g . k
For Adiab~tic compression work
s1 = . s2
. . - ,·\ ' . , ..
s- I = sf2 + •X-i sfg2,
'---at-T bar
. ·: • ·
0 I - •- ._
From saturated water-steam pressure table.

I r I , I •
Sn = 1.303 kJ/kg k - ~
'• I ' • I
l\i ~ 417 .5 kJ/kg
srg2::,, 6.os1 kJ/kgk · · · 1irg2~ 22s1.9 kJ/kgk
GOAL BASED THE8MAL POWER PLANTS 1.113
s 1 = sa + ~ srs2
6.184 = 1.303 + 'S (6.057)
~ = 0.805
~ = ha + 'S hrg2
= 417.5 + 0.805 (2257.9)
~ = 2236.92 kJ/kg
~ = h0 at 1 bar
~ = 417.5 kJ/kg
Neglecting pumpwork
w 11 = 0 ⇒~ = h4
. 1\ubine work = hI - h,
-
= 2802.3 - 2236.92
= 565.38 kJ/kg
Heat supplied
QI= h, -h..
= hI -hJ
= 2802.3 -417.5-
.
= 2384.8 kJ/kg'
Efficiency by neglecting pwnpwork -
565.38-0 ,
2384.8
/ > .·
.
. = 0.2371 • • ., I
=- '23.71 %' . ' r - •
1.114. POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
By considering pumpwork
wP= h4 - ~ = v3 CP 1 -P2)
v3 at 1 bar, p 1 = 3000 kPa
p2 = 100 kPa
v3 = v6 = 0.001043 m3/kg
wP= h4 - ~ = 0.001043 (3000-100)
~ 3.0247 kJ/kg
.·. Rankine efficiency by considering pumpwork
I
565.38-3.0247
QI 2384.8
= 0.2358
= 23.58%
:. The Rankine efficiency is
~ Withoutpumpwork = 23. 71.
ii). With pumpwork = 23.58 %
Examp~e4:
Steam at 40,bar,•500°~ flo.wing at. the rate of 5500 kg/h expands in a HP turbine to
2 barw.ithanJsentrop_ic efficiency of83%,.Acontinuous supply of steam at 2 bar,
'187 q:uality.and a flow rate of2700,kg/h is available from a source. This steam is
mix~d adiabatically with .the HP. turbine exhaust steam and the combined flow
then expands in •a LP:turbine to 0.1. bar with an isentropic efficiency of 78%.
Determine the power output and the therm~ efficiency.of tlJ,e plant Assume that
5500 kg/h of steam is generated in the boiler at 40 bar, 500°C from the saturated
feed water at 0.1 bar. Neglect pump work. (AU-Nov/Dec 2006)
Solution:
From M0llier chart,
For 40 bar anci500~C
h, = 344-5 .3 kJ/kg
s, = 7.0901 kJlkg K - 1.2301 + ~ x 5·.5970
~= 0.9934
ED THERM L POWER PLANTs 1.115
_.\t- ~lf
h~ - - . ·-4-0
' · • 4 ~ --01.9
.Y
= _5 -.04kJ/k:::,K
rsentropi "' - · fHP turbine 11 = o.s.,
h -h_ = 0 445 ..) - -69-.04)
= 6L5._ 1 kJ ·gK
:. h = 504.7 + 0.87 x -01.9
= _4_0.4 kl ·g
_ 00h,.:, + 5-00~- = (-700 + 5500)h4
h4 = _688.48 kJ/kg
T
h4 = -04_7 +x4 x 2-01-.9
= _688.48
x4 = 0.9917 f
2 bar
SI = 1.530 l + 0.9917 x 5.5970
= 7.0S06kJ/kgK 0.1 bar ..
S.)S = 0.6493 + X.,s X 7.5009

X5s = 0.8574 :►.. s·
AtO.l bar . .' . . .
•h.:.\S = 191.84 + 0.8574 x -2392.8

-~ = 2243.44·kJ/kg . I
Isentropic efficiency ofLP turbine ·11 = 0. 78

h4 -h.) = 0.78 (268SA8-2243.44)
•
= 347.1 kJ/kg
1\ = 191.83 lcJ/kg
'
Power output w = ~son (h 1 -1½) :.P s200 (h4 -1\)
- 1745:9 kW
Heat suppfred Q 1= 5500 (h, -= 1¾) = 4970.63' RW

:. rt = 35.3%
· POWER P.LANT ENGINEERING
1.116
Example 5:
A steam power plant operates on a theoretical reheat
. cycle.
.
Steam at boiler is at '
150 bar, 550° C expands through the high pressure turbine. it is reheated at constant
pressure of 40 bar to 550° C and expands through the low pressure turbine to a
condenser at 0.1 bar. Draw Ts and h-s diagram. Find
i) Quality of steam at turbine exhaust.
ii) Cycle efficiency
iii) Steam rate kg/kWh (AU May/Jun 2014)
Solution:
. '
550"C
T h
40 bar
reheating
0.1 bar 0.1 bar'

,, I
s s
From superheated steam table,
ht = at 150 bar and 550° C
ht = 3445.2 kJ/kg
S 1 = 6.5125 kJ/kg K-: 1
I I
6.5125 = St2 + x2 Srg2
6.5125 - 2.797 + X2 (3.272)

I '• ~ '. ' • ; ~ •
x2 = 1.135 - super heated steam

,'I .l 1' t'°, ~ ". ,•,','
• .° ' • • • ,. • • ., I
Therefore h2 can be easily obtain from Molliai:.chart

,. ,_·,.\ ' .. I t . , ·' . · ... ' ... ': · • r•
h2 = 3060kJ/kg .. · . I i .' . : •, ·
._. \ ' ~ . •- .·t

~BASED THE~MAL POW~R PLANTS
1.117
b3 is superheated,
. . From super heated steam table h3

h3 = 3560.4 kJ/kg
S3 = 7.355 kJ/kg
• 1• ••
83 = S4 at 0.1 bar
'
83 = Sr4 + X4 Srg4 at 0.1 bar ..
7.355 = 0.649 + X4 7.502
X4 = 0.8939
114 = hr4 + X4 hr84 at 0.1 bar

114 = 191.8 +0.8939(2392.9)
114 = 2330.81 kJ/kg
hs = hrs at 0.1 bar = hr4
hs = 191.8 kJ/kg
·Pump work (wp) = h6 - hs .. ' . ,
= vs at 0.1 bar (P1 - P3)
vs= Vrs at 0.1 bar

= 0.001010m3/kg
Wp = 0.001010(15000- 10)
- 15.1399 kJ/kg
116-hs - 15.1399
bs - 15.1399 + 191.8
. .
bs = 206.9399 kJ/kg
•· ., . • I • I
bs" = ·206.94 k.J/kg . ..

. >
.
••
bs = 206.94 kJ/kg

1.1.•.1~18~. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __;_.:,_P_O_W_E_R_PLA_N_
· r_E_N_Gl_NE.....::.:ERING
- ~
The quality of steam at turbine exhaust = X4 == 0.8939
Reheat cycle cflicicncy,

W-r - WP
11Rchcnt =
Q
Turbine work = (h 1- h2) +(h3 - h4)
== (344.5.2 - 3060) + (3560.4- 2330.8)
WT = 1614.8kJ/kg
Wp = 15.1399 kJ/kg
Hcnt supplied (Q) = (h1 - h6) +(hJ - h2)

= (3445.2 - 206.94) J (3560.4- 3060)
Q = 3738.66
1614.8 -15.1399
11Rchc11t = 3738.66 = 42 ·787 %
3600
Steam rote =
3600
=
1614.8 - 15.1399
= 2.250 kg/kWh
Example 6:
Steam enters the turbine at 3 MPa and 400° Candis condensed at 10 kPa. Some
quantity of steam leaves the turbine at 0.6 MPa and enters the feed water heater.
Compute the fraction of steam extracted per kg of steam and cycle thermal
efficiency. (~ U Nov/Dec 2005, 2012)
Given I•" '
j I/_, •·:
p1 = 30 bar and T1 =400° C • • •

' f . .I ,
p2 = 6 bar • •, 1
I ' I i1
. ,
p3 = 0.1 bar I
I I:
, •
I • ,l I • ~
• I '
. "I t I' I -
~canned w1tn uam~canner

Solution:
T 3232.5 ---
(1-m 1) kg (P))
s
Regenerative cycle
At 30 bur T ~1 = 2 J.
T1 T . 1 the stcnm is up ·r h ah!d,
From . up r h ntc I . knm t1blc
h1 -
I -; K
t6b r
x_ - 1.034 > 1
Superheated team
:. h_ can b taken from lolliar chart
h,-- 2820
S1= S3
S1= Sn + X3 Srg3 at 0.1 bar
6.925 - 0.649 + X3 (7.502)
X3 - 0.8366
h3 = hn + X3 hrg3 at 0.1 bar
- 191.& + 0.8366(2392.9)
hJ= 2193.1 kJ/kg
-- ~cannect w1tn c.;am~canner

1.120 POWER PLANT ENGINEERINQ
114 = hr4 at 0.1 bar~ hn
114 = 191.8 kJ/kg

First Pump work = hs - h4
WPr = v4(P1 - P3)
where v4 = Vf4 at 0.1 bar because 4-5 pump work
WP1 = V6(P2 - P3) II I
Vr4 · ~- 0.001010m3/kg -
WPr = 0.001010(600- 10) ·
hs ..:. h4 = 0.5959 kJ/kg
hs ~ 192.3959 kJ/kg
Second pump work = h1 - h6 I 1•'
116 = hr6 at 6 bar

. = 670.4 kJ~g
WPr = V6(P1 - P2) because 6-7 pump work
= Vf6 at 6 bar x (P 1 - P2) ,
= 0.001101(3000- 600)
= 2.6424 kJ/kg
h1 = 670.4 + 2.6424' • I
h1 = 673 .0425 kJ~g ·

Applying steady flow energy equation for the process 2-6,
1 kg Turbine
1 kg
®
6 m1 kg
FWH
m1 2 ®
Condenser
5
•\
1-m1
....
coAL BASEDTHERMAL POWER PLANTS 1.121
mass balance, (l - m,) + m1 == 1 kg

therefore energy balance,
(1 - m1)hs + m1 h2. ·== 1 x h6

) ·' '·
(l-m1)192.3959+m·1(2820) = ,I 1x 670.4
192.3959-192.3959 m,+2820 m1 = 670.4. · '

..;
' _1
m1 = 0.1819 kg
The fraction ofmass extracted = rp 1=:= o:1s,19 kg
I j I•
Turbine work, WT = (h1 -h2) + (I - 1p1)(h2-h3). ·

== (3232.5,_: 2820) ~ (1- 0.1819) (2820- 2193.1)
I •
= 925 .367 kJ/kg - I
Pump work, Wp = (I - mi) (hs -114) + l(h1-h6)

I • ' , '
= (I -0.18-19)(192.3959 ~ 191.,8)+(673.0425-670.4)
= 3.1299 kJ/kg
1 .-
Heat supplied = h1 - h1
• •I -
·Q = 3232_5 - r92.39s97
= 3040.lQflkJ/kg
llThermal = . Q .
,i. . . f• . I
925.367 - 3.1299
. -
3040.104
I " = 30.33%
• • ' f, , ' I (-
. . ~ •I .,I I I
'.! . . 1
; ..•.
t ·- . . - .. .. - -;
-I '
"......... '
.
.,, - ..
. ... .. ...
I
. . ·,.. - -- - .. - . . - .
1 I '
I • ~ . · :1 , 1.1 ·. r.. - - ; •·1 •

{ __, .
.. - --~• _.., _
' I -
I
1.122
TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. How steam turbines are classified?
Steam turbines may be classified in the following ways according to various criterias.
1. Accor~ing to the action of steam ·
a) Impulse turbine b) Reaction turbine c) Impulse-Reaction turbine
.2. According to the direction of steam flow
a)Axial flow turbine b) Radial flow turbines c) ·MLxed flow turbines
3. According to the number of stages
a) Single stage turbine b) lvlulti stage turbine
4. According to the steam prcssurl;
I •\
a),Low pressure t\irqincs (upto 2 otm.
b) Medium pressure turbines (2 to 40 atm.
·c) High pressure turbines (above 40 atm.)
5. According to the method of governing
·,. · · a) Throttle-governed turbines
b) Nozzle-governed turbines
c) Byp~ss-govemed turbines
2. Give the working principles of impulse turbine (AU-May/June 2007)
The basic principles of an impulse turbine is that a jet of steam from fixed nozzle
· pushes against the rotor blades and impels them forward. In impulse turbine only
fixed nozzles are nsed.
3. Giye the operating principles of a reaction turbine.
A reaction turbine uses ajet of steam from moving nozzle and the steam is directed on
the fixed blade to expand the ste~ ~e s!eam flow is partially reversed by the moving
blades, producing a reaction on the blades.
- . -- -
4, ,vhat is the effect of reheating of the steam on the specific output and the
cycle
. efficiency? .
The specific output of cycle is increased aue to reheating of the steam in vapour
power cycles. The cycle effi~iency is also increased due to reheating of steam.
i:)canned. w1tn c..;am~canner

~:..,;.L_B_A_S_E_D_T_HE_R_M_A_L_P_O_W_E:.:..R.:..:..P..:LA:._::N:.:,T~S~-----------•-1._12_3
5. Why Rankine cycle is modified?

The work obtained at the end of the expansion is very less. The work is too inadequate
to overcome the friction .. Th~efore the adiabatic expansion is tenninated at the point
before the end of the expansion in the turbine and pressure dec.reases suddenly, while
the volume remains constant. ·
6. Name the various vapour power cycle. · ·· ·
Carnot cycle, Rankine cycle, Reheat cycle, Regenerative cycle;Biriary vapour cycle.
7, Define specific steam consumption of an ideal Rankine cycle. ·
(AUNov/Dec 2012)
[tis defined as the mass fl_ow of steam required per unit power output
Specific steam consumption= Sream flow in kg/ _hr
Power in kW
8. What is meant by work ratio? What is the importance of work ratio in vapour
cycles? Compare the work rntio of carnot and Rankine cycle?
(AU Nm,/Dec 2012)
Work ratio is defined as the ratio of network transfer to the positive wo~k transfer.
Work ratio affects the act11al cycle efficiency compari~g two cycles with the same
ideal efficiency, the cycle having smaller work ratio would have smaller actual efficiency.
Higher the work ratio, the specific steam consumption 1s lower, res~lti~g in smaller
size plant for the given output. Work ratio ofthe camot cycle is lower than the Rankine
cycle. ·
9. Name the diferent process of Rankine cycle on T-S diagram .
.(AU Aprffelay 2008) (AU N~v/D_
ec 2,006, ,2008)
. ,
T
.A
/.
' I I
.. s---.
1 - 2 ⇒ Isenti-opic expansion
2-3 ⇒. Constant pr~ssure apd temp~rature he~t rej~cti01;1
3-4 · ⇒ Water is pumped to boiler pressure · · ·

4 - I ⇒ Constant pressure heat addition in boiler
1:124 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
10. Name the different components in steam power plant working a Rankine
cycle. ;
Boiler, Turbine, cooling Tower or condensor and pump.
'
11. What are the effects of condenser pressure on the rankine cycle?
By lowering the condenser pressure, we can increase the cycle efficiency. The Inain
disadvantage is low.ering the backpressure increase the wetness of steam. Isentr0pic
compression of a very wet vapour is very difficult.
12.- Mention the improvements made to increase the ideal efficiency of Rankine
cycle. (1-U Nov/Dec 2005,Apr/May 20JJJ
1. Lowering the condenser pressure.
2. Superheatea steam is supplied to the turbine.
3. Increasing the boiler pressure to certain limit
4. Implementing reheat and regeneration in the cycle.
13. Why reheat cycle is not used for low boiler pressure?
At the low reheat pressure the heat cycle efficiency may be less than the Rankine
cycie efficiency. Since the average temperature during heating will then below.
19. What a~e the disadvantages of reheating?
· Reheating increases the condenser capacity due to increased dryness fraction,
incre.ases the c9st ~f th~ plan~ due to the reh~ates ~d if:S very_long connections.
20. What are the advantages of reheat cycle?
, y It'ip.creases the tw:bin~ work. . . . .. , _ . '
it) It increases the heat supply.
fu) It increases the efficiency ofthe plant.
• '
. - - .
I
iv) It reduces the wear on the blade because oflow moisture content in LP state of
the turbine.
. ., ~ I 1 •
• • • I
21. Why ideal regenerativ_e cycle is not pr~~ti~~~y p~~~ibl~?. , .._ _., , _.
0 The reversible heat transfer cannot be obtained in finite time.
i ~- ..-1 • • '".11 1 c1•. , : , ' . , . ~ , • ~,
.
4 _,
ii) The heat exchanger in~~.~bine.i~ ~~9hani~ally impractjcable.

' \ • I I..
1.,.
. ·. .
• '., '.., ._ I 1 • f • • f • • 1' ' j •. f ~~
iit) The moisture content of the ste~·in the ~bine will be.high. , '· ~ · •-· ·, "
1
,''-4- • l .· , { •' "1 . • ' 1,,J :~ f,.! ' i
c0Al 1BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS 1.125
22. Sketch the schematic diagram of closed and open type feed water heaters in
actual regenerative for steam. . (Au N_ov/Dec 2008)
Turbine .
Turbine
Boiler
Boiler
ed·water r
14----t
Feed waler I+---{
------ ter
heater
f~cd pump Feed pump
Open Loop ... . Closed Loop

23. What is _the function of feed water heaters in the regenerative,cycle with
bleeding?
, The main function of feed water heater is to increase the temperatures offeed water
to the saturation temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure b~fore it enters
into the boiler.
25. What are the methods used to improve the efficiency of the Rankine cycl_e?
(1,U JV.ovlDe.c, ·2014)
O Increasing the temperature· at which evaporation take place in the boiler
(i.e., increasing the boiler pressure). · .
il) Decreasing the temperature at which the condensation process takes'place
(i.e.~ reducing the back pressure). • • ~,
in) By increasing temi:erature ofsteam ifit is in super heated condition.
iv) In addition to that the efficiency is also improved b~
a) by reheating steam in between two operating pressure.
b) by adopting regehe~tio~ ofste~: ' . . . ! '
• I •
I • . I ' ' . tJ I.: : •-=· .... ' • •
c) by using both reheat and regeneration.
, .. • .. . -. • r
26. What are the advantages ·or regenerative cycle? -.

0 Heat suppli~ to botler bec~~e reduced.
ii) The heating process in the boiler appr~aches the reversible process .
1.126 ·- POWER Pl.ANT ENGINEERING
iii) Since feed water temperature in the boiler is·hfgh, the ranges of temperature in
the boiler is minimum. It reduces the thermal stresses produced in the boiler.
iv) Thermal efficiency. is increased since the average.temperature of heat addition to
the cycle is increased.
' ' .
v) Due to. bleeding in the turbi.Qe,
..
erosion
. .
of turbine due to moisture
.
is reduced.
' .
VI) Condense~ can be a smaller size.
. -
27. What are the effe_cts. Qf b~eeding
. in regenerative cycle?
.
i) It increases the thei"modynamic efficiency of the turbine.

ii) The boiler is supplied with hot water. I '
iii) A small amount of work is lost by the turbine, which decreases the power.
28. What is Steam rate and Heat rate?(AU Nov/Dec 2012) (AU May/June 2012)
Steam rate: it is nothing but the rate of steam flow (kg/hr) required to produce unjt
shaft output ( l kW). Normally the capacity of steam power plant is expressed in tenns
of ste_am rate.
. 3600
Steam rate· (SSC). = - - (kg/kW-hr)
: . w.T .7'°' Wp
. ~eat ~ate: The rate of heat input (Q 1) required to produce unit shaft output (1 kW)
J • ' •
Heat' }ate = 36 oq Q1 (kg/_kW _: hr)

WT-WP
29! ,.W~a_t,are
. the tr.ansfer equip°'ents. of ~oal handli!l,g. pl~nt? (A_U-Nov/Dec 2005)
i) Belt conveyors
it) Screw conveyors . ' I •
iii) Bucket elevators

iv) Grab bucket elevator~-~. ;,-_ .- •:. '.• ._.. •.'. 1 :•
30. What are the equipments used for ash collection?

O Electrostatic precipitator· , I.
•• i •·, I •
I .-l I j I • j
iO Gravitational Separator ·,: · · L ;• .- , • ..

.' .' : _ • 11 ' I '
f • .
I
0 •
o ,
• ..
J
I I • l. .: • • I 1 • • . ,' ' • I ·. f •
iit) Cyclone separator

iv) Fly ash scmbbers
COAL ~ASED JHERMAL POWER PLANTS 1.127
31. What are the basic requirements of good ash .handling system?
1. It should be able to handle large clinkers, soot and·dust with little personal ·attention.
2. It should be capable to deal with ultimate plant capacity. ·
3. It should be able to handle both wet and dry ash and operate with little noise.
4. Precautions must be taken to minimise the abrasive action ofashes.
5. Operating and maintenance charges should be minim~ possible.
.
32. What are the various operations of ash handling system?
Ash handling system comprises the following operations. • -·
a. Removal ofash from the furnace.
b. Transfer of ash from furnace (ash-hopper) to isolat~d storage place by
conveyors.
c. Disposal of stored ash.
33. Differentiate overfeed and un.derfeed stokers.
S.No Overfeed stoker Underfeed stoker · ·
I. Coal is supplied to the grate surface Coal is fed on the ·grate ·surface
above the point of air admission. below the point ofair admjssion.
2. Fuel and primary air supply takes Fuel and primary air·suppiy are
place in opposite direction to each directed in same direction. -
other. ·
3. Fresh coal could be supplied by the CoaJ- is supplied on the tuyeres ·
:
action ofgravitational force. by means of a fan..
' 4. Clinker may get deposited on the Continuous agitative action makes
fuel bed the fuel bed free from clinkers.
34. What are the essential functions of pulverizing mill in a steam power plant?
,· _ '.... · · . ... . - f A U;_Aprlwfay 2005)
i) Drying the coal iI) Grinding iiI) Separation ofparticles ofthe desired size.
35. What are the important action takes place in pulversizing·mill to reduce
ordinary coal to its powder form?
i) Impact it) Attrition in) Crushing

36. Name the different types of burners used to burn pulverised of coal.
1. Long flame bumer(or) U-:flame burner
2. Short flame burn.er (or) Turbulent burner
3. Tangential burner
4. Cyclone burner
37. Wbatarethe different types ohru11 used for pulverising the coal?
1. Ballmill . 2. BallandRacemill
3. Impact or Hammer mill 4. Bowlmill
38. What is the purpose of Electrostatic Precipitator?
Electrostatic precipitatoris an electrically operated dust collector that is located in the
path of flue gas between the furnace/boiler and the stack (chimney) to remove the
particulate matter especially flyash in case of pulverised fuel burning.
39. What are the major ste-ps in dust collecting process of ESP?
There are four principle steps in the dustcollectingprocess of~lectrostatic precipitator.
1. Ionisation offine gas and charging of dust particles.
2. Attraction ofthe negatively charged parti~les to the positively coll~g electrodes.
3. Deposition or discharging ofthe c~ged particles on the collecting electrodes.
· 4. Dislodgingoftbedepositedparticlesfro~thecollectingelectrodesbymechanical
rapptng.
.
40. What are the functions of draugbtsy~_em?
1. To supply sufficient quantity ofair through the furnace for conml~~ combl;IStion of
fuel.
2. To renmve the gaseous products of combustion from the ~ e .
3. To move and e'Aflaust the products of combustion
. to
. the aq:nosphere
,,
through
. the.
chimn{.,y. .
\ : • • P • • • _. • f •' I • I • • •• t •
,-
• • , • t .. • •
. .. ..
•• , •
COAL BASED THIERMAL POWER PLANTS 'I. 12f)
41. Distinguish between Natural and Artificial draught.

S.No Na~ural ,Jra11ght Artificial ,lra11,:hl
1. Draught produced by a chimney due to Air is forced undc1·pressure
the difference between the weight of the through air prehentcr.
column ofgases with in the chimney.
2. No external power is a-cquired to cause Pow.er is required to drive the
dra~ght. fan.
3. Outside environment will affect natural It docs not depend on
draught. weather condition,
4. Less 'capital bnvestment and maintenance More capital investment nnd
cost. maintenance cost.
' I i • '
'
5. High rate of combustion is not possible High rn~eof combustion and
- .
du~to low velocity of air and con~umption. inferior' quality fool cnn
'
,, • I •
be economically burnt.
6. No flexibility in creating draught under , Flexible in crcnling dmught
.peak load conditions · under peak lond condition .
7. Less efficient. .' More efficient.. ·
''
I
• , ' I • '• I • • ' : ' • I • • t • ' ~ • \ '• I t I
42. Distinguish between Forced draught and induced draught

.'
SI.No Forced dra11gl,t I11d11ce,J draught
' ' . ' .
1. The Fan (FD fan) is located before The Fan' (ID fan) is locntcd nonr tho
the furnace. chimney base.
'
2. It discharges air under pressure 'into .It draws the bt1i11t gases from the furnoco
. ., . ·the furnace to chimney. and blows into the chimney.
'
3. Corrosion and erosion of blade is Corrosion & erosion of blndo is possible.

I ...
not possible.
•
.. . .4:" ,'r~
ess·p6Weris required. ·
, I I
I I ' ·,
1
'
• I j
' ·More poweds 1:equirccl.
5. It is used in small oil fired boiler. It is used on larger capacity boiler.
6. The furnace pressure is greater than The furnace pressure is lower thon
atmospheric pressure. atmospheric pressure.
1:\30 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
43. ,,'by balance draught is preferred over other system?

It is a combination of forced draught nnd induci::d drought system. \iVhen the furnace
of an forced draught system is opened for firing or inspection, the high pressnre air
tries to escape suddenly and the furnace may stop. On the other hand, when the
furnace of an induced draught system is opened for firing or inspection cold air tties
to enter into the furnace due to the partial vacmun created in the furnace. Th.is reduces
the- effectiveness of the draught and combustion is aftected. To overcome both the
difficulties, it is a better choice to prefer balanced draught system.
4~. ,vhat are the functions of steam condensers?
1. The steam expanded in the turbine, if directly let out into the atmosphere, then
the final expansion pressure will be the atmospheric pressure. Now, a condenser
tµiitis attached to the exit of the turbine and the pressure is maintained far below
the atmospheric level. So, in this case, the final expansion pressure will be less
than atmospheric pressure and higher pressure ratio for expansion is resulted.
This in-creases the workdone by the prime mover and improving the overall plant
' '· efficiency. ·Tlius, the function of steam condenser is to decrease the exhaust
pressure of steam below the atmospheric level.
2. To-recover high quality feed water in its original fonn and feed in back to the
steam generator witho~t any further treatment. This eliminates the cost invplves
· in tiealn\ent process for the supply of fresh water.
45. Defu\"eFlilidrzation?
Fiuidizatiori is defined as an operation through \vhich fine solids are transformed into a
fltrid iike slate thrb\.igh contact with either agas or a liquid.
46. '\Vhat are the advantages of high pressure boiler's in modern thermal power
piant? (AU-Nov/Dec 2004)
i) Efficiency of plant is increased upto about 40 to 42%.
iI) Tendency of scale formation: ts eliminated.
ih)' It has less 1,1umber or complete elimination of d.i1ims.
iv) The danger of overheating.is reduced as all the _parts are uniformly heated and
hence thermal stresses ate also reduced., ·
v) Less floor space is required:
vi) Increased rate of heat ptoductiori.
---------
-
LBAS=.=E-=-D_TH_E_R_M_A_L_PO_W-=ER...:.:P:....::L~A~NT~S~~:....__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _1~.1~31
~
J7, '"hnt is super criticnl boiler?· List down I•ts men
· •ts.
· (A U-Nov/Dec -2004, Nov/Dec 2006)
super critica1boilers are once through boilers which operates at a pressure above the
critical point of 221.2 bar.
•. ·- - .
Merits
U Heat transfer rate.is considerably high.
h) It is possible to maintain more stable pressure level.
iiO The problems of e~o'sion and c~rrosio~ are minimized due to the absense oftwo-
phase mixture.
iv) It is possible to achieve higherthennal efficiency (about40 to 42 %) ·
v) Greater cas~ in operation and flexibility makes the unit more adaptable for load
fluctuations. · · · · ·
vi) It can be used to gener~te peak loads by changing th_e operatipg pres.s_qre.
48, Whnt are the modern trends in generating steam of high pressure ~QU~r?
(AV-AprlM{ly 1()P5)
i) .N/etlwd offi,rced circulation: Feed water pressure i~~reased &hove 160 b~r-
ii) Arrangement ofdrums and tubing: To minimize the resistance to :fl9w. ofste~m.
iii) lmprm,etl method of /,eati11g: By heating t~e w~ter qy stmer4ea_t~r ~~4
econorhiset:, air preheater ruid pulverization ofsolid fuel.
49. What are the advantages.of Relteat.cycle over sirqple RattJdne.cy~l~?
· (AU-Apr/May 2005)
0 Jt i~crepses the turbine work.
ii) It increases the heat supply.
in) It reduces the wear on the blade due to the low moisture conte~t in stea~.
~O. State the advant~ges and disadv~n~ag~~ qf,pµIv.edsed r:rr.~q~~
(A .U-No.v/Dec 20.07)
Ad.v3ntages
I. Any grade of coal can be useq.
2. Greater capacity to meet peak loads.
3. The rate of feed of the fuel can be easily regiµ,ated. ·
scannect w1tn c.;am~canner

1.132
4. It is free from saeging :md cl.inkcring troubles...

5. 1o ash handling problem.
6. It can works successfully with combination ot gas and oil

7. The external heating srrrface.s are free from corrosion.
8. The furnace volume require<l_is less.
Disadvantages
1. Lot of layers at the exhaust
2. The possibility explosion is more as the coal bums like gas.
3. The maintenance of furnace is costly.
4. High capital cost
6. High furnace temperature cause rapid deterioration ofthe refractory surface
of the furnace.
51. What is the function of cooling tower? (AU-May/June 200i, 2008)
The function of cooling water is to cool the warm water di?charged from the
steam condenser and return the end of condenser. At this point ph?see change
. .•..occurred by adiabatic evaporative cooling to convert the steam into watger ?Jld
then pure cooled water from the condenser is feed back to the boilerJt re.duces
the demand of water-to the boiler.
52. What are the require men ts of modem surface condenser? (A U-lfov/Dec 2007)
O The steam should enter the condenser wit~.lo~ resis~ce.
it) The under-cooling of the condenser should l;Je eradicated.
53. List down the important parameter of turbine. · (AU-Nov/Dec2007)
O The uniform power output of the turbine.

ii) High Thermal efficiency
. ..
iii) Maximum operating pressure and temperature.·· · ·.·. · ·, ·· · · - · ·
.. I 1· I •
iv) Exit temperature
v) Gre·ater range of speed
, • -:~ • I , r ,I
• , ',; • r ' 1 "" l ,, ~ ,: • • - .i • • '-

54. ~hut is drift'! How it is eliminated in the cooling tower? (AU-Nov/Dec 2007)
The drift is the fine water droplet entertained and carried by air in the cooling
tower. Due to drift the wate~ !oss is occured in the circulatiryg system of the
cooling tower. The drift eliminators (Baffics) are 'provi1ded at exit to minimize the
drift loss. The direction of air is suddenly changed while passing through the
rows of the buffles and heavy water particles are separated and then it removed
by gravity.
' f
55. State the characteristics of good ·ash handling plant? (AU-Nov/Dec 2007)
'
I. It should have enough capacity to cope with volume of ash handled.
2. It should be able to handle hot as well as wet ash effectively.
3. , The plant should operate effectively under all variable load conditions.
4. The plant should have high rate of ash handling. ·
5. It shoulq be able to handle large clinkers, boiler refuse, soof etc. with less
, . . . , m~pq~er. , .. 1 . • ,. • ,•, , ·
6. It should minimize the corrosive and abrasive action of ashes an~ dust np_isance
should not exist.
56. What are the factors to be considered for selection ofa boiler for steam
power plant?'. (AU-Nov/Dec 2007)
i) · Ste~ g~rieration rate ' . . .
' . , ..
'
I
...
,
' . , .
· · ii) Maximum·pressure required for operation
iit) Quality of steam required , ' .... .
iv) Availability of floor area

· ·: v) · Types of available fuel
vi) Probable load factor
vu) A,vailabmty of water . ,,. I , 1
viit) Ease of opearation ~nd maiQ.tenance

ix) Initial Cost
. '
S7. What is a stoker? Classify it. .(-(1.U-.May/June 2007)

t • • I I f • • • ' 1 '
Stokers are power operate fuel feeling ~echanism that uses grate f?r feeding
solid fuel in to the furnace.

.\n sificntion f stokers

~ \ er feed, tokcrs
n Trnvclin 0 :;;,mtc t kcrs b) Spreader stoker
u Underfc d stokers
u) Single retort under feed stoker bj Multi retort under feed stoker
58. Classif) power plant on the basis of traditional use.(AU-Apr/Allay 2007, 2010)
i) Steam p~wer plat~t
ii) Hydro-electric power plant . I
fu) Gas po,ver plant I .

iv) Nuclear power plant
v) Diesel power plant
59. ,vhat are the various methods to obtain draught control?"(AU-Nov/Dec 2011)
Q Natural Draught
ii') Artificial Draught
a) Forced Draught b) Induced Draught
~~-· L~s.t ourt~~ fa~tor~ )vit~ whi~b t~e .un~~ siz~ or the _po,~~r pl~nt is decided .
. .-. . . ,, (AU-Nov/Dec 2008)
0 _Power outputl • I •
I • . -
ii). Initial cost '•• '.
I ,.
' I
-.
iii) Land
iv) . Preparation df recourses •' ·
61: 'What are th'~ basic parameters to decide while planni~g ·a pow~t ~lant.
O I \ • t • _.: , • /• I I I
(AU-Apr/May 2015)
•' 1 , , 1' • •1 ' • , • '. • ' • • • 1 ~ r ( • • , 1' ' ~1 • t ' r
Total power output to be mstalled. · · ·_. ·· ·
ii) Size of the generating unit.
... . ''
'.( '

62, How iu·c 11ulvcdzc1·s nrc clnssillcd'! (AU-Nov/Dec 2015)

The pulverizers are classi tied according to the speed.
1. Low speed - (below 75 rpm)- Ball tube mill
2. Medium speed (75 - 225 rpm) - Ball and race mill
3. High speed (above 225 rpm -Impact or hammer mill
63. Whnt is meant by surface condenser. (AU-Nov/Dec 20~5)
. .
It is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which the cooling water flows through the
tubes and steam co~1dense out side of the tube in steam power plant. Here the
water and steam do not mix with other.
64. What are the governing method of steam turbine. (AU-Apr/May 2015)
I
1. Throttle governing
..
2. Nozzle control governing . '
3. By-pass governing .
..
4. Combination of throttle and nozzle governing ' . - .
5. Combination of throttle and bypass governing ' ·, I ••
-.
j ' I

.' I
I,
I I -
u .,
I'
• I •
i
DIESEL, GAS TURBINE .
AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER . PLANTS
I
INTRODUCTION
ing Obj~~tlves •••
In the successful power developing
..
I I • •
systems, the working fluid is either a gas or
1.- , , , ,1 lntroiJucjlon . ..
r '. t I
a substance existing in liquid or vapour form.
• • O,tto, DI~~~,, D~ai and ~rayton Cyole Gas pow·er cycles are developed from
·.: . ~ . ~~~J.Y:slsi~~d:Optlnil~a~l~n camot cycle which is a theoretical cycle and
~. Compo~ents of Diesel ~,icj qas rurtilne has a higl?est thermal effi~iency possible for
Pio~~ir pfants a heat engine. However, the actual engine
· • Ciplf1) 1ped cycle Power plants in practice has the efficiency half of that
,, ~ • ~ •• I
• .,, " I ti
obtained from camot engine. The carn.ot
teel
. Gasifier
. . ', Com
~ased
cycle using gas as a working fluid is tenned
teins
as gas power cycles.
Assumptions made in air standard cycles
The following assumptions are made in
air standard cycles in deriving the efficiency
of air standard cycles.
1. Air is the working fluid and it obeys
the P,erfect g~s law i.e., pV= mRT.
2. The engin~ ~perates in a closed
cycle. The cylinder is filled with
constant amount ofworking mecliwn
· and the same fluid is used repeatedly
and hence mass remains constant.

~_:.~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___!.:PO:::..;W:.:..:E~R,;..;..P_LA_N_T_E_N-.:.:..GINEERIN
~
3. The working fluid is ho~ogen~o~ throughout at aUµmes and 00 chemical I"eaction

talces place, inside the cylinder.
4. The compression and expansion processes are assumed-to be adiabatic.
5. The values of specific heat (Cp.and Cv) of the working.fluid remains constant.
6. All the processes are int~mally reversible and no mechanical or frictional losses
to occur'~hroughout the process.
7. Combustion is replaced by heat addition process and exhaust is replaced by
heat rejection process.
The various air standard cycles used in IC engines are otto cycle, diesel cycle and
brayton cycle.
Terms used in air standard cycles
1 The following are the important tenns used in gas power cycles.
1. Cleara11ce vol11me
I • • ,
It is the minimum volume occupied by the fluid in a cylinder when the piston reache,s
the Top Dead Centre (tD.C) position. It is denoted by Vc•
2. Swept or Stroke vol11111e
It is the volwne swept by the piston in a stroke when it moves between the top dead
c~ntre and Bottom Dead Centre (B .D. C) and is denoted by V5•
Swept volume = Area of piston x stroke
- 1t .
. . V8 =-d2 x L
4 I
3. Cylinder volume , . '
It is the volume occupied by the fluid in a cyluider when the piston' is at B.D.C.
position and is denoted as V1•
Vj= V3+Vc
4. Compression ratio . . •• ' .,_ ~ • I • ~
._ \ I • \ I
. . . .l .
\ • · ... ' ~· ' .. t • i. I •
It is defined as the ratio of the volume of cylinder to the ~ie~ce·volume.

, I • I. I
I 11 ' I''
... I.., r • , • ,• , , ' f
• 1 I ; r} t, . '' .. I ~ I

DIESEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.3
5. !,lea11 effective pressure (m.e.p)

It is defined as the average pressure acting on the piston during the entire power
stroke that would produce the same amount of net work output during the actual cycle. It
is mathematically expressed as
'
p = Workdone / cycle =
m Swept volume
6. C11t off ratio
It is the ratio of cut off volume to swept volume.
,.
7. Expans/011 ratio
It is the ratio ofmaximum volume to minimum volume duri~g expansion in tl1e cylinder..
2. 1 OTTO CYCLE (OR) CONSTANT VOLUME CYCLE ' .

Otto cycle is the air standard cycle of spark ignition engine used in automobiles.
This cycle is developed by n Gennan scientist in 1876, named as Dr. A. Nicol~us Otto.
It is n constant volume heat addition cycle. This is meant for petrol engines (S.I), gas • I
engine and high speed oil engines. The p-V and T-S diagram of an otto cycle is shown in
figure2.l.
,·
Adinbntic process ' I j
3 (pVY=C)
p 3
V == C
T
S=C
r 4
4
v=c
Q2 r 2
- -.. v --+► S
. .' .
Figure 2.1: p-Vand T-S diagram for Otto cycle'
~ . ... ..
• • ' ' .. ' • t • • ... ,· '1 • , ', - • I , • • I • • I • I
,• I• I I ' · ' ' • • • • · ' • •
Process 1 - 2 - Adiabatic compression. j
Process 2 - 3 - Constant volume he~taddition·in increasing entropy direction.

Process 3 - 4 - Adiabatic expansion.
Process 4 - I - Constant volume heat rejection in decreasing entropy direction.
Initially, the cylinder has a certain quantity of air. During process 1-2, this air is
compressed intq clearance volume of the cylinder reversibly and adiabatically, thus raising
the pressure and temperature of the air in the cylinder. During process 2-3, heat is supp lied
to air by external ·source reversibly at constant volume, thus raising the pressure and
tempe·rature of the air to the maxiiptµn value of the cycle. During process 3-4, the air
expands reversibly and adiabatically, and thus the work is done by the air. During process
4-1, heat is rejected from a·~r to external source reversibly at constant volume, and thus
pressure and temperature decreases to initial state ( 1). Thus the cycle gets repeated.
Expression for air stan~ard efficiency of Otto cycle

'
Let~' v ·and T be the pressure, volume and temperature at various points of the
cycle and ,·m' be the mass of the air. Let the mass of the air as 1 kg.
Air standard efficiency = Work done

.I . . I •~ Heat supplied
Now, for otto cycle, From p-V diagram

Q1 = mC" (T3 -Ti)
~,, , .) .. ~s·i. •1 ' ' I f. ., '·'Q2 =· tnC~'(T4-1\r . . ' '
'
'
''
• I I- t I
'
.
; \
' I
'
!lotto
... (1)
Process 1-2 (Adiabatic compression)_-, , -

• .' • , .,. ! I •1 -- : 1
Let the adiabatj9~o~pt~_S§!~~ ~-~9.(rj·~~:-~~

.. - •, 2
'
~cannea w1 tn c..;am~cahner
'
DIESEL, GASTURBlt IEAND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.5
: ! t •
Pr(JceNN 3-4 (Adiabatic expansion) r •• ••

• ,, , •
•
,,.
• -
• I •
I •
I
f
.,I
I •
• ' ,.' I• ,. ., ' 1.•
~, . • ~., . , . .. ·, 1, i
T3 ~ (~)·(-,
T4 V2 ·
T3 = (r0·r-1x T4 ... (3)
• .. •
.t ' I . . 1 - , ,
. '.t , . - 1 .,
;
• 'i ·1·,,'
~
Thus the efficiency of the otto cycle is fl fun~tion.of compression ratio only and
increases with it.
I •
Expression for mean effective pressure (m.e.p) ,
p = Wor_k ~~ne !_eye!~ = ~ 1 -Q 2

m sw;ept vplume V, - V2
. .. • ' t I
• I , 1 I • '
Q 1= md/(!3.7 .t 2~- . . .. _. . . . ;
C
R = Cp-Cv and y .= cp ⇒ cp =y CV
V
.= yCv - Cv
R = Cy (y-1)
:. V1 -V2 = ~v_(y-l).T1
- pl
(rk-1) fie
... (2)
Process 1-2 (Adiabatic compression)
1
Tz -~ (~)~-,
Tl V2, ..
T2 = TI x (riJY-1 ... (3)

Process 2-3 (Constar.it vo}um~ heat·edditjon).•, .- . " l
·,1 ,· ,
I • •
. . ~
a. ➔ exp1os1on ratio -
. . P2
' f I 1 •
. ·. . .
Process 3-4 (Adiabatic expansion)
~canne<1 w1tn cam~canner

T4 =cvT 1 ... (5)

Substitute (2), (3), (4) and (5) in (1)
• I
I • •
2. 2 DIESEL CYCLE (OR) CONSTANT-PRESSURE CYCLE

Diesel cycle is an air standard cycle ofcompression ignition engine. This cycle was
introduced by Dr. Rudolph diesel in 1892. It differs from otto cycle by the heat addition at
constant pressure. The P-V and T-s diagrams of~ diesel cycle is shown in figure 2.2
Process 1-2 - Adiabatic compression.' · -.~
Process 2-3 - Constant pressur~-heat addjtiop in increasing entropy direction.
' I
. ' . . -
Process 3-4 Adiabatic expansion. .
• ,; \ I'- • , ' I I ' \ \_ •,' \ J
.
I ·•• f
'
•• , I 1, , • •
Process 4-1 - Copstant volume h~at r~j~ction ,in decreasing entropy direction.
' .
\
.. I

. .
~
2-~
8 __:·:__:_·_ _:_..:....._.:..__:_~ ~ ~ ~-___:_:
· ·::.: ·· ;_
·. .::. · ~_;_-!:po~·W~ER,.;,.:P.:.:.:.LA:.-N_T_EN_
. G_I_NE..:.::E:.:..::~
Adiabatic process -
2 - 3
(PV.,=C)
p
T S == C
1 4 1
2
4
Q2
1
Vs s
"" ~v
Figure 2.2: p V and TS diagram of diesel cycle
Initially, tb~ cylinder has a certain quantity of air. During process 1-2, the air is
compressed into clearance volume of the cylinderreversibly and adiabatically, thus raising
thet~mpe,raWre and pressure of the air in the cylinder. During process 2-3, the heat is
supplied to air .by external source at constant pressure, thus raising the pressure and
tempyrature of air to .th~ ~um value of the cycle. During process 3-4, the air expands
reversibly ~d a~~l;>atically, and thus the work is done by the air. During process 4-1, heat
is U?jecte.d i;roro air to.external source reversibly at constant volume, and thus pressure and
ten;iperature decreases to initial state ( l ). Thus the cycle gets repeated.
Expressio,n f9r ~ir standard efficien~y of diesel cycle
-
Let ·P.,V ~d T be the-pressure, volume and temperature of the cycle at various
points and ·' ~' 0~ the mass o_fth~ _ajr-(taken usually as 1·kg).
. . Workdone ·
Air standard efficiency = · ·
Heat supplied
Now for diesel cycle, from·p..:y (ijagram,

Q1 - m.CP (T3-Ti)
Qi - mCy (T4-T 1)
.....
I 1esel., GA TURBINE ANO COMOINJ:DCYCLI: I OWER PLANTS 2,9
;,,...-·
'11 .. = 1-
(Tii -T)I
tllu~cl · (T _ T )
y J 2
process 1-2 (Atlillbllllc compress/011)
Let the udiubutic compression ralio bu,Y.i = rk

. Y2
T2 = ( v, Jy-l I
T1 V2
T2 = (rky-1x T, i .:. (i} '
Process 2-3. (Co11sla11t pressure heat addition) .

V3 1;1
-=-
" Y2 T2
Let the cut off rati,o (r0) be V3 .

I
·1 V2
I ,l I
T =r
_J
T o
2
... (it):
Process 3-4 (Atliabatic expansion)

y.
Let .the adiabatic. exp,ansion ratio'be.,"'¢:·= · ro'.
3
r ,-,
! j
2.10 I I I :. ; POWER·PLANT. ENGINEERING
T4 = T1 (rc)Y ... (m)

(rJ xT1 - T1)
Expressio11/or mean effective pressure (m.e.p)

Work done I cycle . .. . .'
Pm = Swept volu.m e
I • •
Q1 = mCP (T3-T2)
. - - _. . - - - - . - - - . . •
. I • •
• • •1 :· · • Qi . . mCy{T4-T1)
..... ·mCP (T3 -T2 ) - mCv (T4 -T1 )

Pm -· ,. , . , · ,
·vI--v
: 2
-
DIESEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS
P1V1 = RT1
V1_R::1"1
-
P1
"I
c,,
I I
y= c=>
V
ell::; yCy
From equation (i)

. .' I I I
.
I
' • • I
·, t
From equation (ii)

. l
_ T3 = (rJY- x T 1 x re
Fromequation(iii)' -· -
T4 =T1xr/
•, ' ' cp [ ((r1c y-~ ' re X T, )- (r~J y-l X T, ]- CV [ rJ X T, - Tl]

:. Pm ~ 1• , Cv ( Y'-1) T1 ( r1.: -1 J
•• • , • • : :i • • ' P1 ri.:
I .
\
.
2-~·:..._--.:.._.....:...:..~~ ~-
_:.12 ~
;.=.-~-___.!P:_;O:..:..'vv~E_R_PLA_NT_E_N_G...;..:INEERI~•
I•
- I
' .
• • I
• : I •
. [r(r, -!)(r,y-' +: -1)]

Pm = P1 . rk ' ( y -1) (rk -1)
2.3 DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE (OR) LIMITING-PRESSURE CYCLE

Dual combustion cycle is a combination ofotto and diesel cycle. It is also known as
mixed cycle in which some part ofheat is added to air at constant volume and the remaining
amount at constant pressure. The P-V diagram and T-s diagram is shown in figure 2.3.
3 Adiabatic process
(pVY=C)
p --
4
l - T
l S=C,
2
S==C
Q2 .. ' )
1
.. y . . ' -
r - S .
I.'
---► s
---► v
Figure 2.3: p-V and T-S diagram for dual combustion cycle
• • • • ; . •, • I • I
Process 1-2 Adiabatic compression · - . .- · ~

I\ • • • -, • \ .,. .'" \ • • • • • ' • • r .. • • • •
Process 2-3 - Constant volume heat addition in hi~re~ing ~n~opy.directi~~ . -..

Process 3-4 - Constant pressure heat addition~ mcre~ing entropy direction
Process 4-5 - Adiabati_c expansion
f : • - •• • '
Process 5-1 - Constantvolwneheatrejection
~cannect w1tn c..;am~ca.1i.ner

DIESEL, GAS TURBINEAN0 COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.13
Initially, the cylinder has a certain quantity of air. During process 1-2, air is
compressed into clearance volwne of the cylinder reversibly and adiabatically, thus raising
the pressure and temperature of air in the cylinder. During process 2-3, the heat is supplied
partly to air at constant volume, while the remaining amount at constant pressure
during 3-4. During process 4-5, the air expands reversibly and adiabatically and thus the
work is done by the air. puring process 5-1, heat is rejected from air to the external
source reversibly at constant volume and thus _pressur_e and temperature decreases to
initial state ( 1). Thus the cycle gets repeated. _
Expression for air standard effic~ency of dual cycle
•.· ..
Let p, Vand T be the p~essure, ~~lume a~d temperature of the cycle at various
points of the cycle and 'm' be the mass of the air (taken: usually as 1k;g): .' :· ,_.. i
,· Work done . ,:
. )·:Air. standar:d ~fficiency = - - - - -
1 ,.. Heat supplied , .. . ....
L r•
. Q,
llair = 1- Q. ) •
'\,
.• J. •
I ' 1. ·
..
•
.'
Now fo~ dual cycle, from p-V diagram,
,
Q 1 ,= mCv (T3-1'2) + mCP (T4 ~ T3) , t
Q2 = ~Cv (Ts --Ti) :..,
•◄ • • - I- ~f v (Ts ':- T, ) .
-. . ·- ... . -'. --.'.
l.
... ~ llair · ~ mCv (T3•-T2) + mC11 (T4 -T3) . . . ._. .
llt1~a1 ;,a: 1- (T3 -T2) + y (T4 -T3) ... (0

• ,.- • 1 , I 1 J • l •t I 1. I -',. •
' ,,. . , I I • C
... (it) .
. . ,, "I I I • . ' '
J• • • • I • - ..
~cannect. w1tn L!am.::>canner

r'" /
I
1I
I
1
.;;:.:2•..:..14.:..__:.___ _ _ _ _.:...__ _ _ _ _ _.:...PO.;..W_ER_PLAN
__ T_E_N_GI_N...;.::eeR,NG
1I
I ---.:..:::
Process 2-3 (c_o11sta11t pressure /,eat addition)
1 I
T3
-=-
P3
T2 P2
I ' ,, ._. a. = Explosion
[
= 12.
r ' P2
T3 = a. · T2
I
T3 = a.. (rJY-1 x T1 ... (iii)
Process 3-4 (Co11sta11t pressure /,eat addition)
I
I
[ r, = ~:, cut - off ratio]
T = r
_4
I 'I lj I TJ C
1{;!'
j 11 ... (iv)
'ti
' :j Process 4-5 (Adiabatic expression)
I
I
I
I
I
[ r, = ~ , expansion ratio]
T4
Ts -
(r.:)y-1
- T"
( y-1 X'(!cy-1
, rk
= re • Cl . ( r.J y-l X T1 X (re: y-l

( rk y-1
Ts - (rc)Y · ex x T1
... (v)
....
-
DIESEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS
substitute (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v) in equation (i)

2.15
.
= 1- ~--=-[Cl-=-.)•(-=-re)_'/---=1]_ _ ·,• •; •, • I
[ ( rk y-i(a - 1)] + y· a · ( rk y-i [re - IJ ·, • 1 •
' •1 J.'
1 a(rcf-1
lldua1 = I - ( rk y- 1 •• [ ( a -1) + y · a · [ re ~ 1]]
Note:
In the efficiency of dual cycle, substituting-re= 1,
.' • , I ,,
' ~ •
substituting a= l,
• I ' .. ... I • I l •I / I •l
i ., l
'
, I I
- ~canned. w1 tn cam~canner
2.16 ,., .,_ ' ". . ..
.
' . .. • I
poWER PLANT ENGINEERING
~
Expression for mean effective pressure
Pm= QI -Q2
V,-V2 .
As derived in diesel an~ otto cycle,
v..-v, ~ C,T, (;-1) (rk -lJ

P, rk
Qt - Q2 = Cv (T3- J' 2) + CP (T4- T3) - Cv (T5 - t 1)
From eguations (ii), (iii); (iv) and (v)
T2 = (rlc)Y-I Xr,
.T 3 = a T 1 • (r0y-t
Q1 -Q2 = Cv (a· Ti (rlc)y-t _ (rlc)Y-l. T 1)
+ CP (a.· re· T1· (riJY-l - _a T 1 (riJY- 1)

' '
1 •
1
' , , ,' : Q, ~Qi= T, [ C; (;, f' (<Fl)•-f! C;·(r, f\·a (r, -1)~ C, (a(ro)' -1)]
1 I •
1
• .
1 , -' • • • •: J I • • • •
T, [ C, (r,f' (a-1) + c, (r,f' · a (r, -1)-c,( a (re)' -1)]

Pm =
CvT1(rk -1 \ ( y- l)
P, rk )
_ p 1 r, {rr' [y · '* .:.ij+ (a-1)]-[a (r,)' -·1]}

pm - · (Y- 1) (rk -1)
• I
I ' •
• I
i:)cannect. w1tn c..;ami:)canner

DIESEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMB INIED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.17
2.4 BRAYTON CYCLE

The Brayton cycle was first proposed by George Bmyton for use in the reciprocating
oil-buring engine in l 870. The gns turbine works on this cycle. It is also·known as Joule's
cycle. The P-V and T-s diagrams are shown in figure 2.4.
A<linbntic prochss
(PV1=C) ' '
p
T S=C
r 2 ' 4. -\
r S=C
'I
V s
' , I
Figure 2.4: p V and TS diagram of Brayton cycle
Process l-2 Adiabatic con:ipression

Process 2-3 Co~stant pressure heat addition . ., J
I•
I
1 •
Process 3-4 - Adiabatic.expansion

Process 4-1 Con'stant p~e~sure ]~eat rejectio~ ' . · , ' ·
Air is compressed reversibly and adiabatically, during process 1-2. During
process 2-3, heat is added to it reve·rsibly at constant pressure. During process 3-4, the
ai~ e~pands in.~he turbjne reversibly and,adiabatically. During process 4-L, the heat is
rejected from air ~eversibly at constant pressure to bring ~t to the ini~al state. the cycle 'P1~
is repeated. •
• • • • • I I
Expre·ssion for air standard efficiency of Brayton cycles
I
For br~yton cycle, Q'i= mCi> (T4.:.. T1) · ··-· ,. _ ·-- ·-- -,
1 , 1 I I • , ' , 1 , • ' r I i- / . ' 'j I
. Q1= .. mCP (T3-T2). ,,

•
i
I
I , I
•l • J \
') !!~-----~--_:._--~-!p~ow!.!·~ER~P:_;LA::,..;;....NT_EN_G_IN.....;E::.::::..:~
~18
Process 1-2 Adiabatic compression

P2 [Compression ratio]
Let the adiabatic pressure ratio be - = rP
P,
Process 3-4 Adiabatic ~pansion
y- 1
. TJ = (r )1 •xTp 4
(T -T,)
4
= 1- - - ' - y - - 1 - ~ -
( rp }y (T ~T,) .
4
o\
Thus the efficiency of cibrayton cycle is a function of compression ratio or pressure

ratio only. .
2.5 ANALYSIS AND OPTIMIZATION

For an Otto cycle
. _w..= r\'.JT~-."i; T~\ -~
-
c,/ f:2,i7,
'
.TJ) __,: ·-. _·:
I I ' ' I l '\:J.7 . ·1 : • ' • I I
•• I ,t • \ 1yy , l,. .' . • , \ ' t
#
• •
) '
\
•
"
-
<
'
-
CV
- .T -T' ,l+T
= T3_
.. (4.. . 2
.. . (·1)
~•
. , .l ' I ' , T, " . . . . .
~ I • •
'
'
• '' .
•
l

--
DIESEL, GAS :Y-URBINEAND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.19
~: = (~:r ~r =( ~ -(rJy-l
T2 T3 T
=- ⇒ T=-3 xT
and
Tl T4 2 T4 I
Substitute the value ofT4 in equation(l)

W T.·T ... (2)
-=T . I 3-T+T.
C 3 T 2 I
V 2
To get the maximum work differentiate equation (2) \vith respect to'T2 • ·r;- 1 .
. I dW T. · T
- - = Q= Q + I 3 -1
cv dT T/
Tl · T3 = 1
y22
T1T3=T/
. T2 = J'fi ·T~
Substitute the value at T2 in equation ( l)
w -- T3 -T~ Tl .-
- - T3 x ·T.I
Cv T~ ·
I
Differentiate with respect to T2
' • I
'. . .
2.s.1 ·Comparison·between etto, Diesel and Dual qcles
.
Toe three cycles~ be compared with respect to thermal efficiency. The comparison
• I - - -
may be done on the following basis.

i) Same compression ratio with same heat rejection.
. ..
ii) Same ~ u m p ~ ~d temperature with same he~t ~jecµon ~
in) Same co~pression i=:atio and ~e heat input.
2.20 . --· -.
i) Same compression ratio with same heat rejection

3
3
p
t 6 T
,, ,.
t
I
--+
•
V
•
--+ s
Figure 2.5: Same compression ratio and same heat rejection
All the cycles have same heat rejection by the Q.
We know that, 11 = I - Qr
Qs
. Qr=constant 1
! '
If Q5 i~c·re~s~~ ~:·a\~~ increase:s. Therefore the area under curve 2-3, 2-p- 7 and
2-5, shows-that.heat addition decrases.
,J -.. I
- , • I
I ' •
. . .. •
Area of2-3 >Aiea of2-6-7> Area of2-5. (i.e.,) the area under2-3 maximum.
' • I •
Therefore, 'llouo> lldunl > 1ldie~el· · '

I
I '
ii) Same 111a.,yi1i111m press11re and.temperature with.~qm~ f,eat_rejection ·
I I 1 l~
c• •
• 1t •·
•'
p
t T
t ..' '.
I ' I
d • •
" ~I
·•1 ,
s
· , .
'; / ,\. - ·1 ' ~ ~-
Figure 2.6: Same maximum pressure
DIESEL;GAS Jl:.IRBIN.EAND COMBINED CYCLE
~ . POWER PLANT$
. ·- _ _..
..
similarly the area,

Area 1-5-3-4 > Area 1-6-7-3-4-1 > Area I-2-3-4
Tl= l-.2r_ .
Qs ' .,
Qr= constant for all cycles ·r .
Q5 increases efficiency al~<? increases therefore Area 1-5-3-4 wifi haye']arge.Qs.
Therefore, T'ldiesel > Tl dual> Tlotto at maximum pressure ~d I l l ~ temper~ture.
iii) Same compression ratio and same heat input
Tl == 1- Qr
Qs
Q5 =constant for all cyc~es
11=1--Q...;....r_
constant
3
. r ..
"t , -: T < ' I
4". ' , . . :·. ,·
, .. ' I • . I" . •.• ,

i 2
..
I
' ' ' I .• ,J •' ·
' '- (
I • I , I II , . • , 11 1
I ·:· I I ·, ~
'
I' ' - ' •
I I I I
• • '\ ' ' • ' .. •• • • • • t ' .. • . ' ' • ' ,I ' . I ' . 1.'. . . .. ·, , , ', i
'---"----''- -''•- -
• ---+ •• • I • I •
a b b' b"
--+ V
Fi,gure 2. 7: Same comp.ression ratio and same heat input
For Ott~ cycle, heat rejection is lesser and for diesel cycle, heat rejection is more.
Therefore, llotto> T'ldual > lldiesel· \ . . '
• ~ ' t :
Note: '
• • ,J - ;
Foratry=l.4, - -- J i
.•;_.. _·_... _Gv~..Q-71~ ~~g~_ :

Cp= i°:605 kJ/kgK
R = 0.287 kJ/kgK r
: ~. ,1~,• -·t
0
t:, ..·,·~.~r" .c : . :•.~ • . • • • , ... J. C, -.. :~\ ,!.,""',r:. :t.t .~ ' I
'
poWER PLANT ENGIN~
~2.~22~-------------
T. INTRODUCTION .
2.6 DIESELPOWERPLAN d I twhichusesdie l
. . · al fuel fire P an se as a
Diesel power plant 1s an another convention · )ant except that the turb ·
· · . ·1 . to steam power P ine
fuel to produce electrical power. It 1s sum ar . · e shaft. These plant
· . . 1 l d with the engm s are
1s absent and the generator ~s direct y coup ~ .
commonly used where,
. .
i/ the reliability of s~pper favour oil over coal

n) the water supply is li.nrited • .I
in) the loads are relatively small . . ___ _ __
iv) the el~ctric line service is unavailable or is available at too high rates
. -
v) it is suitable for small and mediwn outputs

In sever~l countries;the demand for diesel plants is increased due to the practical
I I I • '
difficulties experienced in other conventional power plants.

. .~Along t-e ~ planning is required for th'ermo and hydro plants which would not
be realistic/as the population rise is exponential. Moreover, it is difficult to.construct
new hydro pl~~t~ 'or enlargement of old hydro plants. These factors makes the diesel
~ l~ , - " - • • • .
plant. as. ...Jong pi~ce ofequipment than other type of plants. : ..

.
2.6.1 Layout of-diesel p~wer.·plant. . · .· ,.

Diesel power plant is an ano~er conventional fuel fired plant which uses diesel as a
fuel to produce electrical power. It i's -slhriiar t~ steam power pl~t except that the turbine
,._· is ·absent ~d.the generator is directly coupled with the engine shaft.
. ::i'li~~e plants ar~ ccmirilocly'~~d wh~re, :'' -. ' . I ,. I •
~ the reliability of supper favo~ oil over coal •

• I • I t
iI) the water.supply is limited . ,· -- . I
in) the loads are relatively small and " I
. . .'.·. '.' iv)_·~~·~~~tri-~·l~~:se~c~ 'i~ ~~~a~lable:-or'is available at too high rates and suitable
· , ~ forsmallandmetliumoutputs. , : ,·.-.-... ' • t '
1 .~ •
• ~ . ... ' .
• , • • , , • • , • •• _
t '.
• ·
• I I
... . . - . ..
•• • I -· .. - ... .! • ' t \ . .· '4 - I .., • ' \ • 1
i:)cannea. w1 tn· canii:)cariner

DIE$EL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.23
Day oil tank

SIiencer
Intake air filter
Fuel oil Diesel engine

haust
'
Jacket water pump
tarting
~
c:::
air Filter Fuel injection
...a:, ---11--+~ pump
tank Generator
>
0
Air compressor Oil

Cooler
Transfer pump
Coolant
Auxiliary _____.....,_-t Cooling
oil pur;np tower
Heat I
Fuet·storage tank exchanger' Raw water
..__._._~-1,..l. • pump
Figure 2.8:·Layout of Diesel power plant-· .
2.6.1.1 Worltj.ng prin~iple of dies.~i power plant

Tub diesel power plant uses air and fuel mixture as a worked m~um for generating
the electric power. The engine is s~~d us4lg the co~pressed ~ir dra~ from the
I • ~ ' ' , I • I - ' ' ., I
atmosphere through air compressor.

' . :.
The fuel (diesel) is supplied to the engine from fuel storage tank through fuel filter
an4 fuel injector and gets mixed thoroughly with air. The charge then gets ignited in the
engine cylinder due to high compression heat. . , , .. . , . ,
. . .•,. Due to th.t~ ignitjo~, the thennal (heat) ~nergy of f\lel is converted _into mechanical
energy which in turn converted into electrical energy,by m~~s pf a generator directly
coupled with the engine shaft.
? ~~------~_:_~~--_!:.PO~W~E::::.R.:.:.P..:.LA_N_T_E_N_G_IN-:E.::.:..~G
~24 --
2.6.1.2 Essential components of a diesel power plant

· · · l mponents of a diesel pow
The figure 2.8 shows the system and the essentta co er
plant .
a) .O.iesel engine
· · . . .. · · the heart of diesel power plant
Tlie diesel engine or compression 1gmtton engme 15 · .
Multi-cylinder turbocharged diesel engines are commonly used in power plants. In diesel
engine,.air alone is·drawn from the atmosphere and compressed to a great extent of about
compression ratio of 12-20. At the end of coll?pression, fuel is injected by no_~l~ and gets
mixed thoroughly with air. Due to the heat ~f compression, the charge gets igmted in the
engine cylinder. The products of combustion expanded in the cylinder and mechanical
power is produced, which in tum converted into.electrical power by means of an alternator
directly coupled to·the-engi~•e shaft.
·b) •'Air,intake·system
· ·Fresh airis.supplied to air intake manifold through intake air filters which removes
the air.borne solid·p~rt~cles,from t_he intake air which could cause wear of the engine.
•.Filters r~quire peri0·dic cleaning to avoid losses due to clogging. Silencers are installed at
' the.beginning of intake system to reduce high-velocity air noises. Supercharger increases
·the pressure of.the air supplied to the engine and thereby increasing the engine power. The
1 intake system must cause a minin1umpressure loss to avoid the reduction in intake capacity
·bf tmgine·and increase.the.specific fuel consumption.
c)'~Ex,bau·stgas.system
,.
The-e~aust-system·diseharg~s "the engine exhaust gas outside the building and the
same is to·the atmosphere. ·Mufflers.are used to attenuate·the gas flow noises however,
they need cleaning at regular intyrvals. Generally, exhaust systems are designed for low
pressure loss as too pressure loss reduces work output and engine efficiency. Some good
amount of heat coming out of engine is recovered in heat coming out ofengine is recovered
, m·heat exchangers_or waste~heat.-boilers. Toe.exhaust tubing section should be short in
le~gth-wi~ minimum numbeu ofbends . It should baye one or-two·flexible tubing sections to
take up the effects of.expansion ~ue to high temperature and also isolate the system.from
the engine vibration.
d) -Fuel supply·system .I)
Fuel supply system is-the.blood of the diesel engine. Fuel stored in fuel storage tank
is drawn by transfer pump·through strainer and supplies to the day oil tank through the

STIJRBINEAi'lD COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 225
filter. Dsy il tank supplies the dailj fuel need ofthe engine. Day tank is usually placed
,hon~ th en.gin-'"~ tlmtfuel flm, takes place b gravity. The~ the fuel is injected into the
,ytin er f the engine b 1 the fuel injection pump according to the load on the plant
--·
-.
e Eng:ine starting 5'iStem
'-'
Th main function of this system is to start the engine from cold by supplying the
:cmp.i~~ air. Starting ofengine can be done b1 employing the follmving three methods.
1 13) an mrcilifil) engine (usuall petrol dm·e.a:f"

_ Bvanelectricmotor / /~
3 B) a compressed air S) :,t~ (!;;
f) Lubricating system
Lubrication is the admittance ofoil bem'eell two surfaces having relative motion. As
amatteroffac almost all the parts of the LC. engines ha erelativemotion and rub each
other. Due to this relath emotion, the friction is increased and the power is lost in the
engine and the parts are subjected to wear and tear and reduces the life of the engine. The
lubrication is required to reduce the wear of the parts earlier and to carry out the part ofthe
heat generated inside the engine. lubrication also reduces the power required to overcome
the friction ofthe moving parts b introducing a thin film oflubrication between them
The fimction ofthis system is to carry a,,.,-ay the ~eat generated by fiiction, by reducing
the friction of moving parts and to reduce the wear and tear o_f the engine parts.
g) Engine cooling system
In reciprocating I.C. engines, the peak temperature of the gases varies from 40°C
to as high as 2750°C during the cycle. It has been experimentally found that only about
300/o ofthe heat generated is converted into useful work and out of the remaining 70% is
wasted. About 40% is carried away as exhaust gases. Around 1 to 1.5% is carried by
lubricating oil The I?.1)1aining 300/o ofheat generated must be carried out; otherwise, it will
be absorbed by engine cylinder, cylinder head, pisto~ engine valves etc; Ifthe engine is
not coole4 then the cylinder and piston temperatures may exceed l 500°C. At such high
temperatures, the metals will loose their properties and the piston will expand considerably
and size the liner. The lubricating oil also start5 evaporating if the temperature ofthe
cylinder exceeds 70°C. Due to this~ piston and cylinder will get damaged. Therefore,
Coo1in2-.,,...
svstem must be provided to avoid those effects.
2.20
The main purp He thiHuyHlmn iuto cnrry away the heat from th c cngjn cylin~f)./
providing a wulcr circululion urnund iL, thereby keeping the temperature at rca.11,0nabJya
safe level. · "
rl he water is pumped around the inner jackets of the engine cylin.tler by a pump. ~
hot water leaving Lhcjackct is cooled in cooling towers or spray P0nd8 orsorne othc1
devices and is recirculated again. · /4l
h) Governing system t!)'
---------
. The fu~~f this system is to_~c~pl the en inc speed at constant ~alue inespeciife
of the change m load on the plant. T ,s·could be done generally by varymg the arnount of
fuel supplied. to the engine, which in turn to be decided by the load.
2.6,2 Advantages of diesel power plant

J. Diesel power plants can ope.rate at higher thermal efficiency (43 to 45%) than
thermal plant (33 to 36'½J) .
.2. It can burn fairly wide range of-fuels.
3. Easy fuel handling and no problem of ash handling.
4. It has simple plant layout than other power plant. Therefore it is ea5Y to install
5. Diesel plant can be located very near to the load centres.
6. Plant can be started quickly and brought into service to pick up loads in a very
short time. The start up time from cold condition is ju~t 15 minutes.
7. Less or nomore standby losses.
8. Water required for cooling purpo~es is lesser than that of thermal plant.
' ' • f • ' • • '
9, Less space is required for same capacity than thennal plant.

10. Easy to operate and control and hence no skilled manpower is required.
11. Th~ efficiency at part loads does ~ot:ra11.so muph ~ that of a steam plant.
I o • I,• •
12. Itcanrespondtovaryingloadswithoutany,diffic:ulty. . ,·,' . · ·.·.- .

13. The ·jnjtial investment of installed capacity per kWh is less (Rs. 7500 tp ~000)
to co~pare ~ith other plant. '., . ,
' . ' . ' ) I
I
I I
,I' - ' .. I , I t ' f •

.. ,.
.::icannee1 wi tn (.;am.::icanner
-DIESEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS
2.6.3 Disadvantages of diesel power plant

2.27
1. Diesel oil cost is very high.

2. Plant doesnot work satisfactorily under continuous overload conditions.
3. Noise ~s a serious problem in diesel plant.
4. Lubrication cost and maintenance cost is very high.
5. ~ap~c;:ity of a plant is. limited to SOMW. .
6. Life is less (2 to 5 years) compared to steam plant (25 to 30 years).
2.6.4 Fiel~ of application of diesel power plants .

1. Because of their high thennal efficiency, diesel plants are most welqome in
industries where power requirement is smalL
2. They can be used as a peak load plant~ in combination with some other plants.
3. They are quite suitable for mobile power generation and are widely used in
i ' I - I t I
transportation systems_consisting ofrail roads, ships, auto~obiles and aeroplanes.

4. They can be used as stand by power pfants for other
. . .
plants under emergency
service.
5. ··Diesel po'Yer plants in(the range of2MW to 50MW capacity are used~ central
I 1, I
·· stations.
. .
6. Power cut in industries, now - a - days can over come only by installing diesel
generating sets. · · ·'
2.6.5 Types 9f diesel power 'plant
' .
• • I
Diesel power plants are ~lassified on thefoilowingways.

2.6.5.1 According to the construction
a) Stationary diesel power plant ,.
Class A:
Diesel- electric
.
generators for stationary powerpi~ts' generates,po\.~er continuously
at full name plate kW ~ting as the·sole source of electric power.
I
I.
· €lass B: · · · · ,'.
Diesel - ~lectric generators for stationary power plants g~nerates power on standby
basis for external periods of time where the months of continuous operation at full name
plate kW rating are anticipated.
'I
I.....
- ~ ~ - - - - ~ - ~ _ : , _ ~_ _ _..!:P;:OW!!.!:.'.ER.:..:.P_:;.LA_N_T_E...:...:N~GINEERIN
2
~28 ~
Class C:
Diesel- electtic oenemtors for stntionary power plants generates pdower on emergency
• t:, kW . ting where ays of contit1
basis for short periods of time at full name plntc ta Hot1s
operation are anticipated plate.
b) Packaged diesel power plant
Packaged power plants are a Containerized Diesel Power Plants (COPP) ~,at ut111ost
meet the requirement of our conswner where ever requ~ed. It is aJso cal led Skid Mounted
Packaged power plants.
.. There ~re two types of package~ ~~cl power plants are availaqle. They ~re
1. Fixed type (Without trailer)

2. Mobile type (With tmiler)
The rated power for mobile type is upto 2·MW. The fuel used is diesel oil or heavy
fuel oil. The radiators are·mostly used in its cooling system. · '
' i.
c) Barge mounted diesel power plant
By utilizing the applied technology of stationary
I
power plants in the ship building
field, a 2-stroke diesel engine with range upto 100 MW is used in the Barge Mounted
Diesel Power Plant (BMDPP). It uses Heavy fuel oil as-its major fuel.
d) ·Gas turbine·operated diesel power plant
• • ' I
The gas engine is a new, bigger recipn?cating engine. Gas engines use most natural
g~&es, witp ve·ry l~vv emissions an~.operates h~gh at ~y~r~ll efficiency. Moreove;, the
.. ' t - • ' • • • ~ • • • I I • ' I I . •I • .
te~hn9logy
. i,s remarkable compared with ~ny other engines.
. .
The gas engine's stylish
appearance, compactness and low noise makes it suitable for power plant ins~llation and
operation. '· ·
'rhe number of cylinder may vary from 7 to 12. CNG can be used as mono fuel or
dual fuel: In ~pnofue_l~Y~.t~~, ~. separate,s~arkplug pi~t. b~ pro:yide~.~? ignite the CNG 1
be~~use,the s~lfignitio.~te_m~e.~tu_re _of CNq i,s l:ii&~er th~ 9:i~~~l. In dua,l fy~l syst~m, t~e
diesel is mixed with CNG in mixing zone and then taken to the combustion~ cha~ber. The
- ' • ' ' • t •' I J ' • I . • • .. , , , • '
diesel is added to ignite .the air, fuel mixture. . . , . ,1 • I •
• ,.. • • I
' I I
I
I
~SEL, GAS T~RBINEA~D COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.29
2.6.5,2 According to stroke

1. Two stroke diesel power plant
2. Four stroke diesel power p1~nt
t. Two stroke diesel power plant
'
· It is used for large capacity with range up to I00 MW power generation.- It is much
lighter and compact and required less space. . . . . . - .
2! Four stroke diesef power plant' · _. - ·: ··
It is used for low and mode~at~ capacity power gene;ation. · It is heavier and l~fe.r
in size and requires more space. ·· .
j I 1'_. rl f I
2.6.5.3 A~cording to.spe~d .

I. Low speed diesel engine
l : ,. !- ' . ' ..•
2. ·Medium/High speed diesel engine
1
~.6.5.4 - According to cooling system

..
'.
'
1:. Water- to - water cooling diesel power plant·

IJ : I •
2. Water .; to - air cooling diesel power plant. ' f.

,: •
2.6.6 Selectio·n of engine type for diesel .power plant : .. , . · ·. •·· :

Selection of suitable engine
. is necessary for the efficient a~d economical.
. ope~tion. ~
:ofdiesel power plant. There are several factors that have to be considered in selecting a
inost suitable type ofengine for a specific application. These factors include power, speed,
.cooling system, ab~orinal environmental conditions, (dust, dirt etc.,) ·fu~I quality, speed
I I, • , '° f • • 4. • • ' • f •f 1 t I •
control, maintenance factors, control system~starting equipment, 'drive·type, ambient

, • I
·fompe'rature, altitude, humidity etc., The most dominant factors for selection ofan engine •
are power ahd speed.
Power requirement is detennined by the maximum load under which the plant has to
'oj,erate. Engine powe~ ra~g should be ·sele~ted in a such a way that it will be 10 - 20%
·more than the p'o'wer demand by the erid'use. This prevents overloading of machine by
absorbing·extra l6ad during motor starting or
switching ofsome·type~ ofligliting systems
or when wear•and tear on the equipment increases·up'tts power consumption. · ·
The second factor is the speed, which is usually measured at the output shaft and is
depends oi;i the l9ad. Nonnally, the engine will operate over a range of speeds between

.,
2.~~------=~-----_!:P~OW~E~R;..:.P.::LA..,;;.N_T_E_NG.....;IN..:.::E:.::.E:.!!!~
~30 ___
. hi
eater fuel efficiency. Engine
w h1ch an optimum speed could be selected to ac eve gr . s
• d t0 avoid poor efficiency It ·
should be run as close as possible to their rated spee · • IS
. . · d to incomplete combustion t
necessary to prevent the btuld up of engme deposits ue o
reduce maintenance and running costs.
Generator is directly coupled to the engine ,shaft, if a good speed match is o~tained.
If not, then some form of gearing will be necessary- a gear box ora belt sy5tem, which will
add to the cost and reduce the efficiency.
For continuous operation, low speed diesel engine is more cost effective than high
speed diesel engine. Slow speed diesel engine can be compared very favourably over
- l
medium speed diesel engine. ·
Slow speed dual foel engines are now available using high pressure gas (such CNG
and LPG) injection, which gives the same thennal efficiency and power output like a regular
fuel oil engine.
The following table shows the comparison ~etween slow speed and high speed
diesel engines.
- Slow Speed High Speed
Factor
diesel engine diesel engine
Brake mean effective pressure . Low High

Wear and tear consumption of spares Low High ' .
I
.
Space requirement ' More . Less
. . , Type of use Continuous Intennittent
Typical period between overhauls 8000 hrs 3200hrs
Operating cost ... Low . -
I•, High •
2. 7 COMPONENTS OF GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT

· Gas turbine is one of the oldest power generating device used for power production.
Gas turbine plants have been.used in remote place near oil and gas fields, on offshore
platforms and in gas-pipeline pumping stations. The gas turbine is the most satisfactory
power developing unit and is quite attractive due to its low capital cost, exceptional reliability,
operational flexibility, fuel flexibility and quick starting.
\
The gas turbine is preferred as a base load plant over other plants as major delays in
completion oflarge base load fossil and nuclear units.
ur in pni,.,.,., ... 'P
1. P rfo t tur in plnn ·
h nd uildinn
""'
L , w i ht and I initi._ Inn<l p , than t amp Wll r plant.
Plant con qui rt l (\ ithin minute ) und pi k up load nd hence
m tl TT d " p ak lo d plont.
4. P . r qunliti and wide nricly of fuel can be u ed.
p3ce is r quired.
2.7.2 Disadvantages of gas turbine power plant

1. Major part of the power produced is utilised to run the compressor.
2. Poor part load efficiency.
3. Special metals are needed for turbine blades as they are rotating at higher
speeds.
4. Operating temperature is too high service conditions becomes complicated even
at moderate pressure.
2.7.3 Ap,plications of gas turbine power plant

I. They can be used as peak load planks.
2. They also work satisfactorily in combination with steam power plants.
3. It can be used as base load plants in countries where oil or nahrral gas are cheap
and easily available and water scarcity is present.
2.7.4 Layout of gas turbine plant
The gas turbine is one of the oldest power generating device used for power
production. The gas turbine plants have been used in remote oil and gas fields, on offshore
P~tfonns and in gas-pipeline pumpjng stations.
· · The gas turbine is preferred as a base load plant over other plants as major delays in
completion-oflarge bas·e load fossil and nuclear units.
' ,
' '

L.~~---_
~32 __..:...:,_:__:__ _ _ __:.:·,~PO~W~E::::,R.:..:.P,...:;;L.A;....N_T_E_N_G_IN..:::E:.::::..:.:.E~G
--
2.7 .4.1 \Vorking principle of gas turbine power plant
Air filter
To power
pressure pressure transmission
compressor compressor tower
Water Water
Out · In Combustion chamber
Figure 2.9: Layout of Gas turbine power plant

The figure 2. 9 illustrates the arrangement details of a gas turbine power plant with
two compressors and two turbines.
Armospherjc air is drawn into the low pres~ure compr~ss~r through air filter and
1•
gets ~ompressed to an intennediate pressure range and then it is further compressed in a

high pressure compressor.
The intercooler is placed in between two compressors to reduce the heat added
during the compression oflow pressure compressor. The high pressure hot air then enters
(through the reg~nerator) into the combustion chamber.
0
. , ,In the combustion chamber fuel is added with this hot air and combustion takes
, I 1 • • , • I • I ~ ! 1 • I
place. The product of the hot gases is allowed to expand in low pressure turbine and then
into high pressure turbine. On its way to low pressure turbine, Further beat is added in the
combustion chamber placed between the low pressure and high pressure turbine.
· The exhaust oflow pressure turbine is expelled out into the atmosphere after passing
through the regenerator. '· · · · · ·
The exhaust gas c~ l9t ofh~at ~d it can be given to the~ coming out of the high,
pressure compressor. The mesQanical work ~Y?µ_<l;ble _at.the tm;qipe 9utp~·t_is converted
into electrical power by coupling a generator with the turbine.
i:)canned. w1tn c..;ami:)canner

0§_...::-SE_L:..-,G_A_ST_U_R_B_IN_E_AN_D......:C:..:O:.:.::M:.=.Bl:.:..:N!::!ED~C:.!Y~C~LE:_.!:P~O~W~ER~P!::LA~~NT~S~-----:~2::::.3~3
2.7.4,2 Essential components of a gas.turbine power pla_nt

The main components and their functions ofa gas turbine plant are given below.
1. Air compressor
Compressor, normally, axial flow and centrifugal flow compressor are used to
compress the air to a high pressure ratio. The major percentage of power developed
(66%) is used to drive the compressor ~nd hence it is advisable to compress the air in two ·
stages by using two compressors namely high pressure and low pressure compressors.
' I . I I
2. Jntercooler
Intercoolers are used where two or more compression stages are made to achieve
very high pressure ratio. The purpose ofintercooler is to reduce the temperature of air
entering into the high pressure compressor tl1eoretically at constant pressure and thereby
reducing the work of compressor.
3. 1Regenerator - I• .. -
I I
Regenerator is used to preheat the air entering into the combustion by transferring ,
the heat from the exhaust to the compressed air. This reduces the fuel consumption and
increases tl1e efficiency of the plant. Regenerators must withstand rapid large temperature
changes and must have low pressure drop.
4. Combustion chamber
Hot air from regenerator enters into the combustion chamber where fuel like coal,
natural gas or kerosene is injected for chemical reaction. The fuel burns into the combustion
chamber with hot air and the products of combustion leaves it relatively at high
temperature.
S. Gas turbine
Two turbines namely high pressure and low pressure turbine are used to develop
mechanical work. The products ofcombustion are expanded first in high pressure ~ine
and then in low pressure turbine. The mechanical work so developed is then con·verted
into electrical power·by a generator unit. More turbine stages are preferre'd to ·reduce the
stresses on the turbine blades thus increasing the overall life ofthe plant.
I.
~canned. w1tn uam~c nner

~2.34~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..!:P~OW!!!:!ER.:.,:P...=.LA:..,;.N_T_E_N_G..;_:IN:.::::EE~~
Additional combustion chamber (reheater) is used in between the turbines to improve

the efficiency of the plant. These gas turbine cycles may be open or closed syS tems. The
products of combustion is expelled out to atmosphere in open cycles ~ shown here. In
closed cycles, the products of combustion is recirculated after cooled mth e cooler (heat
exchanger).
2.7 .s G~s turbine fuels

• Gas turbines are normally designed to wor~ with the use of various petroleum.
based fuels like natural gas, blend gas, kerosene, aviation fuel and residual oil, and other
fuels like pulverised coal, blast furnace gas etc. Fuels is used for Gas turbines are as
follows:
'
i) Natural gas
Natural gas is the ideal fuel for gas turbine, but it is not available everywhere. Its
composition includes a major portion of methane and a small portion of ethane, propane
and buta~e. The sulphur Cl½S) component is kept below 0.1 % volume otherwise, the
blades get affected.
ii) Liquid fuels
The liquid fuel such as residual fuels, furnace oils, boiler fuel oil etc are considered.
Cost is the main factor in selectioning the liquid fuel and the cheapest fuel can be always
preferred.
The fuel having boiling point in between 200°C to 300°C can be'tised without much
difficulty. The liquid fuel must have low·sulphurcontent and vanadium compounds to avoid
I
blade corrosion.
,_
iii) Solid fuel
The coal or powdered coal can be used as fuel for gas turbine power plant. The
coal is burnt by either iµtegrated g~ification method or fluidized bed combustion method
Most of combhled cycle power plant employs ;coal as a fuel for gas'tutbines:
2.7.6 Gas turbine 'plani:'.mat~rials', ·:· II ' , ' ·, • •
1
·' ·' -'1.I ' I
The performance of any device is.affected by the'fype ~fmaterial:!fence, material

selection is an: important criteria.for t4e efficient,~ction ofthe eq\lipJP:eµ~~,
I_· , : _. I •
.scanned. w1 tn c.,;am.sca:nner
~
In this way, the important compon~nt of a gas turbine power plant the gas turbine
which is made with some kind ofspecial materials with necessary cooling arrangements
because they are subjected to high temperature, high stresses and chemical attack.
-St.No. Components
Failure occurs Material selected to
due to reason reduce failure
- 1. Turbine rotor disc Disc subject to centrifugal For outer surface, austenitic
force and thermal-stress steel with 12 to 18%
which tend to cause Chromium, 8 to 12%Nickel,
I
expansion & very small pe,~entages·~f

tungsten, molybdenum and
Titanium. At central portion
of the disc, Ferrite steel with
high creep strength is used.
2. Turbine rotor blade Blades ar~ subjected to Stainless steel & Nimonic
high stresses and alloys (8-20% Nickel
temperature and oxidation. Chromium alloys) . .
Scaling, creep, fatigue A uniform coating with
and defoanation Silicon Carbide, Silicon
Nitride, Aluminium Nitride
on Nimonic alloy.
3. Combustion High thermal shoe~ Nimonic 7~ alloy. ·

chamber Creep and Oxidation
4. Compressor Centrifugal and thermal Aluminium · alloy for

stress centrifugal compressor and
Titanium alloy for axial flow
compressor. -
, ''
The blade material must bav~ the following prop~rti~ ... I •
l. It must with stand high temperatur~, be~vy ~ermfll shock and lµgh stress.
• • .. I • • • ,.. • •
1
2. It pl~t b~y~ ,low ci:e_ep rat~~~ high resistance t(? fatigue.failure.
3. It must have high resistancefo·oxidation, corrosion and·erosion.
4. It must have high machinability and structural and manufacturing stability.
....
=.:.2-~36~_.:,_-----:.-~--~..:.-~~PO::'..!W~E::..:R:.:.P~LA_N_T_EN_G....;,;IN:..:.:E~~
2,7 ·7 Types of gas turbine power plants

Gas turbine power plant be either open cycl~ or closed cycle. In open cycle, the
products of combustion after expanding in the gas turbine, is let ou~ to the atmo~phere. Jn
case of closed cycle~ the gas~s after expanded in the turbine is contmuouSly recLrculated.
2.7.7.1 Open Cycle G~as turpine power plant
In open cycle gas turb~ne plant, the fuel is burned ~.side th~mbus~on chamber by
the high pressure air coming from the air compressor. Then the combuSbon products are
sent to the turbine to develop work. The gases leaving the turbine are exhausted to
atmosphere. Schematic arrangement of open cycle gas turbine power plant is shown in
figure2. l0.
CombusUon
Chamber Generator
Air In Exhaust to
atmosphere
Figure 2.10: Open Cycle Gas turbine poiver plant
The turbine should develop more gross output than tbe power required to drive the
compressor. The products of combustion coming out of the turbine are exhausted to
atmosphere. They can,not ~e.used any more. Sp there is .a continuous demand of fuel as
they are exhausted into tJ:le atiposphere.
T
\
~
\
\ Pi
\
4' '
..____________.s
Figure 2.11: T-s diagram of open cycle ·
---
01esEL.'GAS TURBINEAND COMBINED CYCLE p
1 • 2' - ln-cversible ndinbntic compressfon

-
2,. 3 - Constnntpres urc hcnt ndditi n

3 _41 - Irreversible ndinbntic expnnsion •
1 _2 - Idenl i entropic compression
3 _4 - Idenl iscntropic expansion.
Work hiputofthe compressor (we) - mCP (T. ' - i 1 • I I
Hentsupplicd (Q 1) - mCP.(T~ - 1'~') • J

I •
Work out of the turbine wT = mC1 (TJ - T.•'

WT - \Vo
ll1h0mu1I =
mC 11 ( T3 - T~ )- mC" (T; - Tj) :_

mCP (T -T~)
3
1.
(T-T~) - (r; - r,)

3
.= .,
11nclun1 thtnnnl
(r/_.:r;)
.
' '
h
I • •
.. Isentropic efficiency of tl1e compre~sor h\, I •

I '' . • I I •I• I ---
' ,. 1 '1 I I 111
•·· ' ' ' Isentropic work in'put ' , ,· ' .' • ·· 21 I ' I'. I
Actual work input

~'>
·. " I
-- ,
I I • I . . '.
' / ,, I t ,· ' I I 1' ,·_ I '
I
' I
I
I '
, I
I
I
I
h, .,:- - 1
· mCP (T2 -T,)
L...:.._.:.:..---.------.s
= mCP (T~ -T,J
'Tlisen -
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~
l .~'.._--------~--_!p~O~W:=:ER~P_LA_N_T_E_NG--.:..:.::INEERi.,,
~38
Turbine iscntropic cfliciency h

3
Actual work output h3 -- \
\
Jsenlropic work output \
\
\
\
\
\
h'4
''
, , mer ( T3 -T~) h4
o I •
mCr (T3 -T4 )
I I I I
2.7.7.2 Closed Cycle Gas turbine power plant

t~ . a,
Combustion Generator
Chamber
.
Cooler · 4
1
Cf
ci\l"
Figure 2.1~: Closed Cycle Gas turbine power plant
The figure 2.12 sho~s the gas turbine operatµig on closed cycle. The various
operations are as follows: • I • . I
l - 2 - Isentropic compression
2 - 3 - Constanrpressure heat addition
I '
3 - 4 - Isentropic expruisi.on . ·· ·
4 - 1 .- Constant pressure heat rejection.
oll:SEL,·GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.39
;;.---
{sentropic compression (Process 1 _2)
Toe air is comp~essed by isentropic process. So, pressure of an ideal gas increases
froIJl p 1 to P2 and hence temperature also increases from T 1 to T 2.
constant pressure heat addition (Process 2 _3)
The heat i~ added by burning the fuel in combustion chamber at constant pressure
(p 2 · == p3) an~ hence the volume is increased from v2 to v3. The temperature also increases ·,
froIIl Tz to T3 . .
The temperature T3 is the peak temperature of the cycle. The heat addition is
roathematically, equal to Q 1 = mCP (T 3 - T2).
Jsentropic expansion (Process 3 - 4)
The isentropic expansion is carried out in the turbine to produce work output.
Then the pressure .is reduced from p3 to p4 (p 2 to p 1) and hence temperature also falls
from T3 to T4•
Constant pressure heat rejection (Process 4 - 1)
The h~at is rejected from the system to reduce the volume from v 4 to v 1 and the
temperature also reduced from T4 to T 1•
The h~atrejection is equal to Q2 == mCP (T4 -T 1).
I
11 air s tan dard
Heat supplied (Q 1) .. m.<;:p _(T 3 -T2)

Heat rejected (Q2) = mC,p (T4 -T)1
mCP (T3 -Ti)-mCP (T4 -T1)

11air =
mCP (T3 -T2 )
l , ,. • .. I I '
t • \ I I • 1 1 '" • • • I
(T3-T2)-(T4-T1) .·
,Cr3.-T2) I
t •• •
• l
::::2·..:.:40~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..:P...:::O~W:.:::E~R_PLA_N_T_E...;,.NG.::.:l:..:!:NEERIN
~
2·7 .8 Improvement of Thermal Efficiency of gas turbine pow,er Plant
The thermal efficiency of the gas turbine is increased by th proces of reheating 1
regeneration and intercooling.

2.7.8.1 Effect of Reheating
The thermal efficiency of gas turbine po\ er plant nn incn::n d by xpanding the
gases in two stages with a rchcater in between H.P and L.P turbine. In order to increase
the overall thennal efficiency of the plant th rchc.-at r Lu t: I. (Fii:!UJ -· l )
Herc U1c H.P turbine i u c<l t driv th mpr ncl th L. P turbine i u cd lo
provide useful power output. TI 1 rmn turbin •p w r plnnt with rchcutcris
shown in figure ond the com pond in · i __ n in fi mc 2. l4.
1
6' ' Exhaust

1 Air In
Ji':igure 2.13: .Gas turbine power plant with reheater
.,~ihere 1 --- ' - irreversible adiabatic compression

2' - 3 - Combustionohamber(C.C1)heatingatconstantpressure
3 - 4' - High pressure (I-LP) turbine expansion
4' - 5 - Combustion chamber(C.C2) heating (reheat) at constant pressure
5 - 6' - ,Low,pressure(L..P}turbineexpansion
_....
.::>cannee1 wi tn (.;am.::icanner
01esEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2A1,
;:;.;.---
T
Figure 2.14: T-s diagram
The line4' -A: represent the expansion in the L.Pturbine if reheating is not employed.
By neglecting the mechanical losses,
The work output ofH.P turbine = work input required for the compressor
Cpg(T3 -T4') = Cp/T2'-T 1) '
Cpa = Specific heat of air and C_pg = Specific heat of gas at constartt pressure.
Toe work outputofL.P rurbine is given by,
Net work output (with reheating) = Cpg (T 5 - T6') T
Net work output (without rehe~ting) = Cpg (T 4' - TA')

From the area ofT-s di agram, we know that reheating increases the net work output.
2-.7.8.2 Effect of Regeneration
ExHaust '{-/ Heat
6 - exc~anger
, I 6'
--
3
2' 5'
c.c
4 . -.
• ,. - ' f ,.. • e • • •
Gas
turbine
1
Air ih
Figure 2.15: Effect of Regeneration
~cannea. w1 tn cam~cariner
Z.~:___ _ _ _ _ _ ___:.._ __:_~PO~W:.;.:E;;..R_P_LA_N_T_EN_G-..:.:INEERl~ 1
~42 ~
. t of heat as their temperature i
The exhaust gases from a gas turbine carry 1O b s far
t fthe exhaust gases can e giv
above the ambient temperature. Therefore, the hea O · lied. th en to
the air coming out ofcompressor thereby reducing the mass offoel supp . m e c~mbllstion
d ·ts corresponding T-S d1agra .
chamber. The gas turbine plant with regetterator an 1 Ill ts
shown in figure 2.15 and 2.16 respectively.
T
4 ·
L __ _ _ ____::.,___ _ _ _ _ _ _..,
. . s
Figure 2.16: T-s diagram
wher 1 - 2' - Irreversible adiabatic compression

Heat addition in beat exchanger
- 4 - Heat addition in combustion chamber
I ' • 4 - S' - Irreversible adiabatic expansion (fu , .·, ·. .·..· ·
5' • 6 • Heat rejection in heat exchaiJger } ~ - . . :: . ,' . , ..:::
It is theoretically possible to raise the temperature of the compressed air com4tg out
the compressor from T2' to T3 = T6, but this is not possible in actual case because a
temperature gradient must exist for an unassisted transfer of energy. .
With the use of regenerator in the circuit,' there·is.no.change in die compressor .and
I
turbine work but the quantity of fuel supplied is su~s~tially requG~4 ~ -!}l~.temperature of
the air entering the combustion chamber is increased. Therefore the thennal efficiency of
the regenerative cycle is higher than the simple cycle.
I -~ • , • . I • • • • r I' "' . ,.I
_ Work of expansion ·..:. ·work of corhpressidn · '

11 tbermn1 - H .
eat supplied
i:Scanned. Wl th c..;ami:Scanner
D,esEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CY
;.,--- CLE POWER PLANTS 2.43
= Cpn ( T4 -T~ )- Cpn ( T~ -T1)

cpn (r4 - r~)
= (T4 ~ T~ )- (r; ~ T,)
( T4 _ T~) [by assuming Cpa = Cpg]
. '
where T2' is a temperature which is little bit less than T · this is because ofinefficiency and
3
high capital cost required for the heat exchanger. '
2.7.8.3 Effect oflntercooling

lntercooler Fuel(Heat)
Combustion
chamber
Low High
pressure ' Turbine ·
compressor
6' Exhaust '

1 Air In
Figure 2.17:. Effect of lntercooling

.
A compressor in a gas turbine cycle utilises a major percentage of power-developed
(66%) by the turbine. The power required to run the compressor can be reduced by
compressing the air in two stages by providing an intercooler between trus two stages as
shown in figure 2.17. The corresponding T - S diagram is shown in figure 2.18.
I .
The ideal cycle for this arrangement is 1-2-3-4-5-6, the compression process without
intercooling is 1-A' in the ac~~ case, and 1-A ~ ~e ide~l ise~tr~pic ~~~-.
· Workinput(withint,ercooling) = CpCTz' -T 1) + C/T4' -T3) · , .. ,·

, I •
' . =' .C(T

p ·A'-T)
' 1 l' :•. · . ,I •
Workinput(withoutin~rcooling) = C/T2'. -T, 1) ~ CpCTA' -T2')

'.
~cannea. w1 tn cam~ca:hner
~44 ~
L-~:__------~-----~PO:::.;WE~R_P-:-LANT_1_EN_G_;INE..::::: ,
Figure 2.18: T-s d~dram
where
1 - 2' - Lo,, pressure compression
2' - 3 -: · Intercooling
-- · 3·-· 4' ' - High-pressure compression
4' - 5 - Combustionchamberheating
5 - 6' - Turb_ine expansion
By comparing the above equations we see that work input of intercooling is less
than the" ork input "~th no intercooling i.e. c;, (T~ - T) is less than c; (T~ - T)
From the T-S diagram, Since the pressure line diverges from left to right, therefore,
\,,,,ork' Raho
. Network output
= ------'--
Gross work output
= \Vork of expansion- Work of compression
Work of expansion
\Vhen the compressor work input is re-0uced then the work ratio is increased.
= c;, (T5 - T./)
Heat supplied (,yith intercooling)
Heatsupplied(withoutfutercooling) = r'-'P CT--T
:) A')
By comparing the above equations heat supplied with intercooling is greater thnD
without intercooling)hence supply of cooling ,vater should be readily a, ailable when
intercooling is used
....
2A5
Th rnrnl dflk:lency == W__0 of oxpunulon - work of compression

Hcut input
11rolll l11J11 wu 111ay co,wludo thnl ulll1uugh lhc net work output i!) incrcHsc<l by
1111or •ool111g. HIH found In ~"numl Ihut llm hicrcu o 111 heat lo be, trnpplicd causes the thermal
ofJlol 11cy lo dccro11Hll bul lhc,·c lu u1111dvu11tugc, guincd by increasing the work ratio.
2,8 COMBINED POWER GENERATION

r: ono1·111lng maximum cu1,uclly wllh uvnilublc funds ut chamber rate is the ultimate
ol'nullon to improve tho economy of'counlry. However, it is not possible to utilize the
11 1,11
poworpl11nlt1 lo nmuxin um pmmlblc ox1c11t, lf'opcrtttc<l individually. ln this case, combined

powor cyulo8, coul.d bocomo un nltomutivo to c.:onvontional plants with an additional
11 dvn11lugo of reduced c111i1mlo11 ofhcut I the 11111108phcrc and reduced requirements of
cooling w11ler.
/\ combined power cyclo is II eombinntion of (Gas turbine plant+ Steam turbine
plnnt) powor cyclos operating i11dcpcncJcntly al different temperature. Aficr generating
power, llw hcut rojcctcd by the high temperature cycle is recovered and utilized by the low
1ompomturn cycle to gcncrnto power. This improves the overall efficiency ofthe plant.
Tho urmngomcnt of various combined cycle power plants can be vary with respect to the
nppllcntions.
I
2.8,1 Working principle of combined cycle power generation

Exhouot lo stack
Fuol Waste heal

recovery boiler
Combuotlon
chumbor
· Nr filtor
Atmoaphorlc
Alr In
Feed water
heater
Figure 2.19: General arrangement of combined gas
turbi11e-steam tr1.rbine power plant

r. 2 ..4•~6~ _ _ _ _ _ __'..,__ _ _ _..!.P~OW.:.,:.:E:::.R~P_u\_N_T_EN_G...:.:.;INEERIN
- ~
. ,
Th e arrangement of combmed · t turbine power plant is sho .
gas turbines eam · Wn 1n
figure 2.19.
1n this system, the low grade heat of the exhaust gases available at gas turbine exit is
recovered and utilized to heat the feeq water to generate steam. The steam generated is
used in the st'eam turbine forpower generation.
A simple gas turbine cycle consisting of air co~pressor, combustion chamber and a
gas turbine,with electric generator. The exhaust gas from gas turbine is here passed to a
waste heat recovery boiler to generate steam.
This steam is then used in a standard steam power cycle consisting of condenser,
pumps, heaters and a steam turbine with a generator to generate adilitional power.
Therefore increasing the overall efficiency of the plant is increased to 40-45%. The
gas leaving the waste heat recovery boiler is exhaust to atmosphere through stack, while
the steam from l11rbine is condensed and recirculated. The waste heat recovery boiler unit
consists of economiser, boiler, steam dn~n, and super heater.
2.8.2 Advantages of combined cycle power generation
l. Higher them1al efficiency (40-45%) than individual power plants.
2. In the event of power failure at one plant, operation can be continued by feeding
the other plants thereby avoiding complete shutdown.
3. It is more suitable for rapid start and shutdo:wn than steam plant.
4. For the same output, less cooling water is required.
5. It offers self-sustaining feature.
6. Operation is simple as they are fully automised.
7. It offers more flexibility in operation due to multiple units.
8. It gives high ratio of output power to occupied ground space.
9. It operates at less smoke and hence eco-friendly.
10. Less downtime for maint~nance.

01ESEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.47
~
2.s.3 Combine cycle power generation

Improvement in national economy ofa country could be achieved by generating the
[J11Wll1U111 amount of electrical energy at the cheapest rate possible. It is also desirable to
utilize the generated power in an optimum way, because th·e initial investment is quite high
in power sectors.
To do so, several conventional power plant systems are interconnected with either
conventional/ non-conventional power plants, so that the combined system may work
together to meet the consumer demand economically and optimally.
The following are the advantages ofcombined cycles than individual power plant.
1. Maximum utiljsation is possible than they operated on individual.
2. Complete shut down ofplant could be avoided in case,offailure ofone of
I•
the station.
3. Overall cost ofsupply ofelectrical energy is less.
4. It reduced
. the installation capacity and hence the initial investment is also
.
~~ .
5. It offers self-sustaining feature.

t 6. Space requirement is less for the same output.
t
. ,· .
2.8.4 ,Combined gas turbine ·and diesel power plant
The perfol'mance of a diesel power plant can be improved by interconnecting an
exha~t driven gas turbine with. it.
This interconnection can be any one of the following arrangements.
I . Turbo charging or super changing
.
2. Gas generator
3. Compound
. . . engine.
.
I. Turbo Charging . •• J.
The figure 2.20 shows the arrangement of turbo-changing _or superheating

interconnected system. In this system, the gas turbine is directly coupled to the compressor
and the load is connected with the diesel engine shaft.

~2-~4S~_ _ _ __;__:.:___:___.:....:___ __:.._ _.!:::P0~
· W::;:E:::,:.R~P~LA_N_T_E_N_G_IN.:.::E:.:::.~
_. Power Output
After Cooler Diesel Engine
·rurbine
Air in Exhaust
Figure 2.20: Turbo Charging
The exhaust gas from the diesel engine is allowed to expand in the gas turbine. The
work output due to this expansion is utilised to drive a compressor. The work output of the
gas turb.irie is just sufficient to run the compressor.
V""
2. Gas generator.· ·
Air
Power+-
Output
I I
I I
I
.. .I I
I I
After Cooler
, I • • . . , I . •• I I
, I I
, Exhaust Gases I I
Diesel Engine
- ' 1.
Figure 2.21:Gas generator
• I ' I I I
' • I • J •
', The figure 2•.21 shows the schematic arrangement of gas-generator interconnecting
system. In this systeril; the-c·otnpressor is driveil,by.couplingthe diesel ·engine shaft with it
through some suitable dtive.: ·,. . · <· , ~ .. 1 1·: • . , •· . . •.• - • , _. . . , • . 1• • • , • •
I '
0
J 4 ,
1
, • ; I t ,"' . - ~~ I\ l I , , , • 1 t • t :
Thus a part of the output deyeloped by the diesel engine is consumed by the
I J t 0
compressor. The exliaust of diesel engine is expanded in gas turbuie:

' • \ , I 1& ' • l •, • • ' '
i::icannect. w1 tn tJami::icanner
01esEL, GASTURBINEAND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.49
~
3. co01pound engine
Exhaust Gases
!.
,,
I
r ' ' I
I
After Cooler
.____.,,...___. ',
I
I
.
Power._.. // Diesel Engine

Output
/,.
Figu~ 2.2~: Compound engine ·
The figure 2.22 shows the arrangement of a compound engine system which
combines both turbo char~g and gas-generator system. In this system, the power required
to run the compressor is supp.ffed by both diesel engine and gas turbine through some
suitable drive and the load is connected with the diesel engine shaft.
2. 9 INTEGRATED GASIFIER BASED

. . COMBINED CYCLE SYSTEM
I •
The ICGCC technology integrates the production of purified gas and the
production of electricity, The integrated coal gasification combined cycle power plant
is the latest pollution free technology which uses coal as primary•fuel.. The coal gas
prepared according to the speciation of gasifier. The plant is called integrated because
th~.SY1:}thetic gas prod!,lced i~ use~ a~_fuel ~ a ~as turbin~_whi~h produces electrical
power. The technology ~t~¥I'ates ~e,p1ro~~cti~n ofpuri.fted gas anµ the production of
electricity.
'
0
""
en
Coal
B Gasifier i Synthetic gas •I Gas aean up I •f G}psum Reco,.-ery

Booker:
CoaJ
gaslfylng
Syngas I IHigh lemperature
Filter gas filter
Product
gas
Grid
agent
alr in
ash I i: I Cs
oollecto~
~ltrogen
Heal Recovery
Steam Generator
tr.
(')
p.)
~
~
ltfJ Alr
compressor
t.'akeuo' gas from gasifier
-0
0
:E
m
::0
(t) -0
p Air . Ci Water ~
~
- separa~pn · in z
....
c-t
unit --i
m
P' z G)
C
p.)
z
m
s
tr.
(')
Figure 2.28: Integrated Gasifierba.sed combined cy•cle
z
m
::0
c.,
p.) ~
~~
~
(t)
1-;1
-
01esEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.51
~
The integrated coal gasification combined cycle power plant has following two
units- .
O Coal gasification Unit
it) Combined c~cle_powerplarit ..·· ... _ ..
' ·• \. .• _- 'I
Coal is gasified in the gasifier and it is the primary p.iel of th~ IGGCC power
plant.
The main elements of the gasifier units are
O Bunker
. .,
iQ Sluny tank
., I •
iii) Gasifier I • I
iv) Filter ·'

!_
'
I
. . '
v) Air separation unit :I .

I
.. /
vi) Compressor (additional support) I !I 1
The main elements of combined cycle are
0 Compressor
it) Combustor
• I
• ' j
' ..
iit) Gas turbine
' I '
iv) Heat recovery steam generator

v) Steam turbine
( '
The coal is. dispatched to the b~er and·it is·pulve·rised the wet mill and then m:
it reaches the sl~-tank. From the slurry tank, the gasification agent is ~dded after
that it reaches the gasifier. Air, oxygen, nitrogen and .steam are supplied and the coal is
gasified at 1200° C to 1500° Cat '
a r>ressure of 30 bar to 80 bar.' · '
,:._ i :. ~ ' - ,·· - · -· - ... - - .. . - .. ·- ~ -' -·
The coal is not burned directly 1b:ut undergoes a reaction with oxygen and steam.
The resultaµt gijs'~produced in the 'ga~ilier-'i~:a syntqetic ~~~'~d the S¥1!~etic gas has a
compositio)l of40 to 50% CO and;hyfkogen mixtw:e. Th~;sxntheti~ gas is-sena through
filter and cl~~µ~~! for cleaning ~d desulph'urising; flien to co,moti~tor of the gas
turbine. ·····':· ~,l - •... . - .. - - - . / •
... ' _.
l "' -- - ..._ • J - - ' ·- - - .

,.. .., • • •
' ·: '
,. ,f ,.. - • - - 1 · .: ' •
,' • , I J"

::.:.2-~52:.__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~PO:::,:W~E~R~P_LA_N_T_E_N_G....:..IN~E~
Char is the solid material that remains after purifying th e coal gas, which is
driven out in the high temperat11re filter unit. The waste and ash are expelled froin the
gasifier unit.
Once the cle~ned product gas reaches the ~ombustor, where it is burnt and hot
flue gas are expanded in·the tttrbine t~ drive the genera'tor to turn out electricity. After
expansion,'the flue gases fro'm the gas turbine rea~hes the heat recovery steam generator
1
i~
(HRSG) where the flue g~s get ~ooled and generates steam. This steam generated
in this cycle drives the st~~m turbine tQ generate electricy. The power is produced in
the gas turbine as well ~s r,team generator.
Advantages of ICGCC power pl~~t
0 The biggest a~v·antage of the IGCC is its capabilityto use a wide range of
coals and other fuels such as biomass or municipal waste has been used.
ii) Ash forms as slag in the gasifier and it easy for disposal than fly ash from
oal fi_red power plants;
iiQ The dilution by using Nitrogen in the gas turbine combustor reduces the
• ' j •
fonnation ofNOx.' .,
iv) The filtration and cleaning of the Synthetic gas from the gasifier take away
most ofthe emissions like sulphur dioxide.
, I
v) IGCC suitable on~y for base load operation.

vi) The overall efficiency is high.
,_
vii) Eco friendly
Disadvantages of I~GCC power plant .
The start up times of IGCC will,be' mor~ th~n pulv~rized coal fired power
plant due to the large number of sub syste~s.
ii) The ICGCC power plant contains more components. It increases the
maintenance costs and outage times. :·,
i
' ..
' 'f, •
~canne<1 w1tn cam~cafiner

DIESEL,' GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.53
~
soLVED PROBLEMS
E:ounplc 1:
An engine working on the Otto cycle h~s 11 comprcss~on ratio 8.5:1. The
tcmpernture nnd the pressure _nt the beginning .of compression is 93°C and
o.93 bnr rcspccth•cly. The maximum prcsssurc in the cY.cle i~ 38 )?~r. D~termine
the pressure nnd temperature at nil the points of the cycle, air standard efficiency
and mean effcctive pressure.
Given:
rk = 8.5 = Vi/V 2 Adi11b11tic pro~c_ss,
3 (PVY=C)
T1= 93°c p
= 93 + 273 = 366 K
P1 = 0.93 bar
- 0.93 x 100 = 93 KPa
1 Q2
p3 = 38 bar= 38 x 100 = 3800 KPa
I ' ' '
Toji11d:
i) p and Tat all points of the cycle.
--♦
· y ''
h) Air standard efficiency.
fu) Mean effective pressure.
. ! ..
Process 1-2 (Adiabatic compression) l I ., I \ , ,
I I •
.. . .. .
I >
P2 = (8.5)1.4 X 93, .·
p2 = 1860.67 K.Pa . I '
,T., (P2Jy;I I ' . _: ', . : . · .,,,, • '.
T~ = Pt ,.,:,_·_: ,'.( ·.,,·,.,· .•.· ·-'•'•' .

0.4
1860.67]1.4
T2 = 366 X (
93
T2 = 861.487 K

2.54
Process 2-3 (Co11sta11t ViJ/ume /writ r11/1/Ulot1)
= 3SOO X 861.487
T3 1860.67
T3 = l 759.393 K
Process 3-4 (Adiabatic e.Y:pam,io11)
P3V3Y= P,1V.1Y
p = (VJ ]y x p
" V, l
=[ - l ]'"' X 3800
8..5
P4 = 189.932 KPa
'
Process 4-1 (Co11sta11t vol11111e heat rejectio11)
I I
. \ .
T4 = 189.932 X 366 .
93
T 4 = 747.474 K
.'
', I l
P1 = 0.93 bar T1 = 36~ K

P3 = 38 bar T4 = 747.74 K
••
-
•
.. .
• '
I' • .' • I '

2.55
D1esEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS
:;:.;---
Qi= mCv(T4 -T 1)
Q1 = 0.718 (1759.17 -861.53)

Q1 = 644.56 KJ/Kg
Q2 = 0.718 (747.74-366)
Q 2= 273.898 KJ/Kg
644.697-273.898 X lOO
llnir = 644.697
llnir = 57 .52 %
C!,eck:
1
llnlr = 1 - ( Ti.: y,- 1
llnir = 57.51 %
= 1- l
(s.sy-4-1
1111.ir = 57.52%
Work done/ cycle _ Q, - Q2

Pm= Stroke volunie · · .- · V1·-V1.·
P1V1 = mRT1
mRTI _ 0.287x366 = l.l 29 m3/kg
=)Vi=
P1 93
.
I • • • o,
' '
. \,2 =·o.ijlm3/ kg~ .
644·_·697-~~ 3-898 ~ -·; ·~~~288 kPa
Pm = 1.129-0.133 .
• I' • ..,.,,.

=.2.5:::.::::6'...___ _ _ _ _~------!,...:PO:..:.W~·E:.:-R_P_LA_N_T_EN:..:...::.:.GINEE~
~
An nk-stnudnrd diesel cycle hns u compression ratio of 18, ao d th e heat transfcrr

to th e working fluid per cycle is 1800 kJ/lcg. At the beginning of th e compres81:
st roke, the pressure is lbnr and the tcm1Jcrature is 300• • K. Calculate i) Press· Uten
and temperature at each point in the cycle, 11) Thermal efficien
...) .M ean effective pressure. (AU-May/June ~014) (AU-Nov/Dec 2003, 20JJ)'
lU
cy
Given:
fk = 18
p
Q1 :.: 1800 kJ/kg
T 1 =300K
P1 = lbar = 100 kPa
1
Solution:
Process 1-2 (Adiabatic ~ontpression)
---+V
v, = RT, = 0.28} x 300
P, 100
V1 = 0.861 mJ/kg
[
••
. r.·
k- V.1]
--
V2
IP = 5719.809 kPa I
2
i, =(~~r
[..• ,.111 -- Yi_]
V 2

2.57
Ol~sEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS
~ .
0.861
fk=--
V2 .
V2= 0.04783 m3 /kg
proCess 2-3 (Consiant pressure heat addition) ·

G1 = mCp (T3 -T2)
1800 = 1.005 (T3 -953.302)
I T3 = 2744.347 KI
V3 _ 2744.347
0.0478 953.302
V 3= 0.1376 m3/kg
I P2 =PJ =5719 . ~09 hl>~ I

'
Process 3-4 (Adiµ_ba(ic ,expansion)
•' I
T4 = ( V3 Jr-i_
•T3 V4
. M '
T4 -( O. l376J [..• V
, .4 =•V, .•I ]
2744.347
.. . - 0:861
IT4 =1317.908KI
• I
I
? ~~---_:-~-..:..-~_!__-_:_~PO~W~E:::.R~P-LA_N_T_E_N_Gl-.;.::,NEERIN
~58 ~
Q2
n=l-Q,
Q1= mCr (T3 -T2)
Q1 = 1800 kJ/kg
Q2 = mCv(T4-T1)
= 0.718 (1317.908- ,300)
Q2 = 730.858 kJ/kg
·730.858
11 = l - 1800
111 = 59.397 % 1
Q1 - Q2 1800 - 730.858
Pm = V1 - V2 = 0.861- 0.04783 ,
Pm= 1314.782 kPa
IPm =13.15 bar I

Example 3:
Consider a stationary power plant operating on an ideal brayton cycle. The pressure
ratio of the cycle is 8, and the gas temperature at the compressor inlet and the turbine
inlet are 27°C and 1027°C respectively. Determine t~e f?llowing: i) gas temperature
at the compressor and turbine exit, ii) back work ratjo, iJi) thermal efficiency.
(AU-April/May 2005)
'
Assume Pr1 = 1.386 and Pr3 = 330.9. Where Pr i~ .the relative press.
Given:
· T 1 = 27° C = 300K
T3 = 1027° C = BOOK
Prl = 1.386
! I,
. . . ,. ::. - .
I '•
I
' ' I •
Pr3 = 330.9
- -=--..► v
2.59 .
D1esEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS
~
frOcess J-2 (A~~abatic compression)
1 ..., •
¼o~(4.4!6}"-I ,: '.
IT2 =543.43 KI
.'
Process 3-4 (Adiabatic Expansion)
1 t f • 1 • 1 I ~ 1 ' 'II • 1 \ I 11 1, •t • •
*' ' .
I
.. I
.' ..
I·
~cannect w1tn c.;am~c·a nner
.;;:,:2,~60:____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~--_!.....:PO::..:W.:.:;;.E~R-P_LA_N_T_E_NG.;;;;..:.l:.:..:::NEERI~
~
V3 = 0.2264
I
· r • · • '· V4
'' .. .
.. . I I
l = (0.2264)1.4-I
1300
. ,
Back work ratio =Wc

·. w.T
...
'_
We-:;,,:_ mCp(T2 -T 1 )
1
f · - -- - - -- · · · · · ·-· ... . . • . .. =:= . 1.005 (543.434- 300) ' I
We = 244.65 kJ/kg
WT = mCp(T 3 -T4)
= 1.005 (1300 ~ 717.682)- I .
WT= 585.23 l<l/kg
. 244.65
Back work rat10 =--
585.23
IBack work ratio = 0.418 j

I
ll11i=l- y-1
(rr )-1
.. : : ,,' I I I' -
1
=J
l -
.- .
- -
0.4
I .I
'/ (8)ii
Irio~='. 44.8 _¾ I
DIESEL, GAS TURBINE AND .COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS. 2.61
Example 4:
The compression ratio in an air-standard Otto cycle is 8. At the begining of
compression process the pressure is 1bar and the temperature is 300 K. The heat
transfer to the air per cycle is 1900 KJ/kg oI air calculate. i) Pressure and
temperature at the end of each process of the cycle,. ii) Thermal efficiency,
iii) Mean effective pressure.· (AU-Nov/D~c-2003 Nov/Dec 2005)
Given:
rk =8
p 1 = lbar = 100 kPa p
T 1 =300K
Q 1 ~ 1900 kJ/kg
Solution:
Process 1-2 o I
_ _.y
[ P2 = 1837.918 kP~ I . ·,
4 •
,. •
: '
.... . .
- .
.
I
. • I •
..
[T =689.219 K]
2
. . . V,
RT1 t =· - I
v1 - - ' '
I
.k
'
V2
P1
- .·i"o
8=•,· ,•.s6r:.,.- ·
0.287 X 300 .. --- ·v; . -- '
100
V 2 =0.1076 m3/kg
y 1 = 0.861 m3/kg
~canned. w1 tn (.)am~canner
pOWER PLANT ENGINEER!
2.62
. ~
Process 2-3
Q1 = mCv(T3 -T2)
1900= 0.718{T 3 -689.219)
\ T3 = 3335.489 KI
1837.918 689.219
=---
p3 3335.489
\ p3 = 8894.56 kPa \
Process 3-4
p" · (0.1076)1.-1
8894.56 - 0.861
., .
/ I
\ P4 = 483.79 kPa I
T (V Jr-I .
_4= _3
' . I I . T3 . V4
I •
I
.'
' '
04
T4
(0.1076) ·
3335.489 - 0.861
\ T4~ 1451.721 K I
1
T\ = 1- (r~Jr-1
1
=1---
(8y-4-1
111=56.473% 1
- i:>cannect. Wltn (.;ami:>canner

¢- GAS T:URBINEAND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.63
Pm = Q, - Q2
v, -v 2
Q2 == tnCv (T4-T1)
== 0.?18 (1451.721-300)
Q2 == 826.936 kl/kg.
Pm = 1900 - 826.93~
0.861- 0.1076
'pm== 1424.295 kPa
I Pm = 14.243 bar I
Example 5:
The following data related to a gas turbine plant,
P.ower developed = 5MW
Inlet pressure and temperature of 1;1ir to the compressor = 1 bar, -30° C
Pressure ratio of the cycle - 5
Isentropic efficiency of the c.ompressor - 80 percent
Isentropic efficiency of bot~ turbines - 85 percent
Maximum temperature in both- .turbines. -· . - 550° C
' '
Cpa = 1.0 kJ/kg K; Cpg =·1.15 kJ/kgK; Y(air) = 1.4; Y(gases) = 1.33.
If a reheater is used between two turbines at a pressure 2.24 bar, calculate the
following, (i) The mass flow rate of air, and (ii) The overall efficiency. Neglect
. • I
the mass of the fuel:

Solution: • I
Given.· I ; '' .
Power developed= 5MW

p, = I bar
T1 = 30 + 273 =·303 K \ I
~ I { •
No. of compressor~ 1
No. of turbines= 2
Pressure ratio (rp) = 5
..:.:.2•.:..
64:____ _ _ __:__ ~_ _ _ _ __:P:_::O::.:.W:..;;;.E::.;,...R_P_LA_N_T_E~_IG;;..:.:_:,:INEERII
~
- -P:l
r P -. 0 5 or p3 = 5 x I = 5 bar
P1
P2 ° 2.24 bar
T3 = Ts = 550 + 273 = 823 K
1lcomp, = 0, 8
11'1'1 = r1-r,. = 0.85

Cpu = l kJ/kg K
Cr,~ = 1. 15 kJ/kg K
Y(nir) == I .4
, Y(gonc11) = 1.33
For a compressor
TT21 = ( PP21 Jy ; I = (s)T4

I 4 - I = (5)0.2Rs1 = t .584
T2 . = T1 x 1.584 = 303 x 1.584 = 480 K
= 0. 8 = T2 - T1 = 480 - 303
1lcomp.
T2, - 1\ T2, - 303
I •
_' I
, I
2' 3 4' 5
. . '
6'
1 . C = Compressor '
C.C = Cdmbustlon chamber Exhaust
Air In I .. I -
T1, T2 = Turbines
(a) Flow diagram for the plant
iE~eL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS -
2.65
T (I<)
823
303 - -
L - - - ' - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - P s(l<J/kg K)
(b) r.:s diagram
• ·... • f
W comp. - Cp_a (T2• - T1) .. .1.0(524.'.?, - 303) = i21.2 kJ/kg
For First Turbine, T 1 ' I

'..
, T3 . I 823
T4 - - = - , = 674.6 K
1.22 . I 1.22
... == 696.9 K
' ... .,.
:
- .~
. ..
t
..
'I ..
... ~
For Second Turbine, Ti
Scanned with CamScanner

. !..__ _ _ _ ___:,,~_ _ _ __..!.P.:::.OW~'::.;.ER_P_LA_N_T_E_NG_l..:.::NEERll•
~~ ~
T6 = -=
Ts 823 ~ 674.6 K
1.22 1.22
T _ r6, 823 - T6'
,, = 0.85 = Ts T =
T1
.sT 6 823 - 67_4.6
T6, = 696.9 K
l :
(WT)total = 2Cpa (T3 ~ T4,} as Tf=

.
Ts and T4, = T6,
= 2 x 1.15(823 - 696.9) = 290 kJ/kg
V!net = (Wr)total ·.. !. We • I
= 290 .:- 221.2 = 68.8 kJ/kg

• ', j
i) The mass flow rate of·air, 01 1 . - . ·,_. .
,. Power developed = -m~·~Wnet ~ \

~ '
I
5 X 103 = ma x.68.8
ii) Overall efficiency, 1loverall

. '
Heat supplied, Q = Cpg (T3 - T2,) + C~g-{T5 - T4,')
= . 1.15[(~23 - 524.2) ~ (823 _ 696:9)]

. . '
= 488.6 kJ/kg :
Overall efficiency = . wnet .'

Heat sup'plied'(Qs} '(
. '
'I .
68.8
I :
• - - - - • ] ~ I
, I r
• ' ·• • •• I

..r 7
pie
g turbine p,laot of 800 k\V c peclty t kc tbc s.ir a't LOI r und l O ••
'f e pre ure rati.o of the cycle Is 6 and mo Jmum t 'mperatur, i J' i d o
700° C. A regcner tor of 75o/c effectiveness b added Jn the plnnt to ju r u
0,,er•ll efficiency of the plant. The pres urc drop In the combu t.ion cbamb r
1 0,.15 bar as well as ln the regenerator iJ also 0.15 bar. Assuming i cotropicnl
effidenc oftbe compressor 80% nod turbine is 85%. Determine plnn t 't hetmal
efficiency. Neglect the mass of the fuel. (AU-Nov/Dec 201 J
Sollltio,n:
'o~~
Given:
'
\
\
W = 800 kW \
T3 = 973 K •
\
\
.> 4
,
•
~
_J ;,,,. ,~ "
/ Rege
/ E = 75 %
I
I
I
G) P1 = 1.01 bar
Compressor (1-2),
6 ⇒ P2 = 6 x 1.01
p2 = 6.06 bar
.I,
o..c T . .
(6) u = -282,{. ·. ⇒ ·· T-2· =• , 480.53K
lS " ; I ..
I, 1 1
,#
,,
•
-.
• I .. ,
• I \
I l t
'•
•
I
"
•
-- T2 -Ti
lie = 0.8,, . , , T I 1T 1
r' I
. ' .... ' ''2 I""' J ...~
480.53 - 288
0,8 = T2 I - 288
T2 1 = 528.66 K

I . I I
-2.6_8_ _ _ ___:,_...:_'
~ '-:.:_:_
........ · ::.
· ·~ ..:.·!.-
·: ....:..'..:..
. _· :..:.· ·.~ ·PO::.:W~E~R_P_LA_N_T_EN_G~INEEc:i 1._,
- ·.....:
~
Total pressure loss = Pressure loss .in regenerator + Pr~sSure loss in

, .· combustion chamber
= 0.15+p.15=0.3bar ..
Pressure at Turbine inlet .. . .
' I•
I I'
..
P3 = P2 - 0.3 I , '
- = 1 6.06- 0.3
jr3 -~5.76barl
Turbine,(3~4), : . I I
'
P3 = 5.76 bar -
I -
I • "' t
I
.. ' . ·, .
' '
.
Turbine, llt I •
.. t t ' • I
0.85 = 973 - T4' .-, -

973 - 591.68· ·
IT4' = 648,88~1.. - ,·..., ... ,-: i ~

- . . --- ~ .
--
• l •. •;
Regenerator, \.
. ;·:· ~ ~<,·L,~-· _;· · Nofual (heat-'trahsfer

Effectiveness - -·e· - = ~ . - -
' , ~ Mttximuhi ·-~ossible heat transfer
, - -- -- ··- - --- -
T5 -T' ' I' .,l '- . l' - . . - , .." ,
.)
2
& = l - - - -- '
o1ESE~. GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.69
~ .
0.75 = T5 - T2 I •I :
'.
( . '
' I T4 I -T2 I
CTs = 618.83 iq
Network done,
Wnet = WT- We -
= Cp(T3 -T/)- cp(T2' -T1)
= 1.024 X ] 03 [973 - 648.88]
- 1.024 X I 03[528.06 . .:. 288]
. f
IWnct = 85.463 kJ / kg of airl

Mass flow rnte of air,
, kJ )
Power = ma X ( net work done) ( KW = kg
S
X k f .
go air
• i
= rila{Wnet)
800 x 103 - ma [85.46lx 1g3J

IIll 8 = 9.3 61 kg / S j
Plant thennal efficiency,
. ~
(T3 - T4 ') - (T2·. i-·.:_- i 1-·}- -- ·- ·

= ~-~---='---....;..
• J .. \ .. r .... • t
····- ·,. · -
~ -~ t , (9173 ,;-;,64_8JS.8 1- (528.66 - 288) ·

._:.i_,_~_::;-\::, 4 - ·1 i; " (9701.- ~6,18·.83J - .: :,·:, . ' .. .- '
[ llp = 23.56% I - ;
1
'
.....
poWER PLANT ENGINEeal
. ,, NQ
d t ref r to a gas tutbine plant in whid th e compressfon 1~

. t · and expansion Is carded o~t In two stages with r<eheat1t1i
n I temperah1re.
f the ga turbine plant - 6 M\,V
emp rahire at,. hich air is supplied - 20°c
ction and exhau t pressure - .20° C
re ure ratio - 6
aximum temp,erature limit = 750° C
I entropic efficiency of compressor = 80 p~rcent
Isentropic efficiency of each turbine - 84 percent
Effectiveness of heat exchanger - 0.72

Calorific value of fuel = 18500 kJlkg . ' ...
Cpa = 1 kJ/kg K; ~pg= ~-!5 kJlkg K; y(air) = 1.4, y(gas) = 1.33
Determine the folio.wing,
. ,,' .
i) A/F ratio entering in the first turbine, and
ii) Tlie~fu~l efficiency of the cycle '
.: I I
ill) Air supplied fd the plant

• • -• - - ·. , :. I , . . .'
iv) Fuel c~~~uinption of the plant per ho1:1r
Solution:
Given: , I
Capacity of the plant , = 6 ~W

l q
<1• ,
, , , , ~l= 20 + 27j':;: 293 K
' _- . · ·__ 1 • 1 • - • I .
p 1 ~ - 'i'b'ar · _.,, 1
., ,
... ,.' , f.p ::-·· --
- :-.P1
- - .
6 I !
- . -- . . .
•pL ' ''. .
..:..
,' I
r , f
_. I '· I • • I
p3 = 6 bar

oiesEL. GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS
.~ .
-
2.71
T4= Ts= 750 + 273 = 1023 K

llcomp = 0.8
'llT1 = T\r2 =0.84
E = 0.72
C = 18500 kJ/kg
Cpn = l kJ/kg K
Cp 8 = 1.15 kJ/kg K
Y(oir) = 1.4
Y(sns) = 1.33
We know that,
'
P2 = VI p3 x Pt = '\/'671
u " 1 = 2.45 bar
'Compressor:
i -(:: r I = (6{~.;I ='1.668
T2 = T, x 1.668 = 293 x 1.668 = ~88.7 K

r2 ~.r, _ 488.7 - 293 ,
llcomp. = 0.S = T '-- T -
2' I
T, - 293
· 2. ,
' ' '
T2 , = 537.6 K
Turbine-1
~ - 1043 -_ 819 K
Ts -T4
- 1.249 1.249
..
.'

2.72 pQWER PLANT ENGINEtt:1
~
Exhaust
8 Regenerator
3-phase
supply
3
~
2'
6
1 I C =Compre · or
C.C =i Combu lion chamber
Air In
T, T_ -- Turb n
(~l ,Schomnllc orrnngemont of tho gu tu,bln plant
1Q?3
,, t'I • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
" ' - - - - ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - s(l<J/kg K}

(b)_f,.s diagram
.'
Tlt, = 0_84 = T4 - Ts· = 102., - T5,

. T4 -:-Ts 1023 - 819
T5: ~ 8.5~_6 K
'N.eJcnow that _

DIESEL: GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.73
~
~egenerator
T3 - T.2 , .. T3 - 537.6
. Effectiveness, E = o. 72 = ~-~ = --'~---
T7' - T2 , 851.6 - 537.6
T3 - 763.7 K
,, Alf ratio entering in the first turbine
:i -
mr1 = Mass of fuel supplied per kg of air to the combustion chamber ofWn.
(1 + mrl )cpg (T4 -T3) - mr, x C
(1 + ffir1 ) X l.15(1023 - 763.7) - mr, x 18500
298.2( l. + mr,) - 18500 mr1
mr, = 0.01638kg/kgofair
l
A/F ratio = 0.0 1638 = 61':l
ii) Thermal efficie11cy of the CJ cle, T/Jhumal
For the reheater, the mass balance is
where mr~ is the fuel supplied in the reheater per kg ofair entering into the compressor:
(l+ 0.01638· + mr2 ) x 1.b(f023 - 851.6) = mr2 x 18500
197.11(1.01638 + mr2 ) - 18500mr2
200.34 + 197.11 mr2 - 18500mr2
mr2 - 0.0109 kg/kg of.air
W~omp. = lx Cpn (½· - ·T1}

l x l· x:(531:6 ~-293)
- 2M~6 kJ'/kg_ofair
' .
!:.:.2-~74~---:----___:__ _,:__.:...---,:__.!:.:PO~W:..:,:E:::..R~P_LA_N_T_E;.;.::.:NGINEtb
~ ~
Total T11rbi11e work
WTurbinc(totnl) = Wr 1 + Wr 2 ·
- (1+ mr, )cpg (T4 - T5,) -t (I + mr, + mr, )cpg (T6 -17,)
= (1 + 0.01638) X 1.15(1023- 851.6)

+ (1 + 0.01638 + 0.0109) X 1.15(1023 - 851.6)
= 1.15(1023- 851.6) [(1 + 0.01638)

+ (1 + 0.01638 + 0.0109)]
= 402.8 kJ/kg ~fair
\ '
The Network
Wnet = WT(total) - WC
= 402.8-244.6 = '158.2 kJ/kg of air
Wnel = Wnet
Tlthermal =
Heat supplied( Q5 ) ( mr1 + ffir2 ) x C
= 158 ·2 = 0.3135
(.0.01638 + 0.0109) X 18500 . . .
, l • .
= 31.35%
, •- • • ' ~ ' ,.• I I
iii) Air supplied to t~e pla11t, 111 0 ,
max Wnet = 6 x 1000
6000
IDa = - - = 6000 ,.. 37.93 k /s
wnet,- _ 15$.2 -· . ' I g
iv) Fuel consumption of the plan per hour

Fuel consumption of the plant per hour,
• • , • •• i . ... L.. l 7:.
l
- · =-, ni~ ( inr1 · + mr;) x 1600
= 37.93(0.01638 ~ 0.QJ99)_x 3600 = 3725 kg/h
.::>cannee1 Wi tn (.;am~canner
2.75
~
lesEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS -
ti11111plc 8:
~ stroke diesel engine has a piston dia of 16.5 cm and a stroke of 27 cm.
conipression ratio of 14.3, the cut off 4.23%. of the ·stroke and the mean
(fectlve pressure 4.12 bar. The engine speed is 264 rev/min and the fuel
:onsumption is 1.076 kg of oil per hour, having a calorific value of 39150 kJ/
kg, Calcu~ate the relative efficiency of the engine.
sohition: .
(i/ven:
d = 6.5 cm
f = 27 Cffi = 27 X 10-2 m
rk:::: 14.3
re== 4.23% of stroke
Pmcr=4.12 bar=4.12 xI0 5 Pa
N~264rpm
.mr = 1.076 kg/~r

Cv = 39'150 X 103 J/kg
Indicated Thermal Efficiency

Relative efficiency = Air Standard Efficiency
... (A)
Indicated thennal efficiency,
Indicated Power
Tl ::.e: ... (B)
Heat Supplied
Indicated Power -
Pmef x L x Ax n
.. . ·. 60~\ . ' . . ' • I •
(· · n -NJ
••
• '
-
2 '•
• ,
) • '
-
, r •
.. , . .. , ,, . ,, . ,
1
4.12·~105 X 27 X
0
l0:_21x'¾~(16.5 X 10-2 )2
.= t I • ~,
· / 60 .·.
I •
"'
j
•
••
I '
· ·IP= 5232.88W . ·.
.:;.:,2.7.:...::6~------------~P..:.O_W_ER_P_LA_NT_E-.;,.NG1Nee
. ~
Heat supplied,
= l.0 76 X 39150 X 10 3
3600
Qs = 11701.5\V
:. Indicated thennal efficiency,
LP 5232.88
- -- --
Qs 11701.5
111T .= 44.72% ..
f -
Air standard efficiency,
= 4.23% of stroke
. . . .' .-.. fc
\ \ ( , • I
- 4·23 X 27 x· 10-2 " .

! •' I
100
. r ..... 0.01142 . ..
I • • • • •
• I I , I I I • • • • • ., · C -. : '
1 [ 0.011421.4 -1 ] '
llair = l - (14})o.4 l.4[0.0ll42 -·iJ ..
= 1 - 0.248.8
.. llair = 0.75112=75.11%
•
.
• • I
'
• •
.. 11air ,~ 75.11% ·,,

I ' 'I • • . l , • i .. ' •. ' I •
.. '.".: .' · _.._ . _-,_ ,__ -·: -;,:·
llrr .·.~.44-.72 · .. ,' ,. ,. '., .
Tlrelative - - = - - = 0.5954
• I . , , : 1. ,: -llaii ·: J 7~-IJ-
... . ..
llrelative = 59.54% ·. -
..
. .'
• . . 1.. • •• ; , .~ •• • t: .··· .. ~; _:_,

~5!:L, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.77
~
f#O MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
I, Mention four tllermodynamic process involved in diesel cycle.
(AU-May 2008, 2010)
- -... v
t - 2 Reversible adiabatic compressin ( s = c)
2- ~ Constant pressure heat addition ( p = c)
3 - 4 Reversible adiabatic expansion(s =c)
4- l Constant volume heat rejection (v =c)
2. Whnt arc the assumptions made on air standard efficiency?
(AU-Nov/Dec 2002, 2003. Apr/l'ilay 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2009)
I. Air is the working fluid and it obeys the perfect gas laws i.e.~,. rv = mRT.
2. The engine operates in a closed cycle. The cylinder is filled with constant amount
of working medium and the same fluid is used repeatedly and hence mass remain
constant.
3. The working fluid is homogeneous throughout at all times and no chemical reaction
takes place, inside the cylinder.
4. The compression and expansion processes are assumed to be adiabatic.
5. The values of specific heat(<; and Cv) ~f the working fluid remains constant.
6. All the processes are internally reversible and no mechanical or frictional losses
to occur throughout the process. .
7. Combustion is ~eplaced by heat addition proce-ss.and exhaust is replaced by
heat rejection process.
8. The expansion process is replaced by a heat rejection process and it restore the
working fluid in to initial state.
-
~2,.78~
!.!:, - - - - - - - - ----.!..,:po~W:.:.,:E:.;..R,:..;..P_LA_N_T....;,EN:..:.:::!.GINe~~
- ~
3 D li . oo4 Apr/May 2005)
· c me compression rntio. (AV-Nov/Dec 2 ' · .
· <l f~
lt is f 1· d to the clearance volume
c mccl as the ratio oft.he volume o ·cy m er ·
V
rk ==- =
Vo + VM ::::
V"
l+-
Vc Ve Vo
4. Define mean effective pressure.

(AU-Nov/Dec 2004,2007, 2011, 2014Apr/May 20~S,20JO, 2012)
It is defined as the average pressur9cting on the piston during the entire power strok
that would produce the same amount of net work output during the actual cycle. It:
mathematically expressed as
p = Workdone / cycle = Qi - Qi
m Swept volume V2
I
v; - • .
5. For the same compression ratio and heat r_eje~tion which cycle will be
efficient? (AU-Nov/Dec 2002, 2013,Apr/May 2003,2012, May/June 2006)
3
p
,'
t 6 T
i
--+ V
Area } - 2 ..1. 5 '. . . 4 . .:.: l · J?iesel cyc_le .
. ..
Area 1 - 2 - 6 - 7 - ~ -1 Oral cycle ··
Area 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 1 Otto cycle
All the cycles have same heat rejection by the Q. ·
. . .
• f
We kno~ t~at, T\ ;; · 1:... Qr I I •
, l ' • '
Os .,
I
Or = constant ... ·
I I • • • •
· ·- ·
'
lfQs increases Tl also increases. So therefo~e the area under curve 2-3, 2-6-7 and
2-5, shows that heat addition decrases. . · -. . · · ·
• ! • ,.
' ..

DIESEL, GAS TURBINE ANO COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.79
::.---
Area of 2-3 > Area of 2-6-7> Area of 2-5. (i.e.,) the area under 2-3 maximum.
Therefore, 110110> 11dual > lldicscl· .
6, For the m~ximum press~~e and temperature which cycle ~ill be efficient?
(AU-Apr/May 2003)
,.
t T
' . --+ ·S
Similarly the area, ..

I'
. '
Area 1-5-3-4 > Area 1-6-7-3-4-1 >~ Area 1-2-3-4
.,- • + I • • ( • '
'
• , •
J
•
•
•
' .
11 = 1- Qr ; Qr= constant for all cycles
Q5 increases efficiency aiso increases-therefore Area 1-5-J-4 wiJihave'farge Q5 •

.~hyrefo.re, 1ldfosel>,11duat > 1lotto at IJ?~Illllµ1 pressure and maximum temperature.
7. FQr the·1s·a-me compr~ssi~~ ratio and heat input which cycle will be efficie_nt?
(A U~Nov/Dec 2003)
,' l
• I I .. . I . •• l: •
\ _,. ..
p
T
f
• I
' 2
I
I
I
I
a b b' b"
--+ V -:--JI, s
. .
11 = 1- Qr ; Q5 = constant for ~ll cy~les
QS I •
r. -..
,. •, ·; • .r.,
, ! •J , J/ ., ,' 1 , I
!
'Q;·(, I _l · '-
.,
Tl = 1- constant
~canned. w1 tn c..;am~canner
'
~ ~0~----...J•..:..
2.8 · __:__:~~~__.:_·_:...·sPO~W::::,.E::..:R;.:..P_LA_N_T_EN_G-.;,;.,:I~
d1·esel cycle, heat rejection is rn0
For Otto cycle, heat rejection is less~r an.d ior
J::
· re.
Therefore, 11ouo> 11dunl > lldiescl·
8. Define work ratio of gas turbi~e.
Network
Work ratio == - - - - -
Turbine work
- WT-WC
w.T .
wT = Turbine work
Wc = Compressor work
9. What is the physical significance of mean effective press11re?
work done
Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) :.a,: . stroke volume
The mean effective pressure is directly proportional to the work dOfte in a given
displacement volume.
When mean,effective pressure increase work done will be increased or vice versa.
The tenn mean effective pressure can be used to compare the engines of same sizes.
10. What are tfre advantage·sofdieselpwwer pla.rit? . ,
( J :•. i • ' • ,, 1 I ,, ~ ' i • • • , • • _
1. Diesel power
.
plant~ can operat~ -at higher thennal efficiency than thermal
:' .
plant
and can operate on wide variety of fuels.
• I' • • I } J I O I •
•.
. ~-, P~ant can be
I I
~taf!~d
•• • .
q~ickly and ~~ought
. •
into service
•
to pick
•
up loads in a very I I
short time. · -
3. The efficiency at part loads does no~ fall so much as that of a steam plant.
4. It can respond to v~g !<?$.,without any difficulty.
5. Less spaoe is required.f~.I\S.~e papa,city than thermal.plant. .
6. Water required for cooling-purposes ,is lesser than that oftheqnal:plant. , ·
• • I • • \A: 6, • ·: '., It;,. • " J 1 •
ESEL GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CY
g!::--1- CLE POWER PLANTS 2.81
1l• gow diesel power plants arc class'fi

. I IC d?•
a) According to the con~truction
1. Stationary diesel power plant
2. Packaged power plant
I • •
3. Barge mounted diesel power plant

4. Gas turbine.operated die~el power plant
b) According to stroke
I. Two stroke d~esel power plant
2. Four stroke diesel power plant
-,
c) According to speed
I_. Low speed diesel engine
- , .. . , .. r• .
2. Medhµn/High speed diesel engine
, c. d)_According. to cooli~1g system
1. ~ater - to - water cooling diesel power plant r •• '• • • •- i I • ; : • •
2·. Water - to - air-cooling diesel power plant. . · ,• ,

.1 ... .
.
~t ar~.the applications
12, Wh. . of diesei power plant? .•
~
1. Used as a peak ~oad plants in combination.wi~ some othe~ plant~ ... _~..
2. Quite suitable for mobile power generation and are widely_used in transpprtation
.: system·s consisting of rail roads, ships, a·utomobiies aeropl~~~---· .· . .' .
• • '
and
• ' 1 : ,. • • • ~ f • ... I •
3. Used as stand by power plants for other plants under emergency service.
' ' • I • ' • • • • • 1 ~ • .j 1 '\ . ' "" I . .. ... !, , I • f 1
4. Diesel pow'g plants in the range of 2MW to 50MW capacity ar~ ~s·ea as_central
. . : ,. .
stattons.
. .
l3, Name the components of diesll power plant.
1. Qiesel engine 2. Air intake system · ·- ,
J. Exhaustga&System , -, ·.,. · · 4. PuelSl.ipplytsystein•· ,. ··u .: ;. :=:: .:
5. Lubricatingsystem· , . ·1·. -' · :. , -, .- 6: .Engine.coolingsystem~•. ·.. ·.; · ',
7. Governing system 8. AC generator
9. Control system and switch gear
2 pQWER PLANT ENGINE~b
.82 ~
14· What are the factors considered for selec t.ion of an·engine in diesel. P0wet
plant? · ··
1. Power 2. Speed . .. ·'
3 • C~ling system 4. Fuel quality 1 • ·: •
' .'
5. Governing system
I . . ,..
l5. What are the factors considered for selection ·of a diesel power plant?
1. Loading 2. Speed '
3. Cooling system 4. En~~~tal ~nditiori ! ·
5. Fuel quality 6. Control

. system '
I •
7. Starting equipment . 8.-Drive type
_9. Ambient tempe~ture humidity

16. Can a ~iesel power plant be operated with an alternate fuel.lik~ CNq~If so
indicate the methodology. , , (AU-June 2006)
'• • ' ' I
Yes. A diesel power plant can be operated with CNG as i) mono fuel, iD. dual.fuel. • , '•
Monofuel: (•
A separa~~ spark p~ug. ~ust

. .
be proyide~ to ignite the fuel... -. '
., ·•· . ·,.· .
.' .
The CNG is added with air and the diesel initiates combustion of this airfuel mixture. • I •
17. How diesel engines are classified?

1) 4ccording to Speed
~ Slow speed
it)Medium/High speed
2) Accorfling tq cQoling .. • • ~ J
•
I
.. ·: ,. , , 1 , 1•··· . .. . • '
l
' •' I , t •
. . ..
• t
r_. 4.i .t , ·. I#•• • ,"
, • •
1. , .. , •ii,.,. ,, ., r'( •
t
''
~ Water - to -wate~ cooling diesel power plant . .. . - . ·• .) - . .

• . · . .. ', .· • •,· · ' () i • 1.; t ..' ~,,! ; Lit,~~• .'._' • 1- 1 .- - ,
•
, ., •
• • •
,
•
1 ,• , ,....,. · •
• . ..- . I. r1 •
I~
n)Water-to - air cooling diesel power plant. ;.m: ' ·: :1~,:,1 -,;.,,rJ
i:)canned. w1tn c.;ami:)canner

Ol~SEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.83
~
J8, l{ow the efficiency of diesel power plant is improved?

Q Improvement in load factor.
it) Improvement in air filter action
iit) Providing waste beat recovery system to recover the heat from flue gas.
iv) Option of parallel operation among diesel power generating gets for improved
loading and fuel economy.
.
19, ·»ow gas turbines ar~ classified?
Gas turbines are classified as follows:
I I '
J) 'Iype ofLoad
a) Peak load plants . b) Standby plants c) Base load plants
2) Application
a) Aircraft b) Locomotive c) Marine d) Transport
3) Cycle
' . .-, 't
a) Open cycle plants b) Closed cycle plants
' I
4) Fuel
a) Liquid b) Gas c) Solid
20. What are the methods used to start the diesel engine from cold?
The following three methods are used to start the diesel engine from cold.
· I. By an auxiliary engine (usually petrol driven) · .·. · · ·· •
I
I
2. By an electric motor
3. By a ~ompres~ed air system
21. What are the advantages of gas turbine power plarit?
I. Perfect balancing of gas turbine plant induces negligible vibration and hence -
heavy foundations and buildings are not required.
, ' \ \
2. Low weight and less initial and operating cost than steam power plant.
• •r ' . - : ' • j I •
3. Plant can be quickly started' aiid pick up load and hence mostly preferred as
peak load plant. ·..· ''(, , · ' · · · ' '· ' · '
4. Poor qualities ~d wide variety of fuels can be used.
5. Less space is required.
~annect. w1 tn cam~canner
2.~:___ _ _ _...:,___.--.:.._ __..;._ __!:P~OW!.!.E:::.:.R.:.:.P..;....LA_N_T_E_NG_;,;,_INEER1~1
~84 ~
b' ?
22 · \Vhut arc the diffcl'cnt tyJ>CS of fuel used in gns tur me!
x . ) d Dodecane (Kerosene oil)
ntlethnne, Ethane, Propane, Octane (gaso 1me an · ·
23, \\'hat arc the applicntions of gns tul'bine?
1. They Cc:Ul be used as peak load planks.
. . .
mcom b'matton
• 'thsteam powerplants. 1
2• Tl1ey also work satisfactonly w1
3. It can be used as base load plants in countries where_oil or natural gas are cheap
and easily available and water scarci~y is present.
24. Name the material used in rotor of~he gas turbine.
For the outer surface of the rotor austhentic steel with 12 to 18% Chromium, 8 to
. - '
12% Nickel, and very small percent~ges of tungsten, molybdenum and Titanium are
used. At central portion of the disc,.Ferrite ·steel with high creep strength is used.
. .
25. What are the adv~ntag~s ofre~ert~ration? ·· ·

1. The thermal efficiency and the specific output ofthe open crcie gas hrr?ine power
plan~ are increased by regeneration.
2. The regenerator will cool the compressed air entering the combustion ch~mber.
26. Define work ratio.
It is the ratio of Network output to Gross work output.

,, I • '"' : • ~• r' • I
Work Ratio = Network output -

Gross work output ' ;i •• ' ..
27. What is the advantage of reheating? •
'
•.
.
, •
.I
The specific outp~t o.f.the Qpen cy~l~ gas.turbine P.O,We1:·pl~ntary iµcreased by
• •
1 - ' • • •• • _. • • • .• r • ' • , • • •
expanding the gases in two stages.

28. Vvhat are the advantages of combined cycle?
I . Higher efficiency than individu~l power p]ants.
• ' ~ • I. • 1 ' •. I ' ' ' • .
2. In the event of power failure.at one plant, operation can be.continued by feeding
the other plants thereby avoiding complete shutdown. · • ,·,-:.:,· ', · · ' ' ·
3. It is more suitable for rapid start and shutdown than steam plant.
4. For the same output, less cooling w~ter is required. . ,
5. It gives high ratio of output power to occupied ground space.
.....
·o1f:SEL, GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED-CYCLE POWER PLANTS 2.85
~
29• What are the advantages of gas turbine plant over stcnm power plant'?
, l. Gas turbine plants are particularly useful and economicnl.
2. The capital investment for gas turbine plant is iess to compare with steam power
plant of equal size.
3. Gas turbine power plant required less space.
4. Gas turbine plant has high load.factor. • .. .
• • • I •
5. The startup time from cold condition is less.

3o. What is the purpose of regenerator?
• I
The regenerator is a heat exchanger which is used to preheat the air entering the
combustion eb_arnber by means of the heat from the 'exhaust $ases of a turbine.
31. What are the advantages of closed cycle gas turbine over -?pen cycl~ gns
turbine?
I. Thennal efficiency is high.
•1 I
2. Improved heat transmission.

. ..
3. Improved part load efficiency.
4. Greater output.
5. Compact size
6. Low grade fuel may be used.
7. No contamination
32: What are the pollutants present in the gas turbine power plant?
~ Sulphur dioxide
ii) Hydrogen sulphide
, iii). Oxides of nitrogen
' . l
.
'I • t I. t ' • I ' I J f f • I
iv) Carbon monoxide • • •

.
' .'
'
• • • I
.
,. . .
I I • t
., . • • I
•; 1 1.•,: ·. . , .. . , t :1 •,! ( t f l •. • .:.; •, "- •,
J 11 I 1• •
.
· ~ • ' • •• • •( .._ 1 ' _ ,_ " / ) t #•t : , ,, ,. , • / f l • • t,
pOWER PLANT ENGINe~~
2.86 ~
33 t irbine power plant.

· 'Vbat are the cffects iof inter cooling in gas 1
· (AU-Nov/Dec 20
Oi)
1;\1 The neh.vork output of the turbme
. . .
1s mcrea
sed by inter cooler.
·
") . . d d rk ratio is increased.
11 The compressor work is mimm1ze an wo
in) The thennal efficiency of the cycle is'increased at high pressure ratio.
· · · 'wer plant?
·34 · What are the advantages of stationary ~as po ·
~ Independent electrical power generation unit. ·
.it) Very hig~ poy.rer-to-weight r~tio, ~~mpared t~ st~~ion~ry reciprocating
engines. I
I • •
in) Eng~~s or th~ ~ame pow~r rating·.

:_iy) iess yiqration than~ reciprocating.engine.
·35. How gas turbine blades are co~led? ·
, f - • • '\ • ~ • ) • -, I , I
I •
Turbine blade cooling can be don~ in ~o ~~jor s~c.tions. · I • .
i) Inter~al bl~de cooling

ii) External blade cooling
. ' . ' .
, .. ~!~~1:1~~ blade c_ooling: Intern~~ c~~ling .is achiev~_q. by P.~ !ng _the high .velocity
Cf?ol~t through
. several etilianced
. serpentine
. passages
. .
i1:}Side the blades and vanes.
It extracts the heat from outside of.the·blades. Bothjetimpringement cooling and
, . pin fin cooling are used as a method of internal cooling. Here the heat is removed
, • ~ • ~ c 1 • , • , • , • ,, 1 .• 1 r , 1 , • ' 1, • , I • -4 ,, 1 , ~ •
~y ~ v~~i.~!io~ of con_veqtiqn ~d imp~ge.~ent cmql_ing corifigurati~·ns: . ,. .

•
Exfe~nal blade cooling:'11fe~temal blade cooling~·where ·cold air

' • ' I
is injected
•
thro~gh the fib~ cooling holes o~ the extema~blade surface in order to _create a
thin-film cooDing layer.
36 ..Wtiy ga{ttjrbin'e bl~des·~re ~o~iea?·.- ,,_
'- . ~-r I ' .; , ,· . ·.· : . ' . ' '.'
,, . •' : ! ,··.L , . \ ' I I I I •• : .. .... • • \ ... . ,, .1·- I ' • - .- ·, ... , ,, _~, _1 . .....~_. _ , _. , _.
The gas up-bin~ e~gine.op~rat~~-~t ~~gh te.qipepitur~~ ( li99:: l~pO? .~)._tQ iipprove
ther~~l efficiei;icy ~~4 P<?~~r-o.u~p.1:1,t 1 . 1WhtrPA4e .turbi~e. i!}let. teIAP~~ature
increases, the heat transferre~ to.the turbine blades increases. The operating
temperatures are far above the permissible m~tal temperatures. Therefore, there
is a need t~ cool the turbine blades for safe operation. . .
~cannect w1tn c..;am~ca:nner

¢,. GAS TURBINE AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS . 2.87
37· What is.the difference between open cycle and closed cycle gas tur b"1ne
power plant?
---:-:-1r---;~--:--:----~--
s.No. Closed cycle
----__:....-.:__--,
~-r~.- ---------!__;____Open .cy_cle
~ ~ ~__..;;.-----1
1. The combustion product generates The combustio'n product generate
work in the turbine and the exhaust work in the turbine and, are
gases ofthe·turbine are sent to the exhaµs _ted _to. t~e atmosph~re.
compressor through condenser.
.
2. It requires pre-cooler and it requires It does not ·require pre-cooler.
a larger amount of cooling water. The burnt gas from the gas turbine
is liberated to the atmosphere.
3. The power output is high. The power output is _les.s.
4. High thennal efficiency is obtained. ··· Low thennalefficiency is obtained.
5. The weight of the power plant per ' The weight of the power plant per
kW is high. , kWislow. ··
6. The part load efficiency is high. The part load efficiency is _l9w.
7. Initial cost is high. Initial cost is I.ow. ,
8. . . Maintenance cost.is high. Maintenance cost is low; • • • • ., • • I •• 1
I
I • I • ' • I ! ... , , .
•38, What do you.understand by closed cycle gas pow~r plant.?, .. .

:._.,·A'closed.:~ycle gas mbhie is turbine that uses a gas (e.g. air, nitrogen, lieliurn, a
argon) for·tlie working fluid as part of a do~ed thermodymimic·systein. Heat is
'.·. •.·.supplied from,anextemal ·source:·Such-recirculating turbines.follow the Brayton
cycle. The working fluid (air), on its way back to the compressor is cooled in a
precooler, to decrease its specific volume. Thus, the size of the compressor can
be reduced. Since the cycle is closed_(s~~l~~ fyopl o~tsj1e), t~e ~9mpressor inlet
pressure can be several times above ahnosp.henc press~re. ·thus the·pressure
11
'tlrrotighoufthe' cycie tari'oe'-made miie1i-higher than that'in the open cycle, and 1
: I_,- , th~refdre' ·th~ size 'of the"j,lant i's·smaller for'the·same output~ ' ' .. ..
~ .. • • ~
' . .~ ! ~ \. . '
•,.• I ) ) f ) ~ ' •'
• -
' ,1,: , • '. • • • _., ~
'
II
' • ' •
-=- ' )\ \
"; ,. I ; ' · • • I ' . ' I ' ' • ' • .J • J I' ; • •
~ , , , • t . : .:.
1f 1
1
· • .'' _ 1 \. ' : r .r " ; t •.J i r1 1• r • I ' ·, 1 .J r ' •
.... I •
• • I t \ -
0
1 --. •' , \ , I • I ,• ' ~ '
I C > ~ I - I J • • ' ,"! I
~2.,8~8~---_::_~~~:...:___:__ _:__:...P...=.O.:..:.-WER_P_LAN_T_E_NG1NE:~t-i
~ ~
-39. Name ,the fuel used in gas turbine.
·i) ·Natural.gas
•ii) Petroleum gas
iit) .Gases from blast furnace
iy)'Synthetic gas
• ~ 1 •• ( • I. .. •• • I • I • ' I • ~. • • • f •••
·v) Gasified coal

40~ 'W·hat are.-appl~~~tions of dJ~s~l power pl_ant? (AU-Apr/May 2010)
, ·i) 'Peak'load P.ower Plant .
·ii) ·Emergency'Power P~ant
;iii) Mobile·Power'Piant
•iv). Starting·Stations
· ,v) '8tandb¥'Po'werPlanf for Industrial·Concern
·vi) Standby 'P.ower'Plant for Hybrid Power Generation

'I
·. ( . . '
NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
3. 1 BASICS OF NUCLEA~
ENGINEERING-INTRODUCTION
Life without electricity is unthinkable.
This electricity is generated by power plants
using coal, water etc., Use of nuclear energy
as a power source is becoming a common
trend in the world. This is due to the rapid
depletion ofconventional energy source. ~uel
transportation network and large storage
facility in case of thermal power plants and
dependence on whether conditions in case of
hydel power plants are the major hurdles
facedby today's power sectors.
Utilization of nuclear power helps to
save a considerable amount of fossil fuels
which can be used in other areas. Nuclear
power engineering is basically concerned with
the phenomenon taking place within the
nucleus of the atoms.
One of the outstandmg attractions is
the large amount of energy that can be
released from a small mass of active
material.

~3.2~-~ - - - ~ - ~ - - - - - ~ p - = o ~
·w~E_R_P_LA_N_T_EN....;:,;~
. u23s results in energy equiva}

Complete fission of one kg of uranium n . d ent to
4so'o tonnes of high grade c~al or 1900 tonnes of oil. The econotn1c a vantage ofnuclear
power can be realised only at a load of about 75'1/o.
3·. 1.1 Advantages of nuclear power plants
The following are the merits ofnuclear power plant over conventional powerpJan~.
' 1. Powet generation is more economic when compar~d wi th thennal plant.
·· · 2. Fuel tr~nsp011ation~ handling and storage charges are absent.
3. No ash disposal pro_blems.
4. Power production is not affected by weather.conditions . .
I • •
5. · ·'Space require.merit is;less.
..... , .. : ..
6., Capital cost is low for bigger unit sizes.
I • •• • ,-• .• I I
..
1· • 7._. .Le~s pumb~r _of workers are n~eded than thennal plant.
8. . Water quantity required is very less.
,· · 9. Eno~ous aniount of heat can be generated from smaH quantity of fuel
consumption.
10.. .It
,
is_well
.
suited. for large power requirements .
11. Highly reliable operation.
'
12.-_Nuclear power plants bas no effect on atmosphere by pollution. I
3~1.2
."
Dis'atlvanta·ges of nuclear power plants
. . '
1·. .Disaster is ~e major safety problem faced by nuclear pow~rplants due to nucle,ar
· · explosions. · ' · · ·
2. Radioactive wastes may affecfthe health of workers and other surrounding

people. J
I '
133~- High iiiitiaf cost and maintenance cost. • I •'
••.•1' ' : i ': •I • •• • •

0
1 1 • • 1 • • t • • ~ •
4. Nuclear_~~s~~-di~posa.
I ' It •
l i~ ~major problem.
..... ' • , • • i' ,.. • • I ••
5. Nuclear.plants-require well trained persQil!~~ for its oper~tion.-. ,

• I • • r ! r \I.
• • I I,. t
~cannect Wl th c..;amSct'nner
v= cLEA.:-R_P_O_W_E_R_P_LA_N_T..:...s_ _ _ _ _~ - - - - - - - - ~
= 3.3
3,
z NUCLEAR ENERGY
The energy released due to the Li ··
. sp t up of nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei is
wn as atoID.Ic or nuclear energy An .. l
}alO · atom consists of a relatively heavy, positive Y
n..oed nucleus
ch111 0 •
and a number ofmu h 1· h . ·
· c .1g ternegattvelychargedelectrons thatrevolves m
·
different orbits around th e nucleus. These electrons are held in their orbits by electro static
forces.
The nucleus consist ofS}lbparticlesnucleons.which,~hJII1, _hJ1_S_elec_tricallyneutral
charge neutrons and positively charged protons. It is difficttlt,t~.bring these protons together
in anucle~s of an atoms. There, it require some to bring and.keep the protons together in
the nucleus of an atom. This energy is lmown as binding energy.
The forces that hold the protons-and neutrons inside the nucleus are million times as
strong as the electrostatic forces holding the electrons to the nucleus. Thus, the binding
energy is very large compared with chemical bond energy. Therefore, if a nucleus
dis.integrates then a very large amount of energy is released.· This energy is due to the
fission of a neutrons and is used for power production in nuclear plants. This eriergy is
known as atomic emergy or prompt energy or nuclear energy. . ,,
, In other worqs, the amount of energy what released now is.only at the time of
fission. At the time of fission, the neutrons is under fast moving conditio~. l(the reaction
proceeds at this rapid movement, then maximwn utilization of energy is not possible. So,
fast moving neutrons are decelerated with the help of moderator to get rriore amount of
energy.
Thus, more energy is produced due to slow decay of the fission fragments into
fission products and the non fission capture of excess neutrons in reactions (by
. m~ans . 9f
reflectors). This produces energy mt_1ch lesser than that of energy obtained by fission. So,
the total energy produced per fi·ss'io~ reaction is greater than the prompt energy and is
about2OOMeV.
3.3 NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION REACTIONS

Nuclear reaction plays a vital role.in power_productio~. ~9, lti~ ,I!ec!~s~~~to study
~f
the basic concepts behind the operation. ?~cle~r re~ctors. ,Th~~e rea~tiqns ~re three
types namely fission, fusion and radioactivity. The fission and fusioncondepts,..are well
applicable to power-production systems as llies·e reactions will release enonn0us amount
ofheat energy than radioactivity.

3:!.__ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _~P:;::O'.!.:W~E;..:R.,;_P_LA_N_T_E_NG.::.:.:..:.INEED1l
.:.:4 ~
3.3 1 uclear fu ion
~ . . . ( f iroilar electric charge) are rnact
1n nu kur h1 1011. t, o or more lighter nuclei O s 80 • elo
· . h eratures (above 10 C 1 e h.
llid tofu th m torreth rin a plasma at h1g temp . · ·, Igh
~ ·18 £ d and the mass diffi
particl · l iti ). I\ a re ult of th.is a heavier nucleus onne erenee
is transfom1ed into en nnous amount of heat which is much greater than tbat was Produ~
·
fiss10n ·
reaction. •
To cause fus10n, the nuc le1· are nece.ssary to accelerate
. to- high kin etic.
energi':_1, ~theirte&tureJ_ohundredsofmillions~greesmor~
lectncal repulsi, e forces. .
The tremendous energy produced in the sun and stars are by contin~ous fusion
reactions. In the sun, quintillons ofhydrogen nuclei collide with each another and fuse to
become helium nuclei. During this, they loose a small ammmt oftheir oJ:iginal mass which
is converted into extremely energitic particles, radiation 8?-d heat. This process is also
knmvn as thermo-nucl~ar fusion. For generating power by this process, a controlle~
relatively slow and sustained fusion is needed. The nuclear fusion is presently under
experim~ntation and the r~,ts are exp~cte.4 by ZO l 5.
3.3. 2 Nuclear fission ·
In nuclear fissio~ a high energy neutron is.made to stiuk with a heavy nuclei. Due to
this effect the heavy nucleus will split into two almost equal fragments of lighter atoms
accompanied by release ofheafplus two to three free neutrons. Fission can be caused by
bombarding with high energy a particles, protons, deutrons, X-rays as well as neutrons.
·But, neutrons are most suitable for fission reaction because they are electrically neutral and
thus do not require high kinetic energy to overcome the electrical repulsion from positi~ely
charged nuclei.
Slow .
incident-~~
Fast Free neutron~
neutron
. ,:. Sr Fission frag~ents (strontium nucleus)

· Figure 3.1: Nuclear fission reaction
1"
uct..EAR POWER PLANTS 3.5
~
One of the elements whose nucleus easily fissions is l.J23s. All the other are naturallY
available stab~e elements and hence splitting the nucleus ofthese atoms is not as easy thing.
f]ll.lS in a fission process, a high energy neutron is made to struck with heavy unstable
uranium (92lJ235) nuclei. - . -- .. . . . '
During fission reacti9n, the following results.
. .
1. The immediate (prompt) products of a fission reaction, such as (54 Xe 140) xenon
and str0 ntium (3gSr94) are called fission fragments.
2. Fission fragments are released along with other decay products {a, ~' y etc.) are
called fission products.
-· . -- _... .
3. Two to three fast free ~eutrons accompanied by the release o~~~~t fo_r e~ery,
bombardment. ·· · · _,,. · -- · - - ··
3,3.3 Controlled and uncontrolled chain reaction

A.s discussed in nuclear fission reaction~ when an tmstable neutron enters the uranium
92
U235 nucleus, the nucleus splits into two fragments and releases 2 to 3 neutrons per
fission accompanied with heat. The neutrons released during the fission can strike other
nuclei of 92U135 and causes forther fission reactions under favourable conditions.
Thus the reaction becomes self-sustaining and results in continuous chain reaction.
Thus, nchain reaction is a self-sustained, continuing sequence of fission reactions which is
maintained under favourable conditions. This chain reaction may either occur in controlled
manner or uncontrolled manner shown in figure 3.2.
Radiation Radiation
heat heat
Slow free
neutron
Radiation Radiation
heat heat
Figure 3.2: Chain Reaction
L ~cannect. w1 tn c...:am~canner
~
~-~-------------~P~O..:._:W.,=.;ER:...:..P_LA_NT_E_N-..:..:GINEERIN
~6
·
As discussed . bere lea sing as a result of fission react·Ion.
above, 2 to 3 neutron will
As (}.ll average, 2.5 nuetrons are eJected
. · of 2.5. neut
pet. neu tron absorbed. Out . tons,
neai•lY0:2 to 0.3 neutron is lost due to escape at. th e surface and the. remaining is· 2.2
. the
neutrons. If these 2.2 neutrons are allowed to con tmue · chain reaction ' an expon ent1a1
.
increase in reaction rate can be noticed. As a result of this, enonnous amount of heat
ener~ will be evolved and such a type of chain r~actio~ is.l~own~s ~~
reac,tion. This extremely large ar~1otµ1ts of energy 1s applied m atollllc explosion.
In other case, out of2.5 neutrons, about 0.9 neutron·is absorbed by U238 converting
it into fissionable material Pu239, 0.5 neutron is captured by control rod material, coolant
moderator and partly escape from the reactor and 0.1neutron is l~~t from the reaction and
the remaining is only one neutron. Toe onl one neutron after every fission is allowed to
continue o cause further fission reaction;•It is known as controlled chain reaction. The
e~ergy produced by such a chain reaction is used in n u c l e a r ~
. .
3.3.4 Difference between fission and fusion .reactions
S.No. Nuclear fission
1. Nuclear fission is th~ p~o~ess~of Nuclear fusion is fonning a heavier

splitting up ofhea~unstable nuclei by colliding two or more
nucleus into two equal fragments nuclei so that they fuse together into
ofeqtial mass and2 to 3 neutrons a heavier nuclei accompanied with
accompanied by th~ release of the large amount of energy release.
large amount of heat.
2. Nearly about one thousandth of Nearly about four thousandth of
the mass can get converted into mass can get converted into energy.
energy. • • I
3. Fission process emits radioactive Lesser or no more radioactive rays

rays. emission in fusion proces·s. · _._
4, I Process is possible even at orqinary. Very high temperature is needed for
operating temperature. fusion process to occur.
5. It possibly gives rise to self-sustained It does not give rise to. chain
cham reactions in coqtrolled manner. reacti,on in controlled mann~r.
;• \ r' ,:
I I , .. I }• J i
6. Neutrons~~-~ emitt~d-~~1&~es~~l,of. !. , .Protops.~~ emitted ~s a result .o,f

fission reaction.
.fusion
- . reaction.. .~
~::::_:.;..R_P_O_W_E_R_P_LA_N_T-=-s_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __;_.-·..:::.:.:..3]
3,4 LAYOUT AND SUBSYSTEM OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

The figure 3.3.shows the gen era. I Iayout of
· a nuclear power pJant. When an uns table
a
isotope such ~s uranium under goes fission reaction in reactort a large amount of heat is
released. Tbts enonnous amount of heat is absorbed by the coolant which is circulating
tlirough th ~reac_~or_ core. This hot coolant then;passes through the steam generating unit
(boiler) \.vh~re heat is·transf~ed from coolant to the feed water and thus generating steam.
This steam 15 th en expand ed m the steam turbine to deliver mecnanical work wruch is then
converted into electrical power by means of a generator. The steam after expansion is
condensed and is reused in boiler. Pumps are provided here for delivering proper and
constant flow ofcoolant.
' Control rods
i
----- Pressure vessel
Radlatlo rM---
Thermal
shield shield
Generator
. Hot coolant out Steam
Moderator
fuel rods -n-:...n~~1
(Uranium)
Condenser
.
L... I
Q) I
Feed ·· - - - :
~l water
Feed pump
3.5. ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR POWER ~LANT

The main components of.a nuclear power plantand their functions are described
belo,v. ,, ·
1. Nuclear reactor ,.
I J: I r I
A nuclear reactor is an assembly mwhich the. nuclear
... fission
.
chain reaction is irutiated
and sustained a-ta steady controlled rate so that beat is produced continuously. The main
fimction of ~e ~act~r is to contr~l ~e ~missio;and absorption of neutrons.
!3,8Q._
· _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __r:P~O:!!W.::ER:..:.P~LA_NT_E_N_G..:.:...IN:..::::~
It includes the following components.

n) l1ucl
1· . 2 s p 239 cl (YJ 3• Among these l.J13s .
~'UC 1s used 1n nuclcnr reactors nrc 92U 3 , 94 u an 92 '92 1s
,~ ' ' ' Th
nnturolly nvnilnblc uplo 0.7% in the umniu,Trore and the remammg 15 92 •• e O er two
th uns
ore formed by the fission process of U23 ~ and U2?2, due.to.the absorption of neutron
. 92 90 • fi 'bl .
without fission. Usually, tl1c fuel fe<l to the reactor is an ennched sst e matenal upt0
2.5 to 3% for 92 U235 •
b) Mddcrntor
Moderator is used to slow down the fast movin_g_neutrons by reducing their kinetic
energy in a frnction of seco~ds. The commonly used moderator materials nre graphite,
carbon, heavy wntcr or beryllium.
c) Control rods @
. Conlro Irods are inset1ed to con!'o I U1e chaJ'reacti on i.e., I~~
Jl.12.when required
and to shutdown under emergency. The common materials for control rods are boron,
cadmium, inditun or silver. Control rods are moved in to reduce U1e heat.production
If--- -----------
_,_;_.-
rate
and moved out to increase the hent productioo rate.
d) Rcflcc~· - (F}
'
The mnin purpose ofreflector is~cqpserve the neutrons by decreasing th~ loss of
!1eutr~1is reduces the consumption of fuel. ., . ,
~ Y" ...,
.... c) Reactor vessel
Reactor vessel is a strong walled container housing the core power reactor with all
the equipments.
t) Shielding
A thick.concrete s~ielding must ~e provided to E!:vent the operating perso!lllel

from the hnnnfilTeffects 6f dangerous radiation like a, ~' y i:ays~ch tends to escape to
' .... ~- .
the atmosphere . ...
g) Coolant
Coolant transfers the heat produced m'ine reactor'due to·the continuous fission
reactjon to another,medium SP·~ t9·g~n.erat~ the-steam. _
~ • • I
! l .,. • • ' t •

NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS 3.9
l, steam generating unit .
This unit generates steam from feed water by absorbing th~ from the hot coolant
corning ~ _the rea_cto!.
_.-- b.
3. Steam tur me
·-.-The steam sog~-~ ~~~mlhe~iler~ the!l fee! to_·f!l~ turbine ;he~ s t ~ -
to p ~ k , which IS then converted into electrical poweroycoupliiig"a generator
~l ~ ~ - -
3.6 ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

1. ~o!.,e economical when compared with thennal-plant.
2. No fuel transportation, handling and storage charges.
I
3. No ash disposal problems~ )(
• I
4. Less number of workers are needed than thermal plant.

5. Low capital cost in bigger unit sizes.
~ ... ...- ,_
.
6. Less space is required.
7. Process is high reliable.
8. Less q ~ a t e r is required. -I/!)_
-- ~
9. Not affected by adverse weather condition.
· .10. Ne~ligibl~ amount off u e ~ ~ thermal plant.@ · ·
' · 11. It is well suited for large power requirements.
~ .
12. ltconsumes~fuel. ~ p-c-0~\~
3.7 DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR PLA_NT C5
1. It can be used only as base loa<;l plants and no,t suitable for variable load
conditions. -... ,(.. , ...
2. Highini*dmaintenancecosl ~ . ,
. 3.. Well~pers~ is ~eq~~ f~r operation . _ . T , .-. • , ~ :
4. .~dio·a;tive wastes may affect the workers health arid other suiT~gs.
~ r
5. Disposal of~o active waste is a major problem faced in nuclear plants.
fJ
~0~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _P'....::O~W:..=.E~R_P_LA_N_T_EN_G-:.:..INEERIN
3•1
...: ~
3.8 NUCLEAR REACTORS
\ . '
A nuc1ear rea~tor 1s. an assembled apparatus ·m'~hich ' a self-sustammoc:i ntle 1enr
fission-chain reaction is initiated and m'aintained at a steady contr~Ued rate so that heat is
produced continuously. Its main function is to control the release an_d absorption or
~eutrons during a chain reactor. It may be regarded as~ace fo~mung n~ic~~s
like lP--15;:u~J~ or,Pu2J9 and produces usefii! products like heat. neutrQDS and mdto isotopes.
!he figure 3.4 shows the various essential elements of a typical nuclear reactor;. It GQnsists
of the following components. .' ....,
1. Reactor core
Reactor core is a chamber in which nuclear fission chain re·1ction occurs and ns n
result of this, large ammmtofheat is liberated. It consi I ofn~ emblng1:,; of fuel elements,
control rods, coolant and moderator. Fuel clements ore u unll mode f plntcs or rods of
uranium metal and are usually clod in tl1in stainless. tccl sh t I provide c rrosion rcsistnnco
and stmct11ral support.
Control rods
!
------ Pressure vessel
---- Thermal
shield
=~~--=- Hot coolant out

:_._ to heat exchanger
.,. ...
,--....., n. ': ~
. ....
~~
:,.
.
Fuel rods (Uranium)
~canned. Wl th c.;am~canner
2, Moderator
_Mode~ato~ is~ device used to slow down the high energy fast moving ne~1trons by
redu~mg th err kinetic energy so that neutrons are utilized completely before it escapes.
This increases ilie p~ssibility of absorption of neutrons by the fuel to cause further fission
and hence th e quantity of fuel required to maintain a chain reaction is also reduced. The
common moderators used are ordinary water, heavy water, graphite and beryllium.
3, Control ·rods
Control rods are inserted to control the chain reaction and controlling the heat
production rate. To startup the reaction, the control rods are moved out which increases
the heat production rate and the reaction is maintained by adjusting the position of control
rods. To shutdown the reaction under emergency, the control rods are pushed in, which
reduces the heat production rate. The common materials for control rods are boron,
cadium, indiwn or silver.
4. Reflector
The main purpose ofa reflector is to conserve the neutrons by decreasing the loss of
tl,e same. This results in the reduction of fuel consumption. The neutrons produced during
tlte chain reaction will be partly absorbed by lhc fuel rods, moderator, coolant or structural
material etc., while the remaining will try to escape from the reactor core. These escaping
neutrons can be reflected back into the core by reflectors to take part in the fission reaction.
I o
5. Reactor vessel
It is a strong walled container that encloses the reactor core at its bottom, reflector
and thern1al shield. It also has holes at the top for inserting the control rods and has
passages for entrance and exit of the coolant. ·
6. Thermal shielding
It surronds the entire reactor core and absorbs some of the radiations in the fo1m of
a-rays, ~-rays and escaping neutrons. So, it gets heated and prevents the reactor wal I
from getting heated. This shield is c~oled by circula~g water over it. It is made up of steel
• It I • •
plate lined with concrete.

., .
7. Coolant
of
The main p~ose_of coql~~ is_t9.¥~f~ ~~ large amount heat produced in the
reactor due to the continuous ·fission reaction ..It also keeps the fuel assemblies at a safe
temperature to avoid their melting and destruction. The commonly used coolants are
ordinary water, heavy water, gas (He, CO), liquid metal (Na, K) and an organic fluid.
L i:)cannect w1 tn CJam~canner
E....__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~PO-!!_W.!!:E::;.:R:.:.P~LA_N_T_E_NG_I_NE;;;.;:;ERING
~3.12 ~
. R diation shield _
8. B10l<;>gical (or) External (or) a h scape or leakage off:
- .t and prevents t e e . ast
· It surrounds the whole reactor uru the operating personnel from the
. . . .. -· . It also-prevents
movm·g neutrons and slow neutrons. . · s which tends to escape to th
harmful effects of dangerous radiatio~s like a, p, y ray e
atmosphere. ·
3. 9 TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS

Nuclear reactors can be classified as follows
1. Dependmg. on the way of energy reIeased by fission.
·
. causedb Yhigh· energy fast neutrons)
a. Fast reactors (Fission 1s ·
b. Thermal or slow reactors (Fission is caused by slow neutrons)
c. Intermediate reactors (Fission is caused by neutrons_in course of slowing
down)
2. Depending on the type of fuel used
a. _Fissile material (Natural and enriched uranium)
b. Fertile material (Pu239 and lP3 3)
3. Dependi~g on the moderator u~ed
a. Ordinary water moderated reactors
b. Heavy water moderated reactors
I • • c. Graphite moderated reactors
d. Beryllium moderated reactors ·
4. Depending on the type of cooland used
a. Water cooled reactors
b. Gas cooled reactors
c. Liquid metal (Na, K) cooled reactors-.·.·.
!P• ,Qrgaaj~·liquidcqoledreactors ..,
· · 5. Dependiilg·on tlie•fuel mod~rator assembly (core type)
a. Homogedeous-i-eactors (Fuel'and nidderator-~ mbcecif .. .
b. Heterogeneous reactors (Separate fuel rods are surrounded by moderators)

NUCLEAR _POWER PLANTS 3.13
J. 10 PRESSURIZED WATER REACTORS (PWR)

· W~ an excellent oderator and coolant for the reactor and thus water cooled
reactor are developed in nuclear power plants. WR power plant shown in figure 3.5
uses enriched uranium as fuel. The water under pressure is used herefor both mode@or
an~t. A constant pressure ofabout 150 bar is maintained in the primary loop so as
to avoid the boiling ofwater.
Pressure
Equiliser
Electrical Heater
-::..:~=-
L-
Steam
....
Q)
Generator
~
Steam
-0
J:
Heat
turbine
Pressure
Vessel --..::,... , Exchanger
(or) Boiler
...
Q)
Condenser
~
-0
0
u
Circulating Pump . Feed Pump

Figure 3.5: PWR nuclear power plant
In this reactor, a pressuriser is mounted in which water and steam if~ed and provided
with electric heater at bottom and water spray at.~e top. If the pressure in primary loop
drops. ..
. ..
The heater is opened which generates steam and increases the steam content in the
vessel so that pressure is increased in the primary loop. Ifthe pressure in primary loop is
high, then too high cold water is sprayed into the steam and so the steam gets condensed
so that pressure is reduced in the primary loop:- ·· ' . · . . ,·.-,
Inside the reactor, continuous chainreactioll'takes place'and-is·accompanied by the
liberation of a large amount ofh~at.wlticb-.ts ap_sp,rbed py,tqe'C9_olMt (w~ter). This hot
Pressurised coo Ian~ {lows to heat ~xch~g~r (~t~ gen~~tor) through
• .... - • f , ~ J ' ~ • t,'
pr~sµriser .
i: , ' ' f • , - ·
3_~'.____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __.;P~O~W.:::E:.:..:R.:-PLA_N_TE_N~GINEERIN
~14 ~
l steam is generated by transfe .
Here, heat exchanger acts as steam generator. T·1e h rnng
the heat from the coolant to the feed water of secondary l9op. Then, t e ~ump r~turns the
· .· Th team generated m heatexcha
coolant mto the reactor again through pnmaty loop. es . nger
th
is expanded in the turbine which is coupled with the generator. From ~turbme exit, the
' . Th feed pump delivers the sain
condensate passes to condensor a~d 1t condenses. e ·~ eas
feed water to the heat exchanger.
Advantages
d here is.water which is cheaper, avai~able in plenty-and tnult1•
1. Single fluid use_
purpose (coolant, moderator and reflector).
2. Reactor is more.compact and higher power density.
3. Lesser nm;nber of control rods are required. I
4. Steam is free from contamination by radiatio~ and hence normal turbine

maintenance is enough.
5. Fuel is utilized efficiently and thus minimizes the fuel cost.
Disadvantages
1. High primary loop pr~ss_ure requires strong and }eak proof press~e vessel and
so high capital cost.
2. Low pressme in the secondary circuit leads to poor thennodynamic efficiency of
the plant.
3. Use of high pressure, high temperature water causes severe corrosion problems.
4. Reactor must be shutdown for fuel re~harging.
'
5. Fuel reprocessing is difficult as fuel suffers radiation damage.
6. Preparation of fuel element is expensive.
' .
3.11 BOILING WATER REACTOR (BWR)
Boiling:water reactor also uses enrrcheduranium as a primary fuel. Here, the
reactor pressure is:substantiailly reduced to aUow the boiling of coolant (feed) water.
Figure 3.'6 ·illustrates the BWR powerpfant This system is also known as·direct cycle
boiling water. r_eacf0r- power plant. In this·reactor, the steam is generated inside the reactor
itself. Coolant-(water.)'entei:s:theTeactor at"the'flottom-and·gets'b:eatedby the he·at liberated
due to the fission reaction. fusid~the reactor itself, the water is completely converted into
i:>cannect. w 1tn L;ami:>canner

~:::._R_P_O_W_E_R_P_LA...,;;N;,_;_T:.,::S:___ _ _....:.__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __13~.15
aiJJ. The steam is leaves the re .

ste anded. Exhaust steam from th acto~ top and supplied to the steam turbme and g~~s
e~P d . e turbine passes through the condenser and conden'seci
rr}le condense water 1s rerouted aga • b .
J m Yusmg feed pump. .
Generator
Containment Structure
'-
Q)
~
"Cl
Q)
Q)
-:-:-:-:- Hot Well
LL
Figllr~ 3. 6: BWR Power plant
Advantages
1. Elimination of heat exchanger results in reduction in cost
2. Maintenance ofcomparatively lower pressure inside the reactor makes the reactor
much lighter and reduces the cost.·
3. Lm,v metal surface temperature.
4. Thermal efficiency is high ofabout 30% due:to ·siflgle loop·operation.
·Disadvantages
1. 'Steam 'leaving the reactor is-·sl.i'gbtly radi6acnve.
2. 'Safety is·a major problem-in BWR plants than PWR plants.
3. Steam wastage during part loao operation results in ·lower thermal efficiency.
'4. ·Lower powe"r density makes to use larger vessel.
....
3.16 POWER PLANT ENGINEERIN
~----------~~..::..---.:.:.:..:~
3•12 CANADA DEUTERIUM URANIUM REACTOR (CANDU)
ln C .. NDU R actor, th \\ord CANDU stands for "Canada Deuteriulll
ranium'~- It i a re 0 istered trademark of Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. It is a
· ressurized hea, -w:ter moderated and cooled power reactor. The special features
of C: }U)U reactor is D2O (deuterium oxide 99.8%) is moS tly used moderator and
coolant as'' ell as neutron reflector. In CA.l~U reactor, the fuel used natural uraniuin
as fuel (0.7% UL.3 5). The moderator and coolant are separate syS tems in lhis reacator.
The CAl"\!l)U reactor has four important circuits as shown in figure 3·7·
i) Heavy water Moderation circuit
ii) Heavy water heat transfer circuit
m) Steam circuit
iv) Cold water circuit
The heavy-water is less effective as a moderator when compared to ordinary
light water. this means neutrons must undergo, on average, more collisions to thermalize.
Therefore
.
the CANDU Reactor core must be laroer 0
than a Light \.Vater Reactor core •
The CA.t'TT)U reactor does not have a pressure vessel, But it u~es pressure tubes. The
reactor is a horizontal cylindrical tank called a calandria. Hundreds of channels
penetrate the -calandria which contain the fuel. The coolant is pressurized, not the
entire reactor.
The Coolant inlet temperature is 266 C and the coolant-outlet temperature is
310° C. In the heat exchanger the steam is ge~erated at 41 bar pressure and 251 °C.
The thermal efficiency ofCANDU reactor is 29.5%.- -
The important component of CANDU reactor are
'
i) Fuel bundle _ n) Fuel filling rriadiine
.fu) Calandria (reactor core) iv) Adjuster rods
v) Heavy \.vater moderator vi) \-H~avy~w~ter pressure circvit

I
•
.
•
. •
\
'I:' l •.
vu) Steam generator viii) Light wateYputnp

• ,. .. I •
ix) Heavy water pump x) :._Pressure tub,e

. '
..
'I
· ··-· •• 1-. - - -
~cannea w1 tn c..;am~cailner
r
'"tJ
Steam 0
-. ,a, ~
m
Steam
::a
-u
Water
+--
Steam
-
-.- >
z
-i
(/)
Pressurizer Water Steam
.- -. Low
!
...
Heavy t Q)
High
~
water Heavy ~
water "O
Calandria
i 811
j heating
Feed
Cooling
Reactor system Condenser
Fueling water
machine
------i 1-----1 Fueling
machine
Heavy Water I
Moderator ,J,
IModerator
pump i Heavy_Water
Feed
pump
+-- Condensate
tr. Moderator
r:, • \ extraction
Cold Water
Pl pump
~ Moderator heat exchanger.
~
Cb
A Reactor building Power house Switchyard
~
~·
ct
p Figure 3. 7: CANDU Reactor w
~
C -...a
Pl
a
tr.
r:,
Pl
~
~
Cb
t-j
pOWER PLANT ENGINEtD
~
:18
i Fuel b1111dle .
. (VO ) ns moll cyltnde pnllet
Tn \NDU t't:n ' l r the ('1.1 01is nnturnl urnnn1111 I. \~bsorplion cross-sect' S. Jt
u nnturnl uranium bccnusc of· n mn ll thennu · I ncu b, Fuel is arranged in b 10nof
101 l
dcut ritun. Th pnllcl nrc pnckcd in Zirco.nium nlloy tu. cs. . nlloy cl dd' und ics:
49 ..'._:> m long nnd l 0.2 cm 111
. d1nmete1.
. . 11e1e
,1 . nie._37 Zll'conmm a 1ng tubcs 4
filled with nntmnl urnninm dioxide pellets.

ii) Fuel filling 111aci,i11e
• the reac t01•core • The Fuel is refilled on!'1nc
Initially 97,000 kg of fuel is filled m 1
i.e. while the renctor is in operation.

iii) Cala11dria (reactor core)
The cnlandna · contams · tal pressure tubes which are welded nt

· upto 3801.1onzon
the end of the tubes.
-----.:..,__---,,.,,,, Calandria
Calandria tube
/i End fitting
L-~-J.-~:;:::==~=====ri---r-:a...,;..J
Garter spring spacer End shield
Figure 3.8: Calandria
The fuel bundle is kept inside the calandria tubes as shown in figure.
iv) Adj~1ster ro~s
o ,._I • ' I •
The Cadmium rods are used to control the reaction by absorbing strong ne~trons,
It is mostly used to shut down the reactor and start up the reactor. In addition to·that
the control rods·are used to control the power.variatio~s and maintain uniform heat
distribution in entire·core. •· ·
t
\
I
-.
J O o • I
.::>canned. w1 t.ti cam.::>canner

CLEA,;:..R_P_O_W_E_R_P_LA_N_Ts;;:___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~:__--...::..3.:..!.;.19
~ -
◄- Control rods
Reactor core
Figure 3.9: Core

•• I
.,) Jfeavy water moderator
The moderator temperature is maintained at 70° C and low pressure.to reduce

the heavy water losses. · '
.,;) Heavy water pressure circuit
The heat from the reactor core is absorbed by the heavy water. The heavy
wnter is circulated by means of heat transport pumps. It transfers the heat to the
stenm circuit.
vii) Steam generator
The steam generator absorbs the heat from the high temperat1ire co·olant leaving
the reactor. It has a conventional inverted U-tube in which the heavy water (reactor
1 coolant) is circulated to generate steam. The steam generator and reactor are kept in
I • .. • •
the reactor building which is a concrete strncture.

viii) Pumps and pressure tubes
The condensate extraction pump and feed pump are two important pumps used
to supply feed water to the steam generator. The heavy water pumps are used to
circulate the coolant of the reactor core and transfer heat to the steam generator.
Worldng principle
In the reactor vessel, the neutrons are emitt~d in fission reaction ..Jbey are ~lowed
down by the heavy water, which acts as a coolant and carrying the heat energy
l produced from the nuclear reactor to the heat exchanger and then to the turbines to
produce electric power.
3.20 poWER PLANT ENGINE.e,~1
~
. d hen a large atom breaks u
Dtu·mg fission the smaller atoms are produce w . d P. 1n
th. . . . . d 1.n the ura01um an some en
ts P1ocess of nuclear fission some energy 1s store · ergy
is transfom1ed into heat. Here the heat is transferred to ordinary water to convert into
steai11. The steam enters blad~s of the turbines and rotates to generates electricity,
3.12.1 Advantages of CANDU reactor

i) Heavy water is used as moderator. It leads higher multiplication factor and
low fuel consumption. ..
ii) It does not require enriched fuel. Therefore the coSt of the fuel is less.
iii) The CANDU reactor does not have a separate pressure vessel.
iv) Through it is a low pressure reactor; the cost oft~e vessel is low.
v) Fuel is refilled online, while the reactor is µi operation.
vi) Good operational record.
vii) The moderator is maintained at low temperature; therefore it increases the
effect of slow downing the neutron.
3.12.2 Disadvantages of CANDU reactor
i) It requires infrastructure to provide significant quantities of heavy water at
reasonable costs.
, .ii) CANDU needs a larger moderator to_fuel ratio and a larger core fqr the
same power output.
.iitJ The initial investment is high because ·of 99.75% pure heavy water is to fill
the core and heat transfer system.
iv) The cost of heavy water is high.
v) There is chance ofleakage.
vi) The re_actor is exception_ally large as the power density is low to compare
with other (PWR and BWR) nuclear po~er plant. ·
...
• I

NucLEAR POWER PLANTS_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___23E·21
~:.::-------.;;,,_:__:_,:::
3,12.3 Difference between CANDU reactor and PWR
5.No. CANDU reactor

PWR
----1. 380 sm~ll diameter (10 cm), thin 380 Large diame ter, thick pressure
small diameter ( l Ocm), thin (4 _2 mm) vessel. '
pressure tubes (4.2 mm) pressure tubes.
'
2. Horizontal ori~ntation. I
Vertical orientation.
3. Heavy water coolant (312°C). Light water coolant (329°C).
4. Separate heavy-water moderator , The coolant is the same as the
(65°C). I
moderator, both hot moderator,
both hot.
5. Reactivity devices in low pressure Reactivity devices in high pressure
moderator. coolant/moderator pressure
coolant/moderator.
6. Large core, low energy density. Small core, high energy density.
' '
3.13 GAS COOLED REACTORS
In gas cooled reactor the coolants used are carbondioxide, air, hydrogen or
'
helium. Mostly the inert gases such as helium and carbon dioxide are used as coolant.
The moderator used is graphite. The gas is circulated through the reactor core instead
of water. It reduces the corrosion of the reactor core.
The fuel used fo gas c·~oled reactor is a natural uranium; u 23 ? with an alloy of
~1 • • •
magnesium called magnox. The reactor contains two circ~its as shown in figure 3.10.
i) Primary circuit
ii) Steam circuit
1' · The prim•ary circuit contains reactor, heat exchanger and gas pump.
, •J ; • .~ : ' ' • I • I • . i ' I I
The cool gas from the ·heat exchanger is sent to the reactor and takes the heat
and given back to the heat exchanger. The real task of the coolant is not to cool the
reactor, but transport the heat from the reactor core to the steam generator. The gas is
safer and effective as a coolant and easy to handle. It can be operated at high
temperature. The coolant pressure is 7 bar and temperature is 336° C.
3-~~------------_i:...:PO~W..:;E:::..R.:.;...P_LA_N_T_E_N_Gl...:..::.:N~C
~22 ~
Steam circuit
.~.:..=_:_--~
Primary circuit I
Hot gas
Control rods
Turbinet====trv
Generator
Moderator Heat
exchanger
(counter --+-.-- Water out
flow type)
Condenser
- ~ - C~n9
Cool gas water in
Gas pump Feed pump

Concrete shield ·
· Figure 3.10: Gas cooled reactor -
. In steam circuit, the important elements are heat exchanger (steam generator),
steam.turbine, generator, condenser and feed pump. The steam generated by means
of high temperature gas from the reactor at heat exchanger. The steam drives the
steam turbine to generate electricity. The steam is condensed in the condenser and fed
to the steam generator.
''
There are two types of gas cooled reactors developed with some improvations.
' l ~ • >
· i) The High Temperature Gas cooled Reactor (HTGR).

ii) Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (AGR).
\..
3.13.1 Ad,iantages of Gas Cooled Reactor

• I
i) The gas is safer and effective coolant.
ii) No corrosion.
iii) As a result oflow parasitic absorbtion, it gives better neutron economy.

iv) Graphite rema'ins same ap.d irradiation at.high temperature.
I
v) The uselof ~a~~~n.dioxide ~s c?olant completely.eliminates.the possibility

of explo~jon in lhe r_eactpr.__~·_,_
' I
>~ __.
1
'
_.
1 1 , 1, l . 't A. ' '-.. ~ ,:
3,13,2 Disadvantages of Gas cooled reactor

0 The ~as co~lant has lower heat transfer c~pability, therefore high mass flow
rate 1s reqmred. . t • .
iO It requir~s high pumping power.

iiO Fuel loading is more elaborate and costly.
iv) :Power density is very low, therefore the size of the vessel is large.
v) If helium is used instead of CO 2, then leakage of gas is major problem.
3, 14 FAST 8REEDER REACTOR (FBR)

Figure 3.11 shows the fast breed~rreactor. It is a small vessel in which the chain
reaction is sustained primarily by fast moving neutrons (without using moqerator). In fast
breeder reactor, fuel such as enriched uranfom and plutonium ora mLxture of these is kept
inside the reactor core without using moderator.
This active core region is surrounded by a blanket of breeding material (fissible
mntcrinl) such as fertile uranium to absorb the excess neutrons otherwise those neutrons
would possibly lost by leakage. The reactor core is cooled commonly by liquid sodium.
Fast breeder reactors are normally designed to produce more amount of fissible materia_l_
than that is being consumed by it.
Secondary heat exchanger
Control Rods Primary (or) lntennedlate (Steam Generator)
Heat exchanger
Na Na
..--.,t---+----. (Radio active) (Non-radio activ ) Steam
Active,-1-1~........
Core Cooling water Out
region
Coolant Circulating Feed

Pump Pump · Pump
Uranium
blanket
lntemiediate Working {or) ·., • ·
Primary Circuit Circuit , , _• Power CiraJit ,. ,
Figure 3.11: Fast.breeder reactor power plant

(Liquid metal cooled reactor)
R pl.ANT ENGINEERING
- poWE -=-----~
3.24
Iant which is more simiJarto
. reactorPowerp . d
The figure 3.11 shows the fast breeder lant When the enriched urarnum un ergoes
Ii .d metal (sodium graphite) cooled reactorp ffa.st moving neutrons.
qm . with the release o
fission reaction, heat will be liberated . ·um blanket and are converted
-1.M.1 b the surrounded uram . .
Excess neutrons are absorrn;u 3/ . • 0 chain react.Ion contmuousiy.
. . . ro, ,139' which is capab1e ofSU,Stallllil::i
mto fiss10nable matenal v u 1 . . Iant (sodium) and given to
. . .ed b the pn.marY coo
Heat evolved in the reaction is cam Y the beat is transferred to the
· heat exchanger
the primary beat exchanger. In pnmary ' uld be used). Toe hot secondary
• . differeatcoolantco
secondary coolant (sodium, however (steam generator) and the feed
b h dary heat exchanger . .
coolant passes throug t e secon d • to team. It 1s then supplied to
· . · h ted and con ertc tn
water coming from the condenser is ea · . rodtt cd by coupling an electric
. . Th
steam turbme for mecharucal power. _ c l;... el""tric power I P
generator to the steam turbine.
3.14.1 Advantages of FBR
I. It docs not require moderator.
2. High breeding i possible.
3. High power density rnak to use mall ore.
4. More fuel is produced than consumed.
5. Absorption of neutrons is low.
3.14.2 Disadvantages of FBR
1. It requires highly enriched fuel and thus initial cost is very .high.
2. Safety is essential against melt-down.
3. CircuJation of special coolants are essential to carryout large quantity ofbeat
from the reactor core.
4. Handlingofsodiumisdi:fficultasitbecomeshigblyradioactive.
3.15 LIQUID METAL COOLED REACTOR

The fast breeder reactors are designed to create a new fissile material when
• , I • .
producing electrical power. It operates on Uranium-Plutonium (U-Pu) cycle. The

reactor is fueled with Pu and the blanket is fertile uranium (Uraniuin~238). The
plutonium-239 breeder reactor is commonly called a fast breeder rea.etor, and the
cooling and heat transfer is done by a liquid m~. The fuel rod in ·the core region is a
.
IlllXllre O
f Pu-n9,
- an
duns
- . I
·- ··.. • • • - '
-. • I
.'
LlCL::;,EA.:.;..R,;...P_O_W_E_R_P_LA_N......;T;..::;S_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___:::.3:=.;:..25
V
The active region is covered with a blanket of fertile U23s_ This blanket region
captures neu~ons tha~ would otherwise it would be lost through leakages. Thus
additio~~l fissile matenals are pro~uced. The fast neuron reaction with u2Js producing
the pu .
u239
92 + y
24 minutes
u239 N 239 o
92 p 93 P +1e
N 2Jo 23 days pu239+_ e0

03 p p !M 1
Where
Np - Neptunium
Liquid metals nrc preferred for coolant due to their excellent heat transfer
properties. The coolnnt used for this reactor is sodium, lithium, mercury and lead.
Sodium is nvnilnble most abundant and most it is commonly used. Sodium is typically
used for coolant because,
O Sodium is not corrosive Like water.
ii) Sodium reacts with water and burns in air.
. .
iii) Sodiwn absorbs neutrons and emits hardy-rays from the reaction.
,
iv) Sodium is solid at room temperature but becomes liquid at 98° C and is
therefore a good heat transfer liquid.
Sodium is best choice for its following properties.
0 High density: 0.85 g/cm3 at 400° C
.,
ii) High specific heat: t :2s ) 0 Ig K.
• I
I
iii) Hjgh boi~g piont: 88_3° C ·. _ . . . . .
iv) Melting point: 98°C- '··. 1 '· ,·, · '
v) Strongly activated, 15 h half-life

vi) Intense gamma emitter: 1.4 MeV

3.26 POWER PLANT ENGINEE_
RING
The Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactors has three circuit~ as _shown in
figure 3.12. Two circuits are in reactor side and one in po,wer generation circuit.
~ Primary circuit ii) Secondary circuit ili') Steam circuit
Primary Circuit
Secondary heat
Liquid Na Liquid Na Steam exchanger
(Steam generator)
....
0
Primary heat Generator
c3
ctl
Cl)
exchanger
a::
Pump Pump Pump
Primary loop · ; Intermediate loop Steam circuit
Figure 3; 12: Liquid Metal Cooled Fast ~reeding Reactor .,
The primary circuit consists of r·eactor, heat exchanger and pump. The LMFBR
core is composed of two parts namely core and blanket. The extra neutrons diffusing
out from the core are absorbed in a material (depleted U-238) surrounding the core
which is called the radial blanket. This material is directly incorporated into each fuel
rod above and below the fuel region (depleted U-238). The fission process takes
place in the core volume. The heat is generated in the core.
Liquid sodium circulates through the fuel core and absorhed. the lieat from the
core. The liquid sodium in the primary circuit is highly radioactive. After that it transfers
the heat to the secondary circuit through the heat exchanger (HE 1) and cooled ~iquid
I
sodium .g9es b,~fkt?J
,t_he,s~~.9~<?r.ves$_
el. . ,_. , . _1
. ,\
. .\
. t \ L • "I
Secondary circuit'. 1 · . .. • • I
The secondary circuit .consists of a non.11adioactive sodium in liquid form. This

coolant absorbs the heat from the heat exchanger in the primary circuit and it transfers
the heat to the steam circuit heat exchanger (HE2).
i:Scannea. w1 tn c..;ami:Scaniler
stcnrn circuit
The hent cxchnnger

.
in bet ween t·11e secondary circuit
. . and steam
· · · gener
circuit · ate
, steam by transfen?ng th c heat. The super heated steam is generated and sent to the steam
turbine to generate electricity. Additio1~al shielding is also.provided for gamma shielding.
3,15.1 _Advantage~ ,of Liquid Metal fast Breeder Reactors
0 Ores .wi,th a , very small I·concentration of 92 U235 whicl; is useless for
conventional reactors can be used for the blanket of 92 U235 in LMFBR.
I
ii) Moderators are not required.

iiO Fast bre~ding is possible. ' ' . ..
, . iv) · High power density.
v) The size of the con~is small.
vi) Low absorption of neutro·ns.
vii) High bum up of fuel is achieved.
viit) Energy produced is oflow cost due to readily availability of fuel.
~.15.2 Disadvantages of Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactors
, '
1
•
, 1, 111 ,
O ' Sod!um
, • • ,
explodes
•
if exposed to air• or
• •
water.
,
Therefore
, • , •
any leakage can be
1
dangerous.
•I ' ,.. . .
. ii) Poisonous fumes .

iiO• It requires highly enriched fuel.
. '
' I
iv) Neutronf!ux is ~igh,~t core,. , . , ,
'
'l
v) Long switching off the reactor, increases the cost significantly and also
reliability of LrvtFBR.
~) The high energy n~t!tron makes the liquid sodium radio~ctive.
I I ' •
vii) Highly riched sodium coolant can caus-e a·seri'ous ac'cidth:iHirI:MFBR.

1'
viii) There is a chance that 94Pu239 would be emitted in to'atmosphete which
·''
. .•can result in devastating res1.11ts~· ,·,
'
I t I
.1. ,·, . , . ·· ·. ··, , ·
• I I I
pQWER PLANT ENGINEERING
3.28 ~
.
3.15.3 Difference between the fast b
reed er reactor and pressuri~
-~
w~r~~r ·
S.No.
Pressurised Water Reacto-;--
Fast Breeder Reactor
l. The fuel is enriched to 15 to 20%.
The fuel is enriched to 3 to 5%. ----
2. Water is used as a moderator. ·
No moderators are requfred.
' 3.' The heat is transfer by liquid metal The heat is transfer by water.
like sodium, lithium, lead etc. .
4. Reactor is at low pressure. Reactor is at high pressure.
5. Approximately 1.2 fissile atom ~e Fissile ~aterial is 9nly consumed.

. produced per fission .
-
3.16 SAFETY MEASURES FOR NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
3.~6.1 Types of Waste
J?isposal ofwa.ste materials is a major and common problem in nuclear power
industry. .
.
. . being highly radioactive and are injurious to human, animals and plant
All the wastes
.
life. Therefore, proper care must be taken to dispose the waste safely without polluting the
atmosphere. The waste materials produced in the nuclear plants are in the form of solids,
liquids and gaseous.
1. Solid waste
Solid waste consists of discarded control rods, fuel cans, scrap material or
disordered objects contaminated with radioactive matter. The solid containing the
combustible matter is burnt and the resulting gases are disposed to atmosphere after
dilution. The remaining is mixed with concrete and buried deep in the ground. It is
necessary to keep the radioactive solid waste first in water as nearly 50% of the
radioactive material disappear during cooling. ., • • I
2. Liquid waste
Liquid wastes are diluted by adding water to remove most of the activity in the
form of solid precipitate and then discharged into the ground if the activity level is low.
However, ground water may get contaminated, if dilution is insufficient.
i::icannect. w 1tn t.;ami::icanner

Nt:JCLEI.\R POWER PLANTS 3.29
So, tbe treated li~uids are kept in.hold-up tanks before discharge for a period
to allow part of the radioactivity to decay and then buried in ground. The tank should
be leak proof and has long tenn strength. .
3, Gaseous waste
• I , I
Gaseous _waste could easily pollute air and h,ence the gas should be treated in a
clean-up plant to remove radio active iodine which causes major health hazards. They are
also commonly diluted.with air and after passing through the filters and then released to the
atmosphere through a high ~~ey.
·.. . ..
, 3.16.2 Safety m~asures for Nuclear. Power Plant
Nuclear power plants are designed in such a,way that they must ensure the safety of
the neighbouring communities, so that there will be no adverse impacts on their health.
Tuey are designed to prevent any abnonnal incidents from occurring. If abnormality occurs,
then nuclear plants shouldpreventthe potential spreading ofabnonnal incidents and leakage
ofradioactive materials around plants.
To achieve optimum safety, nuclear,plant~ the ~ollowing aspects are considered
·O· Design and construction of a high-quality reactor, cooling ·system, pump and
·h_eat exchanger. .
. . .
ii) Equipment which.prevents operational disturbances or human failures Total
' ..
· · ~onitoring. ··
,. . r
iit) Regular testing to detect equipment or operator failures. , .. , ,

iv) Redundant and diverse systems to control 4amage to the fuel. ..
•, -v)_Pre~entsignificapt~9ioactiyerele~~~, , • 'J ·, •
.'.I. . ',. VI)' Provision to ·confine the effects of severe fuel dam~ge to the plant itself.
The three basic safety functions in a nuclear reactor are:

O·To ~ontr.ol reactivity. I
•
••
I
l
I l
ii) To cool the fuel and
ili) To contain radioactive substances .
.,1., .-~· ·,' \f , : • '. ,·, ·. , .1.r.r11',·'. ,·~·,·1l·J 1j"i:, , ,... ,•:\:) ... ,! ; . Jr:lj .,, ,·r.! I,
. i .
. ',' , ,, ·. · ' . ' · , . · ;1 I ,_,. , ,: · ·. , • .,,~: ,-,-.,j . I J· .-, : 4-f I ·: t I ·. ·. ,. r, ,,. . • , , ~· ; ' . :, ·•· :' ..•
' . .
tJ: , I f j r • f ~ I I: • : • 1 1,. l_ t j l: f ••~' • •;, ,-) ' •• '!. 1 t, •,• 1J I ,
~ ~~--------~---__i:P~O~W'...::E::;R.:.-P_LA_N_T_E_NG_I_NE.:.:::.:.~G--..
!30
afety during unusual events ca
Measures to be put into action in order to ensures n
be summarized in the following three points:
i) To shut down operating reactors
. . h t from nuclear fuel
n) To cool down reactors so as to remov~ ea
fu) To contain radioactive materials
'
1. Aseistnic measures taken by a nuclear power plant
· · · b k
Several safety measures against eart qua es are
taken at all stages of design
,
coristtuction and operation of nuclear power plants.
· The aseismic measures taken in to considered at two stages are
i) Assuring safety at design stage
ii) Assuring safoty at construction and operation stage
1
Assuring safety at design stage

i)· Perform a detailed study of active faults and detdiled earth quake of site and its
surro_undiilg.
il) Assure a safety design to save safety and significant equipments from land sliding
,and other events.
ili) Detailed Analytical evaluation to verify seismic safety.
iv) Geological struotute of site.
v) Confoitnaticiri of safety against Tsunami
Assuring saf¢ty at construction and opetati'on stage
i) The construction of a nuclear power plant should be on the·grotmd'with sufficient
bearing'resistance. ,
ii) Install a system which can automatically shutdown the reactor when certain level
. . '
of earth quake is·detected.
i:>cannect. w1tn (.;ami:>canner

2. Th'e-Sh'ort"'tehil and long tern1-s-afety-ineasures·of-nuclear power p\ant -.z.
C.
- \~
m
·Description Short Term Measures Mid and Long Term kleasures )>
::0
·• 1. Review of emergency response manuals, etc. 1. Installation of coastal levee. "'O
0
2. Additional deployment of emergency power 2. Strengthening water tightness of ~
m
:Q) source vehicles. the buildings. ::u
"'O
-~ IEmergency:Safety Measures 3. Additional deployment of fire engines. 3. Preparing the spare equipments ~
(seawater pump, etc.) z
~
-~ en
-g 4. Addition·a1 deployment of fire hoses.
0 .
c, 5. Conduct of emergency response drills.
'Z
,; · • Interconnection of emergency diesel generators 1. Connection between all units and
....·0= oetween units. . grids .

~ 2. Inspection of transmission line
~ .·IMeasures foi··securing power towers and measures against earth-
>
Q) ' Source -quake and tsunami.
S.. l
~ I
3. Seismic measures for switch yards,
etc.
1. Transfer of equipment.s (switch
1. Securing work environment at the central
I
board, etc.) on high gronnd.
2. lnstallntion of the static hydrogen
2. ·Securing-hydrogen ruscharge measures.
tr.
~
Q)
.Q)
u . combiner, etc (P\VR)
n
Pl '5i ~i Sevei·e Accicfeiit'Measures 3. · Securing communication tools.
3 . . Instn.llntion of the reactor building
ventilution nnd hydrogen detectors
~
~ s:I ~ • (B\VR)
(b
A
ft
0 CJ '
O ~- 4. Preparing high dose resistance protective
a,
clotung.
·1 ..
~
~ p::Q) ,:S ;
....
ct 5. Deployment of Wheel loaders. \\
P'
C
Pl
s
tr.
n .....
Pl
~
~ ....
(b
1-;t
:::..:,3.3~2=---------------~PO~W~E:;..,R_P_LA_N_T_E...;..:NGINE.Et:1
~
1. What do you understand by moderation? (A U-NovlDec 2oo4J
Moderation is a process of deceleration of neutron energy ~om_2 meV to 0.25 e'y
without absorbing neutrons. Toe material used to reduce the kinetic e~ergy is kno\Vn
as moderator. Example: Graphite, Carbon, Heavy Water and Beryllium.
2 - What are the advantages of nuclear power plant?
i) No fuel transportation, handling and storage charges. .
ii) - Lo\V capital cost in bigger unit sizes.
iii) Less space is required.

iv) Process is high reliable.
v) Less quantity ofwater is required.
vi') Not affected by adverse weather condition.
vii') It is well suited for large power requirements.
viii) It consumes less quantity offuel.
3. Bow the nuclear reactors are classified? (AU-Nov/Dec 2004, _2011)

Accorrjing to neutron energy
i) Fast reactors
n) Intermediate reactors I • • • • I
ih) Slow reactors I• •
• I
A'ccording to moderator
• I
i) Water
il) HeavyWater(D20)
m) Graphite
iv) Betyllimn
v) Hydrides
According to Fuel ...
i) Solid ii) Liquid !
•
, '
.. •
. , .
I •
,
'f
.:>cannee1 Wlth uam.:>canner

~ R PO~ER PLANTS
According to types
0 Pressurized wa_ter reactor it) BoHingwaterreactor
fu) CANDU reactor iv) Gas cooled reactor
v) Liquid metal cooled reactor
According to construction ofcore.
O Slab core reactor n) Cylindrical core reactor
fu) Cubical core reactor - iv) Spherical core reactor
v) Annulus core reactor
4, What factors control the selection of a particular type of reactor?
(AU-Nov/Dec 2004)
1. Type of fuel to be used

2. Output power in MW
3. Control system and coolant system
4. Safety ofreactor
5. Rate ofneutron production and absorption
5. What is chain reaction? (AU-Nov/Dec 2004,Apr/May 2010)
When a high energy unstable neutron struck with a heavy nucleus of uranium, the
nucleus splits into two fragments and release 2 to 3 neutrons per fission accompanied
with release of enormous amount of heat The neutrons released during fission can
strike other nucli and can caus~ further fission till the whole fissionable material is
disintegrated. This self-sustaining reaction is_known as chain reaction~
92uw + 0 n 1 ➔ Ba+ Kr+ 3n + Q
92u2" + 0n 1 ➔ La+Ba+2n+Q
6. What is f~st breeder reactor? List down any two types. · ,. 1 • '· ' :
(AU-Apr/May 2012, May/June 2007, 2012, 2014, No~/Dei 2006, 2012)

The fast breeder reactor is one that uses enriched uranioo:i ·or plutonium or thorium
that is produce in the reactor itselfas secondary fuel as a secondary fuel.
~cannea. w1tn c..;am~canner

3.~'.___---:----------~P_:::.0:..:..:W~E;,_R_PLA_NT_E-..:N.::..:GINEc:RI
~
_: ~
The different types of fast breeder reactors are

0 Liquid metal cooled reactor ii) Fem1i fast breeder reactor
7· " 'hat is tl1e function of moderator and reflector used in nuclear power Pinnt?
. (AU-1Vov/Dec 2006~
A1oderator: It is a µ1aterial which reduces the kinetic energy of faS t neutron to

increases the probability of chain reaction.
Reflector: It is used to reflect the escaping neutrons back into the car~ . .
8. Name the coolants used for fast breeder reactor.
0 Liquid metal (Na or NaK)
ii) Helium(He)
iii) Carbon di oxide (CO 2)
9. Define the term "Breeding". (A U-Aprll't1ay 2005)
It is the process of producing fissionable matcrinl (secondary fuel) from a fertile material
, such as uranium 23 8 (lI'-38) and thorium 232 (Th23 -) by absorpi ng the neutron with
conversion ratio above unity.
U138 + neutron ➔ Pu 239
Th 232 + neutron -> U 233
10. What tire the components used in presurised water reactor nuclear power
plant? (AU-Nov/Dec 2005)
• ~ I '1. "Reacfor·core . 2. Control rods
l Jvloderator and coolant 4. Pressuriser
5. Steam generator 6. Tmbine
7. Condenser 8. Pump
t • J1 1.· • 1, - . ...
11. What are the important properties that a control rod sho~d posses?
• ( ! •• , , I • l ..
1. It should have adequate heat,,transfer properties.

• • ♦- • , • . .. '1
2. It should withstand high temperature.

3. It should be able to shut down the reactor in nonnaland emergency conditions.
4. Non corrosive.
1z. What are th e important properties tl~nt the moderator should posses?
0 It should have high thennal condyctivity. . ,
it) It should with stand at high temperature.
iiO It should be-able to slow·down the neutrons wheh required.
iv) Non corrosive.
v) It should have high melting point for solid moderator and low melting point for
liquid moderator.
• t
13. How the nuclear reactor is-classified according to the cype of moderator used?
O Graphite reactor .. . , ..
ii) Beryllium reactor . )
i4) Wat~r (ordinary or heavy _water~ r~actor I

,.
, I
• ll
j f
.. - .
14: Define m'ultiplication factor? • • f •

•J
f
.
- ..
.,." 1
,.. ,,, -
4
-
i
It is used to determine whether the chain.reaction.~ili contunie at st~ady° ~tate 6r not.

• I • • • .:. • • •
It can be expressed as
p
Effective multiplication factor K =
• I
A+ E -
'
where P - Rate of production of neutrons, A - Combined rate of production. of
, , I • , • , • f ', I II..; I ~ 0
~ ! • I ,
neutrons, E - Rate ofleakage of neutrons · ....

15. Indicate the types of nu~Iear fission reactor power plants op~rati~g
.J . .
~n Iµ.aia
. '
.
(A U-May/J11ne 2006)
I. Pressurised Heavy Water ~eactor - Narora - 1 & 2, UP
2. Pressurised Heavy Water-Reactor 1 - Kakrapar, Gujarat
3. Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor· - Kalpakkam, Tamjlnadu · __
. , . . ~, • . , ., 1 .,:·r~ •·,r, :-~,,: ·. · ·_,· ;.,. ., · . ~ -· >
4. Boiling Water Reactor · 1- • .Tarapur, Maharashtra
• • I .- ' . I • \-'' j • , •' •• l ' ; ; • : J J,
( t \+'
5. CANDU · - Ran~ Pratap Sagar
~-.: . ~ .. . ' . ' 1 t I • I ' ., : I • .• t • .. ,. \ ,, • ' ' J ..
I
. _.
• • t j / .· 1 ' I J ' 1 ..~ . , ·: I ;
I :w.iYc ~few dd:~til nbout the ~1tomic power tution currently operating in
1'.unilnadu" (AU-ft/ay/June 2006;
1. KruJXlkkmnAt mi Power Stntion

Full ' indi::.-en us mnterial nnd d~igned b Indian engineers.
0 tf\
PH\\ .
Kun I\::,ulnmAt mi P wer tntion
\la mtion \\~th Rus ~j
- C p ·it)•_ 00 ~t\\
- PH\\
17. Li~t he ba i factor tho ear to be con idcred for the design of nuclear
power plant. (AU - Nov/Dec 2007)
1 A, . iln ility f \\ ntt:r.
n Distnnc from th populated area.
3
fu) \\1 te di po· l.

ri afi a~~ inst earth quake flood and water waves.
, Di tance from load centre.
v1 il ndition and land use.
\ill Acressibilit}.
vm Characteristics of reactor design and proposed operation.
ix Surface tectonic and non tectonic deformations.
18. Explain the function of a nuclear reactor. (AU-Apr~/ay 20081 2009)
Toe nuclear reactor is a part of a nuclear power plant. The function of the nuclear
reactor is to maintain a chain reaction by producing a steady flow of neutrons
that generated by the fi'ssi~n of heavy nuclei. The fission energy is liberated in
the form of heat to generate steam to operate the boiler in the nuclear power
plant The reactor contains reflector, moderator, control rods, shielding, coolant
and fuel elements.
i:Scannect. w1 tn lJami:Scan ner

¢ R POWER PLANTS
3.37
19 . What is half life of the nuclear .f uel?. · (AU - Nov/Dec 2007)

R~di~active materials emit radiation on a typical timescale known as a half-l~fe.
It mdic~tes t~e deecay rate of nuclei and it is the average of total time for which
the radioactive nuclei has disintegrated from its parent nuclei. The half life is
inversely proportional to the decay content. After halflife it becomes less and
less radioactive. The nuclear fuel uranium-235 has'a half-life over seven hundred
million years.
zo, What are the requirements of chain reaction? (AU - Nlay/June 2009)
~ The main requirements of chain reaction are critical mass and enrich fission
material. They are required to initiate a chain reaction. Critical mass is the
minimum amount of fissile material that is essential to begin to fission at a
rate adequate to build a chain because fissile material is constantly undergoing
radioactive decay by spontaneous fissiQn.
ii) The chain reaction must be release energy continuously in the form of heat.
iii) It must be controlled at a particular rate of fission.
iv) The loss of neutron during chain reaction is also accounted.
21. List down the nuclear disposal methods. (A'U -May/June 2009)
Q Geological Disposal
it) Reprocessing
iii) Transmutation
iv) Space Disposal
22. What are the desirable properties of good moderator?
· (AU-May/June 2009,Apr/May 2011).
~ The moderator sliould sfow dd\.Vll the neutron in minimum collision:
,,.·.. u)' I Th~moderafing ratio will be·as"high as possible.
' • \ ... - ,. • • • ,• • ' 1 •• 1•1 •, I• ~~ • • • ij!._ . I
~•• I
h
,·.' iii)': ~h9.ul~ _ha~i~oo?.cli~mi-~~lt rf p~rty ~d structurally strong .
•• • ' • A "' ' "
·: . . iv) •The cost should. be•low:: • · ' · I • •
hn scannect w1tn c..;am~canner

~
J.~~-------------::--~P..=0:...:..W:....E_R_P_LA_N_T_EN_G.....;,;INEE,DI
~38
.· t of breeder reactor?
23. What are the advantages and d1sadvan ages ·
(/1 U -~pr/May 2009)
Advantages
0 This does ,not require moderator.
ii) High breeding is possible.
iii) High power density makes to use small core.
· iv) More fuel (fissile material) is produced than consuming.
'I •:V) Absorption of neutrons is low.
' ' vi) Larger burning of fuel is attained .
. ' '
Disa,lvantages
Q It requires highly enriched fuel therefore its initial cost is high.
ii) Safety is essential against melt down.
iii) Circulation.of special coolant is essential to carry large quantity of heat
from the reactor core .
. .iv) . Handling of Sodium is difficult as it becomes hot and radioactiv~.
v) The specific power of the reactor is low.
24. \,Vhat is a nuclear fission? (AU-Apr/May 2011, 2012, Nov/Dec 2009, 20Jl)
The process of splitting the heavy unstable nucleus in to two or more unequal
part from,the atom by bombarding light energy neutron is called nuclear fission.
During fission enormous heat will be generated. Fission process is accompanied
by the emission of neutron and g~mma rays. About one in thousandth of the
mass is converted in to energy in this process.
25. What is the requirement offission.pr~~ess?(AU-Apr/May 2010)
i) The neutron emitted in the fission should have sufficient energy to cause
fissioin of other nuclei.
it) During fission pr~cess the enormous heat must be generated.
iii) The rate of energy release during fission must be controlled at a particular
rate.
.:>cannee1 w1tn uam.:>cahner

NUCLEAR POWER PLA~TS 3.39
iv) The process should be poss1·bl e even at ordmary·

. · temperature.
operattng ··
v) The loss of neutron du nng
· fiIss1on
· ·
1s also accounted. .
1
vi) The number of neutron generated is considered to measure the rate of fission.
If more neutrons are generated then the rate of fission is also high.
26, What is the function of pressurizer in.the P.WR? . -. , ..
The purpose of the pressu~izer is to maintain pressure iri the'primary loop ?fthe
pressurized Water Reactor. The pres~urizer con'tai~s\~ater and ~te'a.m ~~d an
electrical heater is provided to heat the water in it. When the pressure falls
(negative surge) the steam will be generated by means of a heater·and ihe vapour··
is sprayed to increase the pressure in the. primary loop. When. _the pressure
increases (pvsitive surge) c,old water is sp~ayed in to the steam and the steC;im is
condensed to reduce the pressure in the p~imary loop. · , : : · · ·
• I
27, What are the essential cc;>mponents of a nuclear reactor?(AU-Apr/May2010)

Reactor Core, Moderator, Control rods Reflec·tor Reactor Vessel, Thermal
' • • ' t •
Shielding, Coolant, Radiation Shield and measuring instruments: ·

28. Name three moderators co.mmonly used in nuclear power pia~t?
(AU ~Apr/ May2012)
O Heavywater(D2O) ii) Helium gas iit) Berlyllium (Be) . iv) 'Graphite
29. Wb'at are-isotopes? (AU-Nov/Dec '1010)
1, Atoms of the same element can have different numbei:s of neutrons and ·s·ame
numbe~. of protons. This different possible version of1each·element •is~called-
isotopes. for example, the ~ost commoµ isotope of hydrogen has no neutrons
at all; there's also a hydrogen isotope called deuterium, with one neutron, and
another, tritium, with two neutrons. ·
Hydrogen Isotopes
' ;°j I J: I r •
H-1 H-2 H-3

..... ,
i-f D
Hydrogen Isotopes
3 o. Why nuclear plants are used in base loads? (AU-Apr/May 2010)

Nuclear power plants operate at maximum output. The power changes are limited
to frequency regulatkm for .grid stability purposes and shut down for safety
purposes.
These plants produce electricity at the lowest cost of any type of power plant
, and so are ~ost economically viable, technically feasibl and used at maximum
capacity. ~erefore nuclear power plants are used in base load and are operated
at ~igh :apacity 9perating hours.
31. What is LMFBR? (AU -May/June 2012)
The Liquid Metal Fast Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactors (LMFBR) is a fast
breeder reactor can convert Uranium-238 into Plutonium-239 at a rate faster
than it consumes its fuel.
32. List various control rods used in nuclear power reactor.
Boron, Silver, Iridium, Cadmium and Cobalt.
33. ~ame the coolants used in gas cooled reactor.
Carbon di oxide, Air, Hydrogen and Helium.
34. List down th~ nuclear waste disposal methods.
~ .Geol9gical
. Dispq_sal it) Reprocessing .iiI) !~utation • • ., I
iv) Space disposal .v) Oc~an disposal

• • t ~ f - •
. • ~
35. What is the purpose of Control rods?
Q The control rods are used to start up the chain reaction.

it) It is also used to maintain the chain reactio~ at de.sireilevel by adj~ting the
position. Moving up makes the fast reaction and moving down makes slow
down the ~e,~t_i9n_. ,. ,1 , .- i• .'
fu) To.shut df?WP. t~y r.eaction,.~h~.~~IJ.~ol rods are p~~~ed in c~mtinuo\lslyi
during emergency. ,_ ,
36. What is breeding in Nuc,l.e,~r r~act.~r? ! ,: .- , • • :· . _ ,·-, • .•
Toe process of producing secondary fuel, fusionable ~~~al fr~m fertile material
(primary fuel) such as Uranium ~38, ~2}8) and Thorium (Th-232) by ~eutron
absorption is called breeding. · · ·
i:Scannect. w1 tn lJami:Sca.1!ner
3.41
,..,ucLEAR POWER PLANTS
~
37_.N1101c the diffei·cnt components of Nuclca~ Reactor.

0 Nuclear fuel ii) Moderator iiO Control rods
iv) Reflectors v) Reactor·v~ssel vi) Biolo~cal shielding ·
vii) Coolant
JS. Name the coolants commonly used for fast breeder reactors.
·O Liquid metal (Na (or) Na K) ·· ..
. ii) Heliwn (He)
iii) Carbon dioxide
39, What are the advantages
.
of gas cooled reactor
.
Nuclear Power Plant?
Q Fuel processing is simple .
ii) The use of CO2 as cool~t completely eliminates the possibility ~f explosion
in reactor.
iit) No corrosion problem.

POWER FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY
'. .:· · . ~- :::·, :•:·. :_.· . •,:_" :~: .·. . ' •.
[. .:~· tearnirig Obj~Ci:1v'Js :.r , 4 1 'HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER

l
•• ~ - • • t • - •• • • : •• • •
~ j • •' ' t .. . ,· ·' J •', ,. •• ' ; ... · , ' ,. '~ ••" : - •
, I "', ; • ~ , ( f, • ♦ ' • • •. • \, ,I' '1 , :f • PLANTS

t✓ ; ~:'.~Yo/_~-~~~-c?.i,~-Po~e~~la.nr •.:~-': :'··>.·. _., Introduction .
<:·
••
r,.~ ~·.:Cla~~lfl~aff~n h. •·I. ... , ''' Hydropower is a commercial source

·.:~, .-.rypJ~al~ayoutandass~cia~~cf ·. ·... of energy whkh supplies 30% of the total
· ··:,cf~ponents lncl~1din9 Tur~rnes .. ·· .. . electricity of the world. Role of water in the
I • . Pumped Stor'~gepl~rit I. : . :! 0 no
power generation has emphasis and is a
' .' : ·. ~ -· ·· , · ·· · ·· very important factor in the development of
•t: i Princf pie
·' ' •• • , 1 :. '· • ·• ' • the world and nations.
::, . Micro hydel developments :. . ; •
. . ' , . .... .
~ ,on~t·ructl~n an~ ~orkl_n9°of . .. A hydel or hydro-electric power plant
•· ... Wind foWer r1ants •.. .' .. :" .. is based on the power ayailable from the water
t 1 , ',. \ • ~ t, I ' I' f • o
flowing under pressure. Faraday, s discovery
. : 11dal. rower. Plants . . .:~· ·:'-' : ...
i, • • • •'" ,. , \ ~ ' ,.;.
•· .
'\. I • • 1' of electricity has proved to be very useful to
. . • .~ s'ola rPlloto VoltaI¢' (SPV} ,Pow~~-fila~ts :·
I I I r,., ._ ;, use water for producing electric power.
• • l ' ~ i ~.... ,. ' ,. :..,,1,. t.
: • • iSola~Po~erPlan~~ .
t < '· • •
Therainwaterfallingonthecatchment
' ..
. ., :-
• .: . ,•
,< ·
... ' .
· • ,Thermal Power Plants, G~thermal Po.wer ; .
... '
area is collected in the fonn of streams and
• i· '. • . . ,. \ . ..
:-_ plants,51o~as~P~!rplantsan~~uelpen_-. flows into the plant site where the water
l.'. '. P~we~ ~~5~~~ ·. :. . 1
, gets collected in the form ofr~servoir. Hydro-
: _, ·._ •. •,•, ·. . '·: .. ·.· .~: -::,r. · :~ .. electricpowerplanfutilizesthepotentiai'energy
\ I • ' • t
.-.~·.>.. :, ,: :·..~~'-- .- .. :..·(:···; <:-·.; . ·.-ofwat.erstoredinadambuiltacrosstheriver.

. '.' :~. ';. :•• _; • ·••• i.··. ·i.<~:. :·
. :.~. . WaterP.owsfro~reserviortotu{binethrough
. ,('", , l ,,,. J ' • • .. • ,
-. · :· ·· ' · < .- . a.yalve m:i~ ~hile trave~g, its potential energy

.is converted intoimechanical
... ,. , . -~{ · -· .. 1,~i ~· · \ .
(kinetic) energy.
~cannea. w1 tn cam~c~nner
lbis high velocity jet of water impinging on the blades of the rotor m~es th e rotor to
rotate. The mechanical energy available at the turbine shaft is converted mto ele~trical
energy by means of a generator which is coupled to the turbine shaft.
4.1.1 Layout of hydro electric power plant
A hydel or hydro-electric power plant is based on the power available from the
water flowing under pressure. Faraday's discovery of electricity has proved to be very
useful to use water for producing electric power. This power plant was initiated in India in
1897 with a run off river scheme near darjeeling. Hydel plant is more important next to
thermal power plant because about 30% of the total power of the world is met by this
plant .
,'3/orking ~t1-nci~le ofhydr<>:electric power plant

, . The figure 4.1 shows the general.layout ofa hydro electric power plant with variqus
equipments and their locations. The rain water that falls on a large area (catchment area)
gets collected in the form ofstreams and flows as runoff into the plant site. At the plant site,
water gets collected in the reservoir.
., Reservoir
Catchment (head race) .....
area
Generator room
Powerhouse
Trash rack
f'
• • ..- I
. .... I
Figure 4-1: Layout ofHydel power ~ki~~ ·
.....
I
poWER FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY 4.3
Hydro-el~ctric power plant utilizes the potential energy of water stored in a ~

built across the nver. Water flows from reservoir to turbine through the inlet valve.~
way to turbine, th e P~energy is c ~ into mechanical (kipetic) energy. This
b[gilvelocity jet of water impinging on the blades of the rotor makes the rotor to rotate.
'fhe mechanical energy available at the turbine shaft is converted into electrical energy by
means of a generator which is coupled to the turbine shaft.
Essential components of hydel,p~wer plant
The essential components of hydel power plant and their functions are briefly
described below.
1. Water reservoir
Reservoir are usually formed by building a dam across a river at reasonably high
level. Its main purpose is to store the water collected from catchment area during rainy
season and supply the same during dry season. Water surface in the storage reservoir is
known as bead race.
2. Dam
A dam is an impenetrable structure constructed across a river with powerplanton
downstream side. The main requirement of dam is that it should be able to withstand high
pressure stream. Its main function is to increase the height of water level behind it which
ultimately increases the reservoir capacity. It also _helps to increase the working head of
the power plant.
3. Catchment area -- -
Th~ catchment area or. qrainage ~ is the whole area which collecls raiii witer and
drains the water into a river:
.. · . .
4. Trash
.,. raJ:k
Trash racks are gates, provided to prev~nt the entry of debris from the dam or from
the fore bay. Debris may cause damages . to wicket
. . gates and turbine runners, or choke -
up the nozzles o(the.impulse turb4i~~ : ·. . :,;-. --. . ., ,. .
I o .... , .... ••, • ,. ""
S. Forebay · .. · .. ·· , ·
• .. • • • • • i :
Foreb1y.Js a·t1~W _vapatiofrab~orber which serves as a regulafuig storage reservoir

. . . . .. ; _ • ,, • - , ~.• • • Oi l .. ..
for t~mporaiily storing water wlieri fiie loc1:d on the plant is reduced and provides water
when the load is increased.
I ~ 1' , , .. "- t ' 1 • •• 'I • ~ "-
4.4 POWER pLANT ENGINEERING
6. Surge tank
. Surge tank is a temporaty storage safety reservoir fitted to th~ penS tock at ·a point
0
near to the turbhie. When the"load on the·geiierator is dropped, there is a sudden rise in
pressure due to sudden backflow of water. Convers~ly, when the load on th e generator is
increased, vacuum builds up _in_the penstock. This phenomena results in a hammering
action called water hammer, which would damage the penstock. Therefore the SUrge tank
is introduc.ed between the dam ~nd the power house to keep the back presSure to a
, minimum by avoiding sudden pressure ris~ in the penstock.
7. Penstock
A pressure conduit, pipeline or a tunnel located between the surge tank arid the
prime mover to carry water under pressure is kp.owil as penstock. These are usually made
_o f st~~l,.reinforced concr~te and e:ven wood under certain conditions;
8. Spillway
Spillway is considered as a safety valve for a dam. It must have the capacity to
discharge maj,0r floods without damage to the dam and at the same time keeps the water
· level ip._ the reservoir b~low th_epredetemrined maximum leyel.
·9. Water turbine 1 ·' •. • .
· ·. flydraulicior w.ater turbine is qsed to convert

., • • I.
th~
hydrauli.c (pote~tial or /and.
I • ' ',
kinetic) energy into mechanical energy to produce electrical energy. The commonly
used hydraulic turbines are pelton wheel turbine, fran_cis turbi~e, kaplan turbine a!1d
propeller hrrbines.
10. ----------
Draft ttJbe
. tl;lat connects tb~ t~U race with

Draft tube is a diverging passag~ ' .
the turbine exit. It
is used only when ¢.e reaction turbine is used in the power plant. Due to its' sbape, th~
water flowing through.the tube__is decelerated and it comes out with minimum.kinetic energy
:and:thus ultilizing most of the kinetic energy thereby incr~~ing the work output.
4.1_.2 Adv~ntages·of hyd~l pow.~r P,Jant·
1. Operatjng cost, and ruJVling cost is considerably low.~r tban *at of thermal
plaQts.
2. W<;i~er-is;a renewable soU:r~.e q{e~ergy' and.a.vailabl.~.ij~free ofcost.
3. No proble_m of fue_Land as.b.ha,Q.dlitig,&Qd hence no pc;,Ul,1.tion.
poWER FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY 4..5
4. Higher efficiency over a considerable load range and suited to meet peak load
demands. ···
5• Its useful life is very high and·its efficiency does not change with age.
6. Plant can be started and stopped with inamatterofminutes.
7. There are no stand-by losses which are unavoidable in thermal plants.
8. Auxiliaries needed are less compared to therrnalplan.tfortbesameoutput.
9. Hydro electric plant provides additional benefit5 like irrigatio~ flood control,
fishery and recreation.
IO. It requires less supervising staff as the required number ofoperations are less.
4.1.3 Disadvantages of hydel power plant
l. Capital cost is considerably high. r "'
.... r--
2. The sites selected for laying this plant is usually away from the load centres.
3. Pow..· ------
c .
enern ·on depends on the availability ofwater which in tum depends on
1atu ,.. · X.~ . "· · (
r"
4. It takes considerably long time forit5 construction and commissioning.
\ .
4.1.4 Essential elements of hydel power plant'
Figure 4.1 shows the essential elements ofhydro power plant These elements are
described below
1. Catchment area
The catchment area is the whole area behind the dam for collecting the rain w·at:er
and drains the water into a river or stream. The portion ofthe rainfall that flmvs through the
catchment area on the surface of the earth is known as runoff. The topography, shape
surfuce, orientation altitude and surface geology have a great influence on the run off
characteristics of the catchment area.
2. Water reservoir
The main purpose of water reservoir is to store the water collected from
catchment area during ming season anq supply the same during dry season. Areservior
may be natural like a lake on a mountain or artificially built by constructing a dam
across the river. \Vater held.in the~upstrean1 reservoir is ~ailed storage and behind the
dam at the plant is known as pondage.
3. Dam
A dam is an impenetrable snucture constructed across the river with power plant on
downstream side and water storage on upstream side. Thus, dam function is two fold:
1. It develops an artificial reservoir with desired capacity to store the water up to
the required level.
2. It creates the working head of water and increases the same for power generation.
Dams can be classified as follows:
1. According to the function
a) Storage dams
b) Diversion dams
c) Detention dams
2. According to the shape
a) Trapezoidal dams
'b) Arch dams
3. According to the material of constmction
a) Rigid dams (Timber, steel, concrete or masonary)
• r
b) Non-rigid dams (Earth fill or Rock fill)
4. According to the hydraulic design
a) Over-flow type
b) Non-overflow type
5. According to the structural design
a) Masonary dams
0. Solid gravity dams
it) Archdams
iit) Buttress dams
b) Fill dams ·
.
~ Earthfill dams • I
r •
.
•
ii) Rockfill dams
• I
p0WER FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY 4.7
a) Storage dams
It is mainly used for storing water and subsequently used for hydropower, irrigation
and water supply.
b) Diversion dams
It is constructed to raise the water level and to divert the river flow in another din.~tion.
However, they are not used for large storage capacities.
c) Detention dams
Detention dams are primarily used to store flood wat rs.

d) Overflow dam
In overflow dam, the water stored behind the dam is aUowed to flow over the top of
the darn.
1
e) Non-overflow dam
In non-overflow dam, the water stored is not allowed to flow over the top of the dam.
j) Masonary dams
Masonary dams are most common in hydroelectric plants due to its simple
maintenance and adaptability. These are either solid gravity type buttress type or arch
type.
1. Solid gravity dam
Head,~ter
Road revel
ater level
Figure 4.2: Solid gravity dams
A solid gravity dam is one which are solid throughout its length \villi fe,v joints in its
structure to allow expansion or contraction due to temperature changes. In solid gravity
dam, the retained water thrust is resisted by gravity action, as shown in figure 4.2. Nlore
SJ>ecifically, the pressure of water is resisted by the structural weight of the dan1.
Scanned. with CamScanner

4.8 . ?OWER PLANT ENGINEERING
2. Archdam
./
Crown
(a) Single arch dam (b) Sectional view of multi arch dam
Figure 4.3: Arch dam
An arch dam is~ well ancl1ored, solid concrete and curved upstr~am (at top) dam.
They are constructed in a valley where the width of the valley is narrow compru:~d with tpe
height as shown in figure4.3. .
In.arch dam, the pressure of water is resisted partly by its stmctural weight and
to
partly·due ~ch action. It is safe against earthquake and has inher~nt stability against
·sliding. In: tlus,..all the forces will be acting perpendicular to the surface so that they tend to
compress the material in the arch and thus less quantity of material is requiredf
3. Buttress dam
Buttress
(a) Section of Buttress ~"?- . . (b)_Slab and Buttress type

. Figµre -4.4: Bu_ttress.:_da'm ·.
Hollow gravity or buttress dam has an inclined-u:pstt:e~-~ t desk supported on

sloping buttresses as shown in figure 4.4. lncUlied upstream face results tlie V{a~ pressure
to create a large downward force which provides sta\1ility against sliding or overturning.
• • • • • I.
• • I
poWER FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY '
~ . 4.9 :
fill dams
fill ~ms are used for small power plants as they are usually constructed only in
smaller hei~ts. They are safe ?nd economic on all types of foundations of earth and rock.
'f}tese are either e~rth ~lled or rock filled dams. · .
J. Earthfill dams·
Reinforced concrete
__.......,~..,...,___ core wall
r;., -~· /I .. ~. ,
Stone pitching . (.:_/). ~='?>?\·,
;~',~-~•\·c::❖·, ~ :.:_": ... !•• .:- ,·· ·
._..._.· _.,,_1-. ., lrm:x,NIO'u .
'r !:::·:.':' .. / " :~ -·.=- ~~fo-~a,~·:
::, ·;_ ..
I : .:••• -,,.: . :_:_; ·: ·: •• : • , ...... : . •• 1•(;• . ,".
.. .-••-• - ·.·· _neaJ'.~ . ., .. •.: ·
-~~--"""~~~·,:~
: ~~
:;.~~?::~
-~!-.. ;·!'J::
. ;'. .: _;;' \ \; .) { i}t.{_; :. :.
Figure 4.5: Earthfill dam

• I '! .J
•
II
In U1is~ dams are constructed by earthfiH or embankment are u~cd 'ror·s~ll.projec~ t
I J'
I 1
•
: '·. 1
upto 70m in height. ~large ~olumc of material is required and it should be ~yaqable in,t~7
vicinity. It is cheaper than masonary dam, but has more seepage loss~s.
f J • 'r > J • , •
2. Rockfill dants I •
Water level
•' I -
Loose rockfill'
--·- -~----
: =======-
:-=-=~~===--
Impervious·
membrare
r •
Dry rubble
FJgurt? 4.'6: Rock fill dam
:' Rock.fill dams-a~n:echa-eonstwct where adequate qµality of;goo_d rock is

available near theplant site, particwarly in mountain regions~It consists.oflQQse rock fill of
mixed sizes-andhas tnipezoiclal shape with a wide base with a watertight sectio~ to re<juce
seepage losses.
L
4.10 · POWER pt.ANT ENGINEERING
Trash ruck
Trash racks are gate-like devices which a·re fitted to prevent the entry of the
debris from the dam or-from the forebay into the penstock, otherwise, debris may
cause damages to wicket gates and turbine runners, or choke up t~e nozzles of the
impulse turbine. It is made of steel bars and requires special provisions against ice
fom1ation under severe winter conditions. Debris deposited on the trash rack are
removed either manually for less floating material or mechanically for greater amount
of floating material. ·.
Forebay
Forebay is a flow variation absorber which serves as a re!!!l~~gst~~ge reservoir
for temporarily sto~ng water when th~ l~ad on the plant is redµijaJrid provides water
when the load is increased. Fore bays are suitable for low and medium
head plants where
the length of the pen~tock is short. ' · · ·· ·
Surge,tanks
Surge tank is a temporary storage safety reservoir fitted to the penstock at a

O
; 0 I ' • • !
point near to the turbine: When the load on the generator.is dropped, there is a
su9den rise i~pressure due't9 sudden backflow of water. Convetsely, when ilie load
in
on the generator is increased, vaccum build~ up the penstock. This phenomena
results in a hammedng action called water hammer. It would damage the penstock:.
' .
'
So, the surge tank is introduced between the dam and the power house to keep the
back pressure to a minimum by avoiding·sudden press~e rise
hi the pe.nstrock. There
are three types of surge tanks are commonly_ used.namely conical type, internal bell-
mou~h typ~ an~ ?ilferential_surge i~nks. ·
Penstock
. . . ~
A pressure conduit, pipeline or a tunnel located between the surge tank and the
. ' : ' . ,. . . - .. - .
. ~
prime mover to cany water under pressure is known as penstock.-.These are usually made
of steel, reinforced concrete and even wood under_certain conditions. Sharp bends should ·
be avoided in the penstock as they cause more loss ofhead and require special anchorages.
Penstocks may be either exposed type and buried type. In exposed type, penstocks are
not covered from exposed atmosphere and easily accessible for ~pairs and maintenance
works. In cold weather conditions, penstoc~ are buried to prevent the ice fonnation in
• • I • I j ~ ·• &.
thepipe. . · · · ·
~~F_R_O_M_R_E_NE_W_A...;:B.::.:LE::..:E~N~E~RG~Y~----------~4~.11
spillway
Spillway is considered a c ·ty t
. . s a sa 1 ety valve for a dam. It must have the capac 1 0
discharge maJ~r floods without damage to the dam and at the same time keeps the waterlevel
ill the reservoir below the predetennined maximum level. Various types of spillway are,
employed. They are overflow or solid gravity spillway, chute or trough spillway, side channel
spillway, saddleway, shaft or gloiy hole spillway and siphon spillway.
..
Spillway Tainter gates Foreba
~◄.;.;::.:;..::.::;.~~~~ Spillway crest
Tailwater
FloW,,A-,
~ ==:=}33
__ __ ,,_ --- F-fciw:. .-:.:..:-:~-..
-- -- ----
- --- -....- __________.-~~---:-::~{:;1
......----=.;.;z.;:::.::::.:::.:._.,t__.,,.
Soil/Bedrock
Flip lip
Figure 4. 7: Cross section of Spillway
)Vater turbine
' '
' · Hydraulic or water turbine is used to convert the hydraulic (potential or /and
kinetic) energy into mechanical energy to produce electrical energy. The commonly
used hydraulic turbines are pelton wheel turbine, francis turbine, kaplan turbine and
propeller turbines-. ·
Draft tube
Draft tube is a diverging passage that connects the tail race with the turbine exit. It
is used only when the reaction turbine is used in the power plant. Due to its shape, the
water flowing through the tube is decelerated. The different types ofdraft tube~ are shown
infigt~~-8. I . d
,, , : ) ,-,-;--,=,, 'a
, ,.' ·1 , 'J ,.. \ =2to3.5d

'' ' , . h ,\
.'-... i,
-- -- - -· . ,.
'
: ' I •1 •• ' 1• t, r • •: -~ 1 •
1
,
(a) Straight type (b} Simple elbow type (c) Elbow type with
varying cross-section
Fi,gure 4.8: Types of Draft tubes
L
~canned w1tn cam~ca:nner
4.12
. . . I. . . J I ltt'li,dn" mo11t,,f'thc ~,n,~i,
lt comes oul w11h 1111111111um oncl 1c cnc.rgy anc l 1u.1u , l:J ,
, , I I 1 'f'J ,I f'
t b
energy II1crcb· y 111crcns111g t 1c wor <oulpUL, 1c urn tu c Cttn
, be f tr'tl"il t (.;{ n1eal
c ~
tune
(ff
.I b . d r. J ' ,I hr•ncc cJboW typc:J~-1 r~rn<.f.;t

an elb· ow tu bc. Conc1a tu ~ 1s use ,or ow power uni l.'4 anu ..,
common.
4.1.5 Selection of hydro electric power plant
... The selection of hydraulic turbine is an important and major factor for the coonomft
. f~ o eration ofhydcl power plant. The selection facolrs of water turbine arc b~cd on th~
r conditions tmder it has to operate and attain the maximum possible cfficic,11cy, The fi Ilcw1ing
are the factors that governs the selection of a suitable hy<lraul ic turbine,
1. Working head of the water
Head is an important factor that governs the choice of suitable turbine forhydcl
power plant. The foHowing table gives the details of variou.s power plants operating at
different heads.
Power P/a11t Type //eat/range Type of turbine
Ve1y high head power plants > 350m Pelton wheel

High head power plants 150-300 m Pelton/ Francis Turbine
Medium i1ead power plants 60 - 150 m Francis turbine
Low head power plants 15 - 60 m Francis/Kaplan Turbine
'
Very low head power plants 2-15 m Kaplan Turbine
2. Specific Speed
It is the speed at which the turbine runs to develop unit power under a unit head of
water. The specific speed requirement is vary with various ranges ofoperating head which
in turns decides the selection of turbine.
Power P/a11t .Type Head range Specific Speed (kW-m)
Low power plants 2-60m 300-900
• I
Medium power plants 15-300 m 60 - ·400
High power plants 300-1000 m 40-80
From the above table,, it is clear that higher specific speeds are required for low
head operation and. vice versa.
' . ~ ... ' .
'• I
I •
~canned. w1 tn c.;am~canfier
poWER FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY 4,13
3. part load efficiency

Load!t whkh turbine develops its maximum efficiency is termed as full load. ~ ve
the fu]~a is known as o~: load an~ t h ~ ~ 'Fhe-fottowing table
shQWS the perfonnance of vanous turbine at part load efficiencies.
Type of turbine Part load operation

Pelton Wheel Suit;ibl~ for part load operations
Reaction turbine Decrease in part load efficiency
Francis turbine Unsuitable for part load operation
Kaplan turbine More suitable for part load operatioru;
4. Cavitation
Cavitation is the formation of water vapour and air bubbles in the water due to
pressucr reduction. Runners operating at higher specific speed than recommended, may get
affected by cavitation which corrodes the parts. To avoid this, the runner is set at a lower
eleval'ion from the tail race and even installed below the tail face for most of the cases.
5. iVJnximum efficiency
The maximum efficiency at which the turbine can operated depends on the type of
tmbine used. 1n both impulse and reaction turbine, low specific sp~ed is avoided so as to
avoid large leakage and frictional losses. However, high specific speed is also not preferrable
as it results in large discharge lossses. Therefore, it is always preferable to select the
reaction turbines, ifthey operate at constant load conditions. Reaction turbine have efficiency
abotJ12,0% while the impulse turbine have 82%.
r--..._ __
6. Type of water available
~ n e s are not suitable when the water carrier a good amount of dirt and
sand as 1t erodes the runner blades. Moreov:er, the verysrnall (sectional area) waterways
-
high. This makestopreferimpulseturbine(pelton
~
tear occured due to the flo~rrty and ~andy water.

___
may easily get chocked by floating the debris and the fluid frictional losses become relatively
~bee!lasi:twithstandsnonnal
_-....._
· -
wearand
7.Runaway speed
When selecting a turbine, a relational characteristics must be considered between
the turbine and generator. The speed of the rurbine increases to runaway speed when the
acting head of water increases. Therefore, the generator must designed to withstantd the

foll mnnwny peed of the tmbinc to which il is connected under maximum head conditions.
Higher the nmnwny speed fo the turbine, tho greater will be the cost of the machine to
withana nbnonnnl stresses.
8. Overall cost of the plnnt
The plant should be designed to generate power at a minimum cost as cost is the
major and primruy factor in the design of plant. The total cost includes capital cost and the
nmning (maintenanace and repair) costs~ .
4.1.6 Governing of water tur~
Governing of turbine is defirieCias me-·oj1eration ofrtrd"trtlainin·g-ttre speed of the ·
turbine at constant under all operating conditions. This is automatically done by the governer
and it varies the flow rate
. .-. .
ofwater flowing through the turbines based on the load fluctuations.
..... . .
: .6Qyerning_i$ necessary <lS the turbine is.directly ~oupled \Vith ~e generator which is req~~ed i
to run ~t constanfspeed uhder all ch_anging mad coriditio'n ..The generator speed will h~
c'6~stani, if the speed 6f tb6 hrrbine ie'rti'airis coA~
;~t. He~ce the gov~ining is necessary for
turbine. . , · :. · ·.....
4.1.6.1 Gov~rniit_g of impulse turbine (Pelton wheel turbine)

~ • 'I - :
Centrifugal governor
Pi ton rod of control valve
---~ ·Jelay or control valve
• t
t 1' I
Piston rod of
relay cylinder ·-..
Spear
Oil Sump
. Relay cylinder .. •• • . J
or servo-motor ·· · · Nozzle
Figure 4.9: Governing of lr7J-puls_~-turbin_e:. :· _, .. ,·
.... ' ' '. I . -'.,., / .

,.
. ' .'
, .. ,. : ' . l .
. . . •
l
I
-
. ~.
. J, • •
) ; • ~- -: •... t,.'• .l . ~, .; .. , • ... .. I I \ '

Gov~g ofpelton turbine is done by means ofoil pressure governer which consists
of the followmg components.
1. Oilsurnp
2. Gear pump to provide c,onstant supply ofhigh pressure oil.

3. Servomotor or relay cylinder
I
4. Control valve or distribution valve orrelay_valve.to control the supply of oil.to
relay cylinder in either direction.
. .
5. Centrifugal govemer or pendulwn operated by power obtained from turbine shaft.
. .
6. Pipelines connecting the oilsump with the control valve and the control valve with
the servomotor.
7. Spear rod or needle sliding axially with the nozzle.
The figure 4.9 shows the position of the piston in the relay cylinder, position or relay
I
or control valve and fly-balls of centrifugal governer, when the turbine is running at normal
speed.
When the load on the generator decreases, its_ speed will be increased. Therefore
the govemer will be rotating at higher speed This will tend to rise the fly ball along with its
sleeve due to increased centrifugal force on them. A horizontal lever supported over a . ·,,
rigid fulcrum connects the sleeve and the piston rod of the control valve. II
As the sleeve moves up, the lever turns about the fulcrum and the piston rod of the
control valve moves downward. This closes the valve VI and opens the valve V2 • The oil
pumped from oil swnp to control valve under high pressure, this oil will flow through the
valve V2 and exerts a force on the face L of the pisto~ of the relay cylinder. The piston
along with the spear connected at its rod ~nd will move towards right and closes the nozzle
partially to reduce the flow ofwater which in tum reduces the turbine speed.
When the load on the gene~tor increases, its speed decreases and results in reduction
ofgovemeer speed This will tenq to fall the fly ball along with its sleeve due to its reduced
• . - I
centrifugal force on them and the lever turns about the fulcrum, moving the piston rod of
the control valve upwards.
This closes the valve V2· and ·opens the valve V1• The high presure oil from the .
control valve flows through valve V1 and exerts a force on the face M of the piston. The
piston will now move along with th~ spear toward left and opens the nozzle partially to
increase the turbine speed to normal valve.
..._
~canned Wltn cam~canne~

.,
4.1.6.2 Governing of reaction turbine (Francis Turbine)

In francis turbine, the govemer doses or opens the guide vanes gate partially to
al low the qltWltity of water flow according .to the load. Figure 4.10 shows the nonnal
position of the operating setup. ·
When the load on the generatordecreased, the servomotor piston move towards
right making the bell crank lever EFG to rotate downward about F and thus lowering the
point 'G,. This pulls down the pivot A and causes the fulcrum B to be lowered.
Govemer
Flooti ng lwer ·. :
Control valve
Gear ➔
pump
Oil sump
F
Figure 4.10: Governing of Reaction turbine
Thus the·re!ay port 'b' is closed and restricts the piston to overtravel beyond the
requfred point. The device which prevents the overtravelling of the governor is known as
compensating device. The governing operation is similar to the impulse turbine.
4.1.7 Classification of Hydro-electric Power plant
The hydro-electric powe_r plants are classified as follows.
4.1. 7.1 According to the a~ailabili,ty of head
a) High head power plant
• Head above 1.00 m.• t • I
. . f
I .
.• Pelton wheel is used as a...prime

, .. ·· ,
mpver.
,~.•~, . , ., I, I •
I • ,I • I I
4.17
.,
ld rpbnt
-l m.
r \\k i u ·ed as a prime mover.
W"rplant
,.l, hm tur· in i' U"ed as a prime 111 \ tir.

t dini to the qualil) of, !lter a ailable
, Run- frin.~rpl:lnt-without pondage. No pond. Power generated from
nl.1r ·trcam.
Rnu-of-ri · 'r pfant with pondage (small pond is used to store water and
"-n~mt-in p \\ 'r during peak h urs).
~ ~dro ,h_: ·tric plant with stor-.1oe river"atcr- it is stored in huge reservoir
• n i "1 ':l "d- for gen "rati n "hene er required. The water is used for
irri ,.,ti t\ pnrp ~e.
P nuped ·tor-a 0 e plant
,fJ Power
transmission
Motor line
generator
Pump turbine
Power plant
Fi.gure 4.11: Pumped Storage plant
Pwnped storage plant is an indirect method for temporarily storing substantial

amount of electrical energy by pumping water from a lower to a higher level. The
~canned. WI th Cam~can:ner
4.18 POWER pl.ANT ENGINEERING
pumped hydroelectric storage is the most economical means presently available to

electrical utilities. It could also be used for storing electrical energy Produced by solar
and wind energy.
Principle
In a pumped storage plant, when amount of power generated is higher than the
demand, then the excess power is used to pump water from a low level reservoir to a
high level reservoir. When the power demand exceeds the generated power, then
water stored in the high level reservoir is allowed to flow through a hydraulic turbine
to the lower level reservoir. The turbine then drives the generator to produce electricity.
Here, a reversible turbine generator set is used because ofthe following two reasons.
. .
.0 To qevelop electric power if excess power is needed. In this mode, turbine-

generator set acts as a power generating device as used in hydel power plant.
ii) To serve as a pump for pumping the water from lower level to the upper level. In
this mode, turbine generator set acts as a reversible pump and motor set.
Pumped-hydro system, are classified as above ground plant and under ground plant
A schematic layout of underground pumped hydro plant is shown:in figure 5.6.
Here, the upper reservoir is placed at or near ground level. The lower level is placed
underground at old mines, natural caverns or other underground cavities. Thus, the complete
power unit is built under the ground level.
Advantages of pumped hydro storage plant
a) Low capital cost than other peak units
b) It can pickup load rapidly within a matter of few minutes.
c) Plants can be made to control by automation as well as as remote.
d) Free from effects of environmental pollution. fl
e) Less power is required for pumping which is available at cheaper rate. l0
f) Overall system efficiency is high. , • ,, ... .
g) Standby capacity
' .
j.s available on short noti_ce. .
. -. . -
~
- . ( .. ..
h) Its capacity is not limited byriver flow and seas~rial variations in the flow.
.
• I
.
• • _..:. •
.. • • _,,, .. • I t • (_
' - _., ., , , ., ,.... ~- .. . . ·
4.19
5. Mini and tv1.i r bydol.

Minihydal l wor l lnnt
+ Oporntc nt 5 m to 20 m hend.
• Goncrntcs powor from l M\.V to 5 MW.
fVficr hydol l owcr Pinnt
• Opcrntcs ut 5 m to 20 m head.
• Gcnerntcs pow~r 0.1 MW to I ·Mw.
Micro hydel developments
Over Ute Inst few dccndes, there !ms been a growing realisation in developing countries
thnt micro-hydel schemes have nn important role to play in the econmnic development of
remote 111ml m-cos, espccinlly mountninous one. rvlicro hydro schemes can provide power
for industrial, ngricultrnnl and domestic uses by coupling n turbine to a generator to produce
olectrioity. fy!icro hydropower instnllutions usually provide a power output ranging from
5kW upto l 00k\.V, thnt could be consumed by n small commimity or a rural industry.
I
Heat race channel
--- --_--_ ------

-►
Tail race
channel
Figure 4.12: Typical arran11ement' of'small Hydro power station
A micro scheme hydro po,vet plant is' eithe"r·a 'ruh off river scheme or a-storaoe
t:,
scheme: ,Rim off river plant-generates electricity.only .when the river is flowing. The
storage type power plant generates electri~ity continuously ifthe'water has stored in
high level reservoir above the intak~ level.
' ~
Figure 4.12 shows the main components of a run off river scheme micro hy<lel
plant. This type of scheme requires no water storage but instead ~iverts some of the
water from the river is channeled along the ~idea ~alley before being dropped into the
special_ turbine, (bulb turbine) through penstock.. .
The following are the requirements of micro hydel power stations for developing
the power economically.
1. Best geographical areas such as steep rivers flowing all year round, hill areas
with high year round rainfall or the great mountain ranges and their foothills
has to be selected as a site for laying the power plant.
2. Specially d~signed low head turbines (bulb turbines) have to be used for
power generation.
). Civil engineering works should be kept minimum and designed to fit in with
., • ' • I
al~eady ex.is ting structure.
4. Stations must b~ automatically controlled to reduced working personnel.
5. Equipments must be simple and robust, with easy accessability to essential
parts for maintenance.
6. Vi1its must be light and adequately subassembled for ease of handling and
transport and to keep down execution and dismantling costs.
Advantages of micro hydel power stations
1. Renewable source of energy
2. No costly d:isttibution of energy
3. No need for expensive maintenance
4. It can be used decentralised and be locally implemented and managed
5. It can be owned by a individual, cooperative or community with semi-skilled
workers.
6. Clean, non-polluting and environment friendly power generation.
7. L~d area covered by catchment area is not large
8. Generated power can be used for agro - processing, local lighting, wa:ta pumps
and small business.

4,2 WIND TURBINE

4,2.1 Introduction to Wind power plant
Renewable energy sectors are all about using natural"sourccs to create energy.
the power generation from wind energy is technically achievable and economically
feasible and its main advantages are zero fuel cost, pollution free and environment
friendly. In the continuous search of clean, safe and renewable energy sources, wind
power has emerged as one of the most attractive solutions.
Wind Turbine System converts kinetic energy available in wind to electrical energy
by using rotor, gear box and generator. In other words, the acnial conversion process
uses the basic aerodynamic force of lift to produce a net positive torque on n rotnting
shaft, resulting first in the production of mcch:mical power and then in its trnnsformnlion
to electricity in a generator. Wind turbines, unlike most other generators, can pro.duce
energy only in response to the resource that is immediately available. The output.of a
Wind Turbine is thus inherently fluctuating and non dispatchable. Extrnction of wind
energy using wind turbines depends strictly on wind speed and direction. Tl1c rated
cnpacity of the Wind Turbine for power generation varies from l kW lo 4 M·W. In
wind fanns, the generator size starts from 200 k\iV.
Rated output speed Cut-out speed
Rated output power~..... !______,_i+- , ..
3~ 14 25
steady wind speed (meters/second)
Figllre 4.13: Typical wind turbine power output with steady wind sp_e ed
The operating conditions of a Wind Turbine are,

Cut in wind speed = 3.5 mis
Cut out wind speed = 25 m/s
Rated wind speed = 14 mis
Survival wind speed = 56 mis
~canned. w 1tn cam~canner

The speed at which the turbine first starts to rotate and generate power is called
the cut-in speed and is typically between 3 and 4 m/s.
The speed at which the generator output reaches maximum is called rated wind
speed and the power is called rated power. Jf the wind speed exceeds a particular
limit then there the rotor gets damage. As a result, the brake is applied to bring the
rotor to standstill. This is called the cut-out speed and is usually around 25 mis.
4.2.2 Power curve of 250 kW Wind Turbine
The main way to assess the performance of a wind turbine is through the
comparison of actual.power generation with a power curve. the power output from a
single 250 kW and turbine relative to the power in the wind is shown in Figure 4.14.
·The power curye illustrates how much energy it will generate at a given wind
speed. it shows that the wind turbine starts up at 3.5 mis and shuts down at 25 mis for
safety reasons.
The survival wind speed is the maximum wind speed that the wind.turbine is
designed to withstand securely. The 250 kW wind turbine bas a survival wi~d spee~
of 56 mis. The maximum power acquired at 14 m/s, is called the rated wind speed.
300 I
250 -
~
200
/ .
/·
C
....::::, ' 1
'
....::::,a. 150
.
0
,._
Q)
;: 100
/· ',
0
D..
50 J '
0 /
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 , 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
' '
Wind Velocity r:n/s • ' . • .. • • 1... : • • •• • • ~

., ;, ''.
Figure 4.14: Power Curve for 250 kW Wind Turbine

• ~: • i : , f•i ,- ~ • \ \ • . ., ( JI •1 • .. . . • • ~-r "' • • •._ \ • ' ' •
• I I. ! •
! J, A 1 • • 1 \ i ! i° I I t 1 ,' ,
.. , ,
0
j ' • • I• I ~ •f
I ' '
oWER FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY 4.23
V" .
Rotor--+
blade
~-Anemometer
.---Wind vane
Hub
Height
----Tower
Figure 4.15: Drawing of the rotor and blades of a wind turbine
4.2.3 Classification of Wind Turbine

1. Acc~rding to axis of rotation
a) Vertical axis wind turbine b) Horizontal axis wind turbine
2. According to Drive .
a) Direct drive wind turbine b) Geared wind turbine
3. According to Blade
a) Mono blade wind turbine
b) Twin blade wind turbine
c) Three blade wind turbine
4. According to pitch control
a) Constant pitch control wind'turbine . '
b) Variable pitch control wind turbine
5. · According to"rotor orientation
a) Upwind b) Downwind
l
'.'f.24 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
6. According to Frequency
· a) Constant frequency wind turbine
b) Variable frequency wind turbine
7. According to speed
a) . Constant ·speed wind turbine b) Variable speed wind turbine
I
8. According to generator
a) Synchronous generator drive wind turbine
I ', · ,. b) . Synchronous generator drive wind turbine
9. ~ccording to Tower structure
a) Lattice tower b) Tubular c) Hybrid
4.'2~4 Vertical axis wind turbine
I ◄ Rotor Diameter ►I
guy wire
I
aerod namic brake

. .. Central colu n-11---1-
Rotor
Height
• I
I ' ,
Base
Figure 4.16: Vertical axis wind turl,ine ' · · ·
I •
Figure 4.16 s~ows ~ertica.l axis wind ~~e. _The yertica! ~s-~d;~ine~•~e
omnidirectional. There is no need of yaw mechanisrp. for '~tionijl_c9ntrol.
1 • • I •
It captures
•
wind in any direction. The nacelle is also eliminated.
¢--::...:R:.;...F_RO_M_RE_-N_E_W_A_BL;;:.:E::..:E::.:...:N~ER~G~Y~----------~
4:e.25
I) IJOSC ,
The Slruclure th ~t. supports the wind turbine's rotor and houses the equipment
used 10 produce electnc1ly. This includc.s fl~xible coupling, gear box and generator.
II) ccntrnl column
It is th e hollow vertical cyli"ndrical part to which the blades are attached on the
1ower bonring ao d upper bearing. This makes the symmetr1cal confi~uration about
vorlicnl nixis. the Central column is supported by gliy cables. ·
Ill) Strut
The horizon la Icross ann connects the blades with the central column t6 strengthen
them.
Iv) Aerodynamic brake
Emergency braking system, it consists of shutters attached.to

. . . ; ·~ ' .
the blade,s,,;vhi~]l
11 ntomoticnlly deploy when the wmd turbine gathers too much speed.
I
v)Guy wire
Cnble stay connects the top ofthe vertical axis to a concrete base to hold the
wind t11rbinc in an upright position. The inclination of guy cable is 35°.
i)Rotor
,1
Rotating part of the wind turbine that is usually made up of two or three blades;
its rotation drives the alternator to produce electricity.
vii) Blade . •·'·
There are two blades attached to the c·entral column of the vertical axis wind
turbine. The blades are in aerofoil shape and can take wind in any direction. The force
of the wind turns it to drive the rotor. The force of the wind on the blades makes it to
rotate. , .
viii) Brake (Disc) , 1 .. , .

A mechanical brake is incorporated. It has steel disc and spring applied air
·release calfrper for each disc. A separate three P.hase star connected resister bank is
• , ~ t r
• • , • .
conne·cted fdr emergency brakin'g. ' I • • '
I I J • I I I •

ix) Generator and electrical system

The generator is directly coupled with gear boxes and it is synchronous type.
The vertical axis turbine operates'with variable speed. It has static exciter with constant
flux control. A static frequeQcy convector takes the generator output at variable
frequency (1-20 Hz) and supplies constant frequency (50 Hz) output and feeds to the
grid.
4.2.5 Horizontal axis wind turbine
The wind passes through the rotor of the wind turbine. The blades mounted on
the hub with well designed pitch angle. The wind force acting on the blade produces a
rotary torque. The rotor rotates and converts the ~ind powe~ into electrical power.
Horizontal axis wind turbine sub assemblies
The wind turbine can be classified into two main categories according to the
• , ' I '
pitch control, constant and variable pitch. Similarly, according to the speed, it is classified
into constant and variable speed turbines. The WT consists·of rotor system, gear box
system, brake system, generator system, rotor hydraulic control system and brake
hrdraulic control system.
Low-speed
shaft:
Gear box
Wind eter
Direction
- ~
Nacelle
High-speed
Tower ---M--
shaft
(a)
i:>cannect. w1tn (.;ami:>canner

fJ!i-.;..-ER_F_R_O_M_R_E_N_E_W_A.:.::B..=.:LE~EN~E:!:R~G~Y_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~4~.27~
Anemometer
Gearbox
1 - - - - ~ r - - - - - - + - - Low speed gear
' High speed shaft
I
~---1---8 Control mechanism
- - - - - - - - H i g h speed gear
Brake-~-,_,rnr---r-r-----,------
----.1-..,J-t----+-- Planetary gear
-.t------1-- Yaw motor
(b)
Figure 4.17: Horizontal A-·ds Wind Turbine
1) Tower
The tower supports the rotor and nacelle containing gear system, brake system,
generator system, yaw mechanism and control system. The structure of the tower can
be tubular or lattice. The main issue of the tower design is structural dynamics. The
vibration of the tower and fatigue under flux wind can be avoided by design.
For tubuJar structure, the towers are
. usually made of three of four tubular steel
.
sections coated with paints and sealants and joined by flanges and bolts. For lattice
structure, the tower is made up of hot dip-galvanised steel.
2) Nacelle
. . ' .
A nacelle is a fibre or sheet,rii:etal cover ~ousing that accommodates major
components of.a wind turbj.ne_s~cli as generator, gearbox, drive,coupling, and brake
assembly.
3) Rotor System · -· ·
The rotor system consists of two ~r three blades assembled on the hub, main
bearing, pitch control, sensor and control system and the rotor rotates mostly in the
L ~canned. w1 tn cam~canner
clocbvise direction. The blades are stall regulated or pitch controlled and the orientation
of the blnde is up wind or down wind. The hydraulic control in the rotor actuates the
tip opening mechanism in constant pitch ~achines for constant pitch control wind
turbines.
Similarly the hydraulic control in the rotor actuates pitch control of variable
pitch control wind turbines. The rotor diameter and swept area 755 m2 . The rotor
system is also consisting of a hub and three extenders made ofSG iron casting with
three connecting blades are made up of fibre glass reinforced polyester. In the
conventional wind turbine the rotor axis of rotation is tilted to an angle of 5° to the
horizontal axis. The rotor blades are made of Glass fibre reinforced polyester or
4) Gear box S) stem
The gear box synchronizes the turbine shaft speed to generator shaft speed in
two stages. Three stage spur gear or helical gears are mostly used to transmit the
rotor speed to the generator. It consisis oflow speed shaft, high speed shaft, high
speed gear, intermediate gear, low speed gear, input pinion, output pinion and
temperature sensors.
5) Brake System
The brakes normally have electronically actuated brake, hydraulic brake,
mechanical brake and tip brake or pitch mechanism. The brake system includes brake
pad, brake shoe, brake solenoid; oil reservoir, accumulator, hydraulic pump and
hydraulic control.
6) Yaw System
The yaw ·system' of \VT is the component responsible for the "orien.tation of the
: • • I
WT rotor towards the wind to capture maximum energy from the wind. The rotatable
nacelle and rotor system mounted on the planetary gear of the main structure is tum
on by yaw mechanism. _The main components of a typical yaw system are the yaw
mo.tor, yaw bearings, yaw electromagnetic brake, yaw bed with bolt, yaw high ·speed
gear: yaw low speed gear: pianetary gear, sensor, wind vane and ya\v control. The.
ya,v drive system also has a brake in order to be able to stop ·a turbine from turning .
and stabilizes it during normal operation. There are two separate-yaw drives are
a\railable that is clod,."wise ya~v driv~ and Counter cl9ckwise yaw drive. Active yaw
~ • t I
are
system and passiye yaw. syst~m mostly used in w:ind t_urbines. ,.. _
J ._
-.
1) Generator System
The rotary mechanical energy obtained from the shaft is converted in electrical
ene®' in th e generator. The generator system has dual oenerators G 1 and G2 to work
with low 3nd high win<l. The stator, rotor, relay, contra~ system, bearings and cooler
are the important components of the generator. The _different types of generators used
in wind turbine are
I. Asynchronous
2. Synchronous Generator
3. Induction generator .
4. Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG)
5. OptiSlip Induction Generator (OSIG)
6. Double -Fed Induction Generator (DFIG)
7. Permanent magnet Generator (PMSG)
For 250 kW WT, the generator has 4/6 poles dual windings and is• a~ .
asynchronous 250/50 kW. During high wind 4 poles 250 kW is generated and during
low wind 6 poles 50 kW is generated. If there is any fluctuatioin in the wind; that is
higher to lower, suddenly the tip will open to reduce the speed to change over the WT.
generator from G 1 to G2, dual speed, 3 phase, 4/6 poles. .
8) Hydraulic Control of Rotor System
The blade hydraulic unit is mounted inside the hub and three hydraulic cylinders ·
are mounted in each extender. The hydraulic control of rotor system consists of tip
open mechanism, hydraulic motor, pump and transmission system. The nose cone is
mounted in front of the hub for protection against entry of rain water. Similarly during
very lugh wind, very often the system faces h1:1ge problem in the hydraulic system to
operate the tip mechanism above the cut out ~peed. The frequent opening of _tip
mechanism causes failures in the rotor hydraulic system. Mo~tly, the tips get open and_·
it causes reduction in the power generation. If the direction of wind fr~quently changes,.
then the yaw motor actuates frequently and gets failed. ·
9) Hydraulic Control of Brake.System . . _. . _
The brake hydraulic consists of oil reservoir, cylinder, accumulator, Hydrostatic
spring, flexible pipe, motor,.P,uplP, electro valve assembly, hydraulic coupling, oil seals
and solenoid.
L
Scannea w1 tn uam~canner
10) Control System
To control the perform ace of the WT, the sensors are fixed to show the speed
and direction of the wind, the levels of electrical power generation, the rotor speed,
overload, the temperature of the lubricants and ·other variables. The control system
protects the turbine from operating in dangerous conditions and ensures that the power
generated has the proper frequency, voltage, and current levels to be supplied to the
grid. The control systems for a rotor are studied under rotor system and similarly for
other systems also studied.
Table 4.1: .WT. Components

. and their Sub assemblies
S.No WT Components Sub assemblies

I. Rotor System Blades, hub, main bearing, Nose cone.
2. Gear System Low speed shaft, high speed shaft, input shaft,
input pinion, bearings, gears, cooling system,
sensors and temperature control.
3. Brake System Brake pad, spring, brake shoe and mechanical
control.
4. Generator System Contactors, shaft, bearing, flexible coupling,
generator cooling system, top terminal box
.and generator control at control panel.
5. I
Yaw System .. . Yaw motor, yaw gear, yaw planetary, yaw
bearing, yaw brake, drive and controllers and
windvane.
6. ~otor Hydraulic System Accumulator, hydraulic cylinder, hydraulic
pump, oil r~servoir, hydraulic cylinder, pump
and hydraulic transmission system.
7. Brake Hydraulic System·-·· _. :Brake' ·s~len'oic( ~ccumulator; hydraulic
! · ) · · -. , , , , , cylinder, 1hydraulic pump,; oil res·er.voir and
hydrauli<; qrake co,ntrol.. _ , .... . _, ...
1.
I '. f .' l I I l . . .._ . - . • ..' • . t ~ •'
~canned. w1 tn (.)am~canner
pOW:::-ER_F_R_O_M_R_E_N_E_W.:...:A=.:BL:.::E:..!:E~N~ER~G~Y~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.=.4:.: . :.31
~
4.2.6 Ex~ression for power developed by the wind turbine
Let p = Power in wind turbine (kW)
V - Wind velocity(m/s)
m - Mass_flow rate (kg/s)
P - Air_de~ity (kg!m3) .: .
A · = Swept area (m2) = i
Cp = Power coefficient
The kinetic energy present~ the inc~ming wind is converted into power in wind
turbine.
'
p a .!..mv 2 ... (1)
2
p a .!..c mV 2 ... (2)
2 p
The proportionaHty constant Cp is the power coefficient.
We know that the mass flow rate is,
... (3)
m = pA V .
Where p - Air density
- 1.226 kg/m3 at _1 atm and 15° C
Therefore substitute the equation 3 in equation 2 r I
l' ..
p = -CPpAV 3 ... (4)
2
The equation (4) implies that
O Power is directly proportio?.al to cubic velocity~ a. V 3)
ii) Power i~ directly proportional to swept area (Pa.A)
· fu) Power is directly proportional to air density (P a p)
' r. ,1 • .. , .. t • • ~
The swept area of the rotor 1s, . • • - 1
7t 2
A == -d ... (5)
4
Where d- sweep (or) diameter of the rotor.
Scanned Wlth c.;am~cann.er

r
1 n 2 3 ... (6)
p = -C X - X d X pX V
2 P 4 ·
p - n X cp X p d2 V 3 ... (7)
8
Maximum Manpower
The maximum power of the wind is obtained at
CPmax - 0.593
2
Vmax - -v
3
p - 1:226 kg/m3
Substitute in the equation (7), we get,
'. Pmax =!; CPmax X p X d2 v!a."( ... (8)
2 3
' ' ....... l• • • I
=·' -n x 0.593 x 1.226 x d 2 x -v
8 3
.. .; . "" I :, •
,. ....
.,
pmax
0.2V 3
..
' ,.
. .d - ~✓~~;~3 . :· .·, .·.. (9}
.' .. •. .. , ' • ·.,.,. ,· . J., i . • ' ~. ... _.. ..' .. . - . . ... .
The rotor diameter is obtained from eqwati.~'n (9) _- . -
Torque acting on rotor
- ., • I '
We know that the-power,

2nNT
p =
' 60
p - T©m
Where ffim = roror speed in (rad/sec) _· _. _.·., :•_.. · •..
~.. P •• r - , "'
\ . , , ... , ,
' t ( 1
· 1•
1 • •
' I! ., ..j ,. I•· ~ • 1 , -
.ll,c .....
T -
poWER_FROM RENEWABI.. E EN!;RQy
From cquotion (4),
2 p PA V3
T
(1)111
j\ctunl powcf' developed by the whid turbine
I '
P == - C pAV3
2 ,, ''
To calculate the actual power developed by the wind turbine the gea r box
cfliciency, generator efficiency and array efficiency arc considered.
1
p • ::: -C p yJ X n X
net 2 Jl n · 1gcnr X 11acn 'tlnrray
4.3 TIDAL POWER PLANT

I
There is a periodic rise and fall of water level in sea d~e to the attraction of moon
and sun on the water of earth. The large scale ofup and down movement of sea water
represent infinite quantity of energy. The elevation of high tide and low tide is shown in
figure 4.18. During high tide water level more than that oflow tide. Therefore the potential
energy of the high fide is more tlian low tide. Tiie 'difference in potential energy during high
ti_de nnd low tide is called tidal energy. Tidal e ~ is a fonn ofhydro energy recurring with
every tide.
Tidal Energy conversion
Tidal eR~is converted into ~ g y ' by ~ o turbin~. Th'e hydro
turbines prive the electrical
, generator to produc~power. •
__.-
4.3.1 Classifications of Tidal power plant.

. .
Tidal power plant are classified as follows.
1. Single basin system
a) One way system
• l
b) Two way system

~ Two way pumped system :·
..
4 •
'
2. Double basin system:.·- ,-,-. · ·, '· : ' - '•". :,
a) Double basin system without pwnpin~
b) Double basin system with pwnping
\
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t .~ln1)1.' b ,sin~ ystmu
Utt ti I~} I 'J'· '" ,,,

'll/!Ji/)J.ll./.LLL/1/J.
YffillJJJJ.LL
OU
B oln
Pow r houoo
Slulco way
(o) O,w wo.y syHte111, (b) two way syBtem

Fig,u·e 4.18: Single ba8i1t 11y8lem
lt is ooo woy tidul plunt. Tho bnsin is allowed to get filled during the high tide. The
wntor is flo\ving f'rom tho bosit1 to the ocean through the turbine and generates power. ~--------
b) . 1Wo w11y .,J,ste~11
Tho power is gonorntcd both high tide (flood tide) and low tide (ebb tide). The
dh'lictfon of !low Uwough the turbine duri-;,g high tide and low tide al tes, but the macfiine
nets n tmbino fot both direction of flow. ,.
~.___::...:--- ~
t~ 1,,,0 way p11i11pe,I syste11~
The ower is generated both high tide (flood tide) and low tide (ebb tide). In addition
to'thnt ump
\
is used in case o eek o er.
Figure 4.19: Double basin system
a) Double basin system with pumping

• ', I •, t t 1 •, • 0 0
' •
0
" • _,
It requires ~o adjacent b.~~in ~amely u~per b~in ru;i~ lower ~asin. The turbines.
are locate~ in b~~~ee.~ u:Pper and lo~er ba~~- O_ne basin is filled by flo~d tide(high
tide) and other drained by ebb tide(~ow tide). S.o_there is a continuous power.made
~..:-F_R_O_M_R_E_N_E_W___
A.::..:BL::E:-=E~N-=!ER~G~Yc__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.:!.4~-3~
•Jable with this system The • . soo/c0

a\131 . • • mam disadvantages of this system is near1Y
otential energy 1s wasted.
p
b,'I1 pouble basin system withoutp umping
.
~ case o~. off peek powe~ from the base loa:i plant in a interconn~ ~ i o n
systelll ts used e1th~r to pump the water up the rugb basin. The net energy gain is possible
ill this system only if th ~pumping head is lower than the basin-to-basin turbine generating
bead. ·
4,3,2 Layout of tidal power ~plant

The following figure 4.20 shows the layout of the tidal power plant with power
house.
Gantry
Transformer crane
Max.operating _ _...,,~ f ~~22'Zll22'Zll~r-~zzzzz~

, pool
Min.operating_.,
pool
Trash rack
Sea side
Figure 4.20: Layout of tida·z power plant with power house

t • • •
4.3.3 Components of tidal pc;,~er.-pl~nt

1. Dam or Barrage (low wall)
2. Sluice ways (Gate)
3. Power house
Dam (or) Barrage
..·. . .. ~ . . . \. ' ·.., \ ~.. . ' ...
It is used to form basin ofthe tidal power.plant. The barrage of the tidal power plant
\Vithshuid.~t'hioh
. . e,
~e
iieads'ancl ·i t should stable. The ~ges
, . ·-· ,. ,. -, .
usually
. , .
ire
smaller height
. -----_;;;__
~~ey ate designed for tow:e~he~~ ~~~at~~.-~~~ is associated with high
,vater.
h~ad\>f Tiie ~wail he.ignt is upto ib m~'. ... :-·. ' . . . - · · ·
~canned. w 1tn c.;am~canner

4.36 POWER PLANT El IGINEERING
Slllice ways
Tidal basin getting filled and c · ,.ed"wilh help of sluice ways. They a(C the gates
o p ~ ~when t 1c hcud is I · 1 her in one side and lo .,c d other oidc. The flap
gates allow only in the direction of sea to asin. Mostly vertical type gates are used.
Power house
..,
The size of the head is low therefore the size of the turbine will be large. Mostly two
L
types of turbines are used in tidal power plant. They will be - -
0 Bulb group turbine - Kaplan turbine'
i~ RIM type turbine - Pelton wheel (
The turbine is coupled with generator to produce power.
4.3.4 Advantages of Tidal power plant
1. It is much superior to hydro power plant, because it is totally independent ofrain.
2. It is.free from pollution.
3.. It has.unique capacity to meet the peek demand effective! y.
4. It does not demand large area of valuable land.
4.4 SOLAR PHOTO VOLTAIC (SPV)
DC direct current
n-type silicon (negatively charged)

Junction }
p-type silicon (positively.' charged)
-0.2
charged
harged I250µm
T
Figure 4.21: Solar -P hoto Voltaic cell
/
,.
POWER FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY 4 37
~~----....:.:::.:~~~----------~-~
[n photovoltaic convers' l d ·
ion, t le solar radiation falls on a semiconductor evice
ed solar cell. The solar photo v0 It • . · d tor
co li . aic cell is composed of a P-type senucon uc
d an N-type serruconductor
nI1 ' . •. •
Sol ar li ght hittmg
. . the cell produces two types of elec tron s,
neganvely and P0s10 vely charged electrons in the semiconductors when the shines on
n solar cell, negatively charged (-) electrons oather a:ound the N-type
sen1icoorluctor while positively charged(+) electro:s gather around the P·- type
semico nd uctor. When you connect loads such as a lioht bulb electric current flows
. ~ '
between th e two electrodes. The de supplied. The main advantage of solar cells are
there is no moving parts.
When the light falls on the solar cell the photons enable electrons to break free
from the junction between them. Th.is is called photo electric effect.
Working principles
The principles of working of solar cell depends on
1. Creation of pairs of positive and negative charges (called electron hole pairs)
in the solar cell by absorbed solar radiation. ·
2. Seperation of tl1e positive and negative charges by a potential gradient within
the cell.
The metal suitable for absorbing the energy of photons of sunlight are
semiconductors like silicon, cadmium, telluride and gallium arsenide. In semi conductor
tlle electron occupies one ofthe two energy bands, the valance band and the conduetion
band. The valance band has electron at lowest energy level and fully occupied,. T-he
difference between the minimum energy present in the conduction band and.minimum•
energy present in the valance band is called band gap energy.
When the photons of sunlight bas more e~ergy than band gap energy, it will be
absorbed and the electron jumps across the band gap from the valance band to
conquction band.
Silicon of P-type is doped with some trivalent atoms lik:e boron while silic 0 n of
n-type is doped with pentavalent atoms like phosphorus then-type bas excess electrons
and p-type has excess holes, when these materials are joined together then-type
become positively charged and p-type ·become negatively charged. This creates a
built-in potential ·at the junction and generates de supply.

The typical value of silicon cell arc,

Voe = 400 to 450 mV
Ioc - 30 to 50 mA/cm2
Fill factor (K) - 0.65 to 0.8
The figure 4.22 shows the solar photo voltaic power generation. The photo
voltaic array is arranged. The de supply is generated in the solar cells of photovoltaic
cell array. After that the energy generated in the solar cell is stored in the battery. To
convert the de supply in to AC supply, it send to the invertor. Then it will send to the
loads throughA.C. distribution board.
PV Array
*D D Battery store
'
.. D D
.
Charge '
controller
I inverter
.
- Distribution Distribution .
board board I
.
'.
12 or 24 V DC loads I· -220 V AC loads l
Figure 4.22: Photo voltaic power generation
Advantages of solar photovoltaic conversion

1. No moving part,.ther~fore efficiency is high.
I
...
t 'l
2. Little mamtenance. · ··· · · · ·
. . -. • • I • • > •
3. Work quite satisfactorily with beam or diffuse radiation .
\ \ . '' .
• t
\ . . .
• •
~ FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY 4.39
4,5 SOLAR THERMAL CENTRAL RECEIVER SYSTEM

Solar energy may be converted to electricity by solar thermal conversion. In th!s
tll
ethod solar readiation
.
is converted to hea~ the converted heat-is added to a thennodynanuc
. . . 1
cycle to_ produce ~echamcal work and electricity. The components m solar' therma
conversion system mcludes collectors and receiver. The collector gather the sun s energy
and direct into receivers that contain the working fluid of the thenpodynamic cycle. Solar
themial central-receiver system is an example.
Heliostats
(for tracking solar energy)
I'
D
P1 Pumps P2 ' I
.
Figure 4_23: Solar thermal central receiver system
§canned Wl th Cam~canner
Principle
Solar thermal central receiver system uses a large number ofre-fleeting mirrors called
heliostats that redirect the sun's energy and concentrate it on to the top of a 1owerwhere
central receiver is mounted. The heliostats are in individually guides to cover a large area.
So that the mirrors focuses the sun's energy to the cental receiver through out the period of
sunlight. In the receiver the concentrated solar energy is absorbing by a circulating fluid.
The circulating fluid used is water, which vaporizes into steam that is used to device a
turbogenerator in a Rankine cycle.
Heliostats
Heliostats are reflecting mirrors that are storable so that they can reflect the sun's
rays on the central receiver throughout the daylight hours. They are kept at an angle to
these rays in such a way that they reflect them to the stationary receiver. A stepper motor
is provided for tracking the heliostat to recover more energy from sun.
Mirror module - - - - - - -
Mirror module
support structure
Support Pedestal
Figure 4.24: ( a) Heliostats - Glass
- ---------------i::!s,,.c~a,..n.,.nect. w1tn lJamiscanner

r-WER::.;.F_R_O_M_R_E_NE_;W~A..:.:B:.:L-=.E~EN~E:!;R~G~------------~;±1
4.4_1
Mirror tnodule
support structure
Figure 4.24: (b) Heliostats - Plastic ' ··
Heliostat comprises of a reflective surfac~ or mirror,. mirror support strue:ture,

pedestal. The surface should_be parabolic with the focal length equal to the dist~n~~
drom the sur_face to the receiver. The reflecting surfaces are of two types. They are
glass and plastic. · '
I •
Glass reflecting surface

A glass heliostat is divided into 10 to 14 panels for case of manufacture and
1 transportation. the panels are usually rectangular. It is made of thin low-iron glass sheets
to minimize absorption.
Plastic reflectin'g surface

The plastic heliostat, lower in reflectance and strength than the gla~s heliosta~ cost is
I very less. 'A plastic heliostat is made up of plastic filin ois~ that is.protected from wind
loads by a~ air-supported plastic bubble. ·
Central receiver
The central receiver is'designed to in"tercept, absor~ and transport most of this
energy to a heat-transfer flu~d. There are ~o basic types of receivers: They are Cavity
receiver and Ext~mal rec~iver. ·. · ;
. . . . . . . . ,,. . . ..
'•
j '. , I I , ',
.. .• t I : '
Scanned with cam~cariner

4.42
Cool r,t tub<~
Figure 4.25: Cavily receiver and Ext(!l·11al receiver
A cavity receiver is made up of coolant-tube panels lining the inner walls of

the cavity. The tube panel is concave toulards the hcliostate field. The panel area is
2 to 3 times the operature to panel area ratio is sized to minimize the thermal losses
and spillage. A externnl receiver has the coolnnt-tubc panels lining the outside of the
receiver.
The panels mny be flnt,·for small plants of convex for large plants. The receiver
efficiency depends upon spillages reflection, convection, radiation and conduction.
Cavity receivers are more eflicicnt than external receivers. A cavity receiver had less
reflection losses than nn cxtemal receiver.
Thermal storage system
Receiver
To From
To powerplant
Hot Tank
Cold Tank Steam

-----
-----
----- Generator
-----
Pump
' Thermal storage system
Fig1tre 4.26:
i:)cannea. w1 tn cam~canner
~ FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY
4.43
Energy storage is needed · f

· ble solar insolation m solar-thermal-e]ectric power plants because 0
vaf1 3 s, non solar p · d There
. types ofth . eno sand abrcipt insolation changes.
are two
t nk
1
. enna Stora oe
h O m so
I
';Ir systems. They are sinole tank or thermo
rme
aod dua1- a or ot-cold systems. e,
In the single tank storao0 tak h

• e es place by circulatino hot primacy coolant throug
tb e storage medmm and returruno · 0 h 0 ' f h
t · e cooled primary coolant from the bottom O t e
storage thank
. back to the rec eiver
· 1+'.or reheatmg.
• •
Heat extraction 1s accomp 1·is h e d
by reversrng the process.
~e cold primary coolant from the power plant is heated by the storage medium
drain from th e top of the tank to the power system and then returned to the bottom
of the tank.
A solid storage medium is necessity in case the primary coolant is a gas because
,of its low heat capacity. A process solid makes a good storage medium for gm,es.
·Dual-tank or Hot cold system
Dual-tank of hot cold system uses two tanks. Hot liquid is stored in one tank
and cold liquid is stored in other tank. The amount of sensible energy stored varies by
varying the level of the fluids in the well insulated tanks.
During storage, cold liquid is drawn from the cold tank, heated and added to
the hot tank. During extraction the operation is reversed. Insulations is an important
consideration in storage tanks to minimize low of energy during holding period.
The :fraction of forced energy that is usually extracted is called storage ultilization
factor. Storage sizing can be made to supply enough thermal energy, together with
direct thermal power from the receiver, to operate the power plant for 24 hours in a
day.
4.6 GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT

Geothennal energy is defined as· the re~ewable type them?al energy that is naturally
is
present in the ihtetior.of the earth surface. The "Geothermal" derived·from two
parts. "Geo·,, means "of tlie earth"·andthennal means "process of heating".
. .
Thus ,ooeothermal means use of heat available inside the earth. The heat produced
from the mantle of the surface is the energy equivalent to 2 x IO 11 barrels of oil per
Year.
-
This heat amount is about four times greater than the total vvorld annual energy
consumption. Geothem1al power plants are four types.
4.6.1 Dry-steam system r
Dry-steam system consists of a centrifugal separator, condenser, turbine and
generator as shown in figure 4.27. The dry steam is raised from the underground to
ground level by continuous supply of water.
Centrifugal
! .
separator
"· Condenser
Condensate pump
..
-,, .
~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~i Geothermal zone

Ground level
Under groun 14-~-l--+--'"Pipes-yarrying

steam star
;;:~~':"_~~}
.,·
dry
,•
steam
..,
., , - ~ --· 'f'" {:"""'

!.
Condensate to
\:Jiill~tlt~ underground
··storage drum
Figure 4.27: Dry steam syst(!m
The steam is then given to steam turbine through centrifugal separator. In

centrifugal separator, the liquid particles and suspended solids are removed.
The steam ·after expanding· in the turbi~e-is given to the condenser a~d the
condensate is pumped b·ack to the underground \Vith the help of conoensate
pump.
(
I
.scanned. w1 tn c.;am.scanner
WE:.-R_FR_O_M_R_EN_E_W_A_B_L_E~E~NE~R~G~Y_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _4_.~
~
4,6,2 Wet steam system ( or) Liq4id-dominated system ·
Wet steam systems comprises of con denser, pump, fl as h chamber and brine .
separator, generator and turbine. Water at high temperature coming out from hot well ts
made to flash in flash chamber to produce the ~team. _
The steam thus produced is passed throuoh the turbine to develop work. _ The
condensed steam is separated frqm brine in the fl;sh chamber and it is taken back to .the
geothermal field as shown~ figure 4.28.
Steam steam
turbine
Condenser
Flash chamber
and brine
.
separator Condensate pump
Under ground
steam storage l
Brain and
condensate
Figure 4.28: Wet steam system (or) Liquid-dominated system
Wet steam system suffer from salt corrosion. Environmental impact is greater than
dry-s(eams. The wet steam system requires a large land are~~-
- .scannea w1 tn uam~canner
-
4.46
4.6.3 Hot dry rock systems

- - _ , ~ ,,1~ - ~-:: ;""'.'.'. A -:;;,,-
These are very hot.solid rock£ preseotatm.o ~ra:te c~~ - :- _"'"' ... .~ . : :-. . . ., . . ,_
~
cannot access to these rocks either because ofth.e abs~ ce <T ~- ...,_
- ~,..,;;_ ,..,_
~ ....
,,:::)
, L . . , ' ,_..,.
permeability of the rock (or b{)th). In order to lliilize !-.(/;, ~-:,:;..c---: -:..
fractured at suitable depth.
Pressurizer
H?i~o-t
+_,_
"
£'i,gur.e ~29: Ho_t dry_r:ock system
Then the cold water is introduced and theresultinghotwateror~ _isreco™

Then, this hot water or steam is supplied to approptjate ~~ for po~ generation.
. -.
.. -
fOweR FR '' , 'I 4A7
6 4 Magmatic (Molten r k)
11, ' . . oc Chamber gystem
Bx traction f he' t n ray ,~ , , ,1,- 1, ur~J
, , r _ . ·0 rorn hot magma rn about 145 'J unliv) a,
cend1tion11. rh _cnc~gt/ recovery from deeper f¾luroo3 fo mtJre c11fifoult becYJJEf_, f r,(;IYJ f
drilling Buboumt,, I drntan.ccn, 1he main Ji,,advantagez are ooJidifJcw,ion <Jfmagrna ~01.tr1d
theheatcxchangc-rtubcs andrcauJtingdoorcaoojn bca:te-/4trac.1ion rate,
irrects of geothermal energy on environment
EffcctB of geothermal energy on the (..~Vfo nm.ent 16 ver.J lcNI, There are nD 501id
poJlutantR exposed to atmoaphcrc, There iBno bannful ra<lfation. Hkc inrruclearpower
plant<;, The highJ y mincralfacd wastes resulting from the oondenSer stream can po11 ute
ground water. It docs not require additional condensercooliogwatc-r.
4. 7 Bf 0-GAS POWER PLANT

,,
The biomass is obtained by anaerobic digestion of biomass from.the biogas
plant. The biogaR plant consists of two parts, one is digestorand tbc otheri~ d01J1e. In
digcstor unit, the animal waste is fccdcd and it undergoes fermentat1on. After
fermentation, the biogas is generated and stored in the dome. ·
Biomass
.. -
, I"
!Power
,
Gas ciean up Gas engine
Blogas - - Generator unit
,,
Sludge
Manure
Figure 4.30: Flow diagram ofBiogas Power Plant
The biogas power-plant has two units.-

• f ~ •
,
ij Bio gas power plant urut
ii) Power generation unit
)
K 2. Cl(,_j cl---=, J V"\. )
lj'r-- Q-t<,.,.r- CJJ.- .,
~
:.:..
CX)
Moisture
separator
Gas
cooler
,u,
Moisture
Compressor Gas
Slurry Digester separator
receiver
Air
Pure bioaas
'-
Air-fuel ratio.
control valve
-0
Engine 0
~
Generator
Air lo engine m
:::a
-0
~
z
-i
m
~
..... stack I o111 r Silencer Catalyst ,Z
Flue gas (j)
ct
P" z
m
C ... m
$l) Figure 4.31: Biogas Power Plant :::a
a
rr.
z
(j)
0
$l)
Sl
Cb
t-;t
4.4Y
Tl u In POl'lU11t 8 II n lion RI lo
ltimo1Hti of blugu~ powo,· phtnts arc
I, M IHllll' H Plll'(llOt'
2. 'tlij cooler
. , Fubd · f11l ·1.·
ti. GmJ l'ccdvcr
i. Ah· 1\1 l ·ullo eont •oJ valve
6. Outi carburcllor
re;, Hn ,ino
8, Turbo charger
9, All ,. · okir
l O. S1 lcnccr
1) lllo~n,• Phu•I·
'l'hu bio 118 plnnt is used lo generate low calorific value biogas (Cf-14 + CO2)
1\101. 'l'hu biogus plnnl consists or digeslor unit nnd dome. The biomass waste is feed
to lhu di cHlor. Tlw ditforcnt types ofbiomnss wnslc used in biogas plants arc animal
wnsto, oquullc wostc, poultry wnstc, butchery wnstc, industrial waste, .etc.
The l•ubrlc fillers nrc used to sopcrntc dry particles from the biogas with si~cs
r11nglng from submicron to scvcrnl hundred micron. Then 99.9% pure biogas rcac~1es
tho gus rcooivor ond thon send buck to tho gos carburettor.
Tho uir from the turbo ohnrgcr is blonds with biogas and takes to the engine.
Tho ongino is coupled with generator to gencrat'e electricity. The exhaust gas drives a
turbo chnrgor which admit· compressed to the engine.
Tho unor cooler cools the air from the t~1rbocharger and dispatched to the gas
cnrblU'cttor. Tho silencer is used to reduce the amount of noise emitted by.the exhaust
ofm, engine of the biogns power generation unit.
Ad\lnntngcs of b.iogns power pJnnt
l. Penking power phmt.
'
2. Stnnd by power plant.
3. Bnse load power plant for rural area.
'
4, ,Hybrid w.ith any ~enewable source power plants. ! r •
5. Auxillnrpower.
6. Non polluting renewable sources of energy.
~canned. w1 tn c..;am~can~ner
1) Biogas Plant
The biomass slurry has undergone fennentation and generates biogas (methane
+ carbon dioxide) and the spent slurry is come out as sludge. The sludge contains
Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium, which used as good manure for plants. The
biogas are accumulated in ·the dome and sent to the power generation unit. the biogas
contains,
~ Metahane 55%
ii) Carbon dioxide 35%
-
fu) Hydr9ge~ 5%
iv) Other gases and moisture·5% ·
(02, N2,. H2S and
. : .J
NH3)
The available e~ergy. in the
. ~iogas is about
. 23,000
. ' kJ. per kg.
' . '· '
2) Power generation ,, ...

Once the biogases reaches the·mois~e separator, the moisture contents are
r~m9yed·artd sent to the cqmpressor and then ·gases are get compres~ed. After that it
• I • ' • • .
will sent to th~ ga,s CO.(?ler unit remqve t~e heat and moisture s~para~or unit.
I \ , I ,
I :
Disadvantages ofbiogas power generation . · •• I I I
I •
• Bio gas contains s~me gas impurities which are corrosive to the metal part of
the IC erigines. · -· ·
J
• Not feasible to locate at all locations.
'
• Very large scale power g~neration IS diffi~ult.
4. 8 FUEL CELL POWER SYSTEM

Fuel cell is a controlled che~~cal-electro ~nergy conversion system that
continuously converts chemical energy directl . trical ener . Fuercell system into ·.
requires a consistent supply of fuel ~d oxyd~t to generate DC power continuously.
It eliminates combustion of fuel very less q~~o/.· .
The performance of the fuel cell technc;>logy is not li_mited by second law of
thennodynamics or C~ot limitati.~n~F~ei c.e·n are nearly 90% efficient because it
does not have ~~y moving part~ I • \.,.
.. __. .. . ,
•• ' l ':• • '\ ' ": 'I I.tr,.. 1 14 ~ •
OWER FROM RENEWABLE ENERGy
~ 4.51
Waste heat
.
; I
fuel Cell ..
DCp ower
'
I
·~-
Fuel -
•
• Oxydant
F~gure 4.32: Schematic diagram of a Fuel Cell ,·
. .
The fuel cell has an anqde (Full electrode) cathode (oxy~~n ~lectrode electrolyte,
containers, sealing, separators, fuel supply and oxidant supply. The fuel cell system
consists of
~ Fuell preparation
ii) Fuel processor section
iii) Fuel celf power section
iv) Power conditioning section ,,
The fuel mostly used in fuel eel ls are Hydrogen, Hydraztp~, Hi dnd~, Methanol,
Coal gas etc. The oxydants are Liquid oxyge~, 'air and hydrogen peroxide.
1• - 1
• • 1 .. ·; • ' •
• J •
, , Fuel - ~ . F-u!31•p~eparayqn .. , ; , : . .. 1 : , • ••
•
• I
•
'
• I
.. .
Fuel processing
• t •. I • • -.. , '
Water Fuel
Fuel cell
power system ◄
Oxidant
Waste heat • • • • 1 •... • • -~ • • . ~ I,•••, I *• '
.' . ,,_' . ~
I •• •
• • I ; • J •
, . '·' ' .
. . . .... . .
I • ' I
l,
---.inned w1tn damScanAer
4,62
lusslncnlluns ol'l~u I , .II Ryst rnR, Th 1\1 I II nn h lnssll1 cl Into wid

nmgu rconli il\J'O llo11H, Th y tu· bns don
I) A ·cor1ll11R lo / 1 11 ,f r11,d o, :J'''""' combl11ailo11
SI. N". Fu•/ (),\:,,,lt111 I
I. Dire l hydro en I iq11id >xyg n

2. I in~cl I lyclro~inu Hy lrogon Pero, idc
~. lndirccl hydrogen Air

,1, . lndlrcol hydrocnrbon Ail'
5, ln direct mol.hnnol Ail'
6. : DlrooLcoul g1ls Air

7. Zinc Oxyg n
ii) A·ccor,l/llg to El<!ctrolyla

u) · Alknlino olcctrolytc
b) AQi(llo olcot1olyto
1'ho nlkn lino ~lcclrocto. nl'c nq~1ius nlknlinc, molten corbonnlcs, molter snls,
Potassium hydroxide, Potnssium cnrbonntc Potnssium bicurbonutc etc. The acidic
cle.c.tolytcs nro solid.polymer, phosphoric ncid nnd hydrochloric ncid.
ill),. Accortli11gt/o te,~rperat11re,
n) Low•tcmporoture fuel coll·(0° C to -150° C).
1
b) !Vledium temperature Fuell cell ( 150° C to 550° C)

c) High tempcrnture Fuel cell (550° C to 800° C)
cl) . Ult ra high temperature fuel cell (800° C to 1100° C)
iv) · Ac:cordh,g ,to power,
'•
a) Lo:w IJ.0Wer (less than l 00 'kW,) •
b) Medium·gower (100 kW to.5O0>k!W) 1
c) High power (Aho;ve 500 kW)
~
po_!;!!!- FROM_ RE~EWABLE ENERGY 4.53
APPUcationsofFuelceU
-----------------
1. It is used in remote a
. rea power supply.
2. It 1s used as standby p
ower supply unit.
3. It is also used as standal
one power plant:
4. Utilitypowerplant
5. Space power plant
6. Marine
7. Aircraft power supply
8. Military
Advantages of Fuel cell power system
0 Fuel ce11s are high efficeat due to direct energy conversion.
iO It has no moving parts, therefore no mechanical loss.
iiQ Fuel cell power system arc compact.
iv) Fuel cell power plants arc modular in configuration.
v) Pollution free.
vi) Fuel cell power system does not require power supply'for cnatging.
vu) Highly suitable for standalone, standby and remote·power plants.
viil) High operational :flexibility.
Principles and Operation of fuel cell
Two porous electrodes such as porous anode and porous cathode are immersed
in an'dectolyte at certain pressure. The electrolyte must have high thermal conductivity.
H2- 0 2 Acidic Fuel Cell
Two porou) nickel electrodes-ate separated.by a gas bauier (separator). Th·e
anode is a negative pole-and fuel electrode-which is-immersed in hydrogen at certain
pressure. The hydrogen as fuel bubbles-moves across ~e•ailo~e. Similatly'the porous
cathode is a positive pole an~ot electrode·which is immersed in Liquid•oxygen.)
The Hquid oxygen as oxydant bubbles moves across the pbrou·s cathode. '
....
Scanned. w1 tn cam.:>~aniler
....
4.54 POWER pl.ANT ENGINEERING
· ◄-lLoad
Fuel Products
Anode
porous porous
Figure 4.34: Fuel Cell operation
The Pottasium hydroxid~ used as an electrolyte. The chemical reaction

is carried out in the electrolyte and produce electrical energy from the external circuit.
DC power is generated from the foel cell. The continuous power generation is obtained
by,
~ Continuous supply of fuel (H3).
ii) Continuous supply of oxydant (0 2).
iit) Removal of waste heat.
iv) Removal of water vapour, spent fuel, spent oxydants, Inner residues etc.
The porous elec~des provide a space for electro chemic~l reaction betwe~ri.
fuel and oxydant and also they provide a conducting path for flowing electrons through
an external circuit. the electrolyte (KOH) provides path for migration ofhydroxyl'fons
, from cathode t ~ The following reactions are carried out in the Fuel cell.
. The electrons lost in the external circuit. - ·
.
Cathode reaction, • I •
• • ' I
202 + 4e + 4H20 40Ir + 02 + 2H20 ' I I

), r ..
.
'• \
... •
.
f ,-
•
Overall cell reaction, .. . . ,·

, , ' • f l
.. , . · ---
• ' ' ~
2H2 + 02 , ➔ 2H20 + (Aff) + Electrical energy

- , · . · •• • • . •. r ., , • ~· .. ·• " , ~.. - •~ ' - •. ·· '
Where AfI - heat . . . . . . ... I t , I
~
,Alf:R FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _4_.5_5
The net reaction in the fuel cell . lt

electrical water and h is hydrogen and oxygen is supplied to the fue o
,oduce eat.
P fbe charge of electron (e) · 1 1
•
. . is- .60 x 10- 19 coulomb. To move one electronic
e over a d1stance with a pot ·· . . • v·
chafg · cntial difference of-1 volt an energy of 1 e JS
,equired. '
leV - -1.602 X lQ- 19 X -1
- 1-60 2 X I0- 19 Columb volt

- l.602 x 10-19 Joule
---+-
Anodo Cathode
Figure 4.36: Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell, Type C
Similarly for dry cell

I '
The electrolyte used is Potassium hydroxide.

. ..
The anode is immersed with zinc and the cathode is immersed with mercuric
oxide.
Anode reaction
Zn+ 20H ➔ Zn(OH)2 + 2e-
Zn + 20H ➔ Zn(OH)2 + 2e-
Cathode reaction
HgO + H 20 + 2e- = Hg+20H
Fuel cell reaction
Zn + HgO ➔ ZnO +Hg+ electrical' energy+ heat
. The anode and cathode materials are depleted and depleted and electrical energy
is generated.
4,56 POWER pU\NT ENGINEERING
Fuel Cell efficiency

It.is th~ ratio of cell voltage on load and no load voltage of cell.
11 = Cell voltage on load = Ve

No load voltage of cell V0
Power per cell

Power per cell (Pe) = le x Ve
Vc - Cell voltage on load (volts)
• I
.. le - Cell current on load (Amps)

..
,I • •
During no load or open circuit, the cell voltage is maximum and current is zero.
·, I,' ' '

Anode Heat Cathode
Oxydant
u .?;-
Electric Switch gear <( &
Fue1 Fuel ·
Electrolyte power and
Q)
(/)
co ...
::J
(/)
Preparation DC conditioning supply system .c Q)

a.~
unit (') 8.
power i----.----'
,,,.
A Fuel Fuel cell
, . Heaier ·
Control unit
I
I
' ' I ' I •
Feedback . ,
'
Figure 4.36: Fuel Cell Power Plant layout
· · • The practical fuel cell power plant is shown in figure.

It consists of
i) Fuel preparation
ii) Fuel cell power pack
; I ' ' l , ... I I • • .• • - • , , ... I
iit) Electric power conditioning system

iv) Switch gear or supply systein
. v) Control ~y~teII]. . -.~ • ._• ._ .. ,
vi) Heater 1 "' '
. ' • ' •
' .
..
. • I.
.. . t
,. , • . I •
!:9--~~NE~R_FR_O_~_tR......;E;;;.;..N.:..=E:.:..:W:.:..:A:BL~E::..!:E~N~E~RG~Y!.__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~4~.5~7
i) Fuel Preparation Unit
Fuels such as hydrogen, Hydrazine, Hydrocarbon, Zinc etc. ·;re:prepared to

end to the fuel processing unit.
ii) Fuel processing unit
Toe fuel processing unit includes receiving, processing, filtering, purifying storage
·heating and supply. The fuel is managed and supplied by this section.
iii) Fuel cell power pack
It is the fuel cell of the system in which the electrical energy is generated. The
Fuel cell consists of negative electrod~ called anode and positive electrode called
cathode. · '
The electrolyte is used for migrating hydroxyl ions from cathode to anode.
If the fuel, and oxydant supplied to the fuel cell continuously then the overall
reaction will be carried out to produce electric energy. Water _vapour~_~-~,nerat~d and
some waste heat is liberated to the surrounding. The Fue_lcell p~wer sys~e~ pro~uce
DC power and it is delivered to electric power conditioning system. ·
. . . - . . ..... .
' .
iv) Electric power conditioning system ' •• • I I :
.,. .
( "
' . ,
It receives DC power from fuel cell and delivers controlled, regulated three
phase _AC power. The electric power conditioning system us~d.PC-AC 'converter
voltage regulator harmonic control and_power control to regulate the power supply.
v) Switch gear and supply system
It delivers power to the load. It consists of electrical disconnect switches; circuit
breakers or fuses to control, protect and isolate the fuel cell from t~~ grid.
vi) Control system
· The main function of the control system is to control voltage, cu~ent, power,
rate of change ofpower, fuel input and temperature. The power regulated controlling by
fuel supply by feed back control. , ; ' , ·· ' · · · 1 i:
~
vii) Heater
f .. • • •
• ~ • •• I
The high temperature fuel cell system only requires a heater to·maintain working
temperature of the Fuel, and electrolyte within the permissible limit. : . ..

4.58 PO\\-VERPLANT ENGINEERING

1. What are the main factors considered for power output of hydro electric power
plant operating? (AU-Apr/Jlay 2005)
D Head ofwater.
ii) Specified speed and rotational speed of turbine.
m") Part load efficiency.
iv) Disposition of turbine shaft.
v) Load factor, utilization factor and demand factoL
2. What is the purpose of surge tank?
(AU-Nov/Dec 2005, 2008, 2011, Apr~fay 2010, 2012 2015)
The surge tank is a temporary storage safety reservoir fitted to the penstock, that is
in between dam and power house to keep the back pressure minimum by avoiding
sudden pressure rise in the penstock.
3. · What is the use of spillway?
Spillway is considered as safety al e for dam. It discharges major flood without
make only damage to the dam and keeps the water level in the rese1Voir below the
predetennined maximum level
4. What is the purpose of draft tube? (AU-Apr/May 2011, May/June 1009)
It is a diverging passage that connects the tail race with the turbine exit, to regain the
kinetic energy of water coming out of the reaction turbine. It increases the power
output of the reaction turbine. It decreases the exitvelocity and increases the presrure
head.
5. What is water hammer?
When the load of the turbine is reduced, there is a sudden increase in pressure
~ue to back flow of water in the pens tock. This phenomenon is known as water
hammer.
6. What are the different types of geothermal powerplant?
1. Dry-steam system
2. Wet steam system (or) Liquid-dominated system
3. Hot dry rock systems
4. Magmatic (Molten rock) Chamber system
i:>cannect. w 1tn L;ami:>canner

~:..:.E_R_F_R_O_M_R_E_N_E.:..:.W.:..:.A.:.:B:.:.L-=..E.::,EN~E=!R~G~Y~-----------_:.:.4;;;.;:...5~
1• \>Vlrnt· is the purpose

·
of a·11. · t . · J t?
Ill akc system in a diesel engine power P an ·
(A U-Apr/May-2005)
The nir intnke system leads fresh air through filter, ducts, silencer and supercharger.
O The filter removes the air borne solid particles causing wear of engine.
iO Silence reduce high velocity air noise.
iiO Super chnrger increases the pressure of air supplied and increase the power
output of the engine.
8. How OTEC cycle can be classified?(A U-Apr/Alfay 2011, Nov/Dec 2007, 2009)
OTEC cycle can be classified into two types.
I. Open cycle or Claude cycle or Steam cycle or Direct cycle
2. Close cycle or Anderson cycle or Vapour cycle or Indirect cycle
9, \>Vhat nrc the advnntngcs ofTidal power plant?
1. It is much superior to hydro power plant, because it is totally independent of rain.
2. It is free fi:om pollution.
3. It has unique cnpocity to meet U1e peek demand effectively.
4. It does notdcmnnd large nren ofvaluable land.
10. \>Vhnt arc the ndvantngcs of pumped hydro storage plant?
1·. Low cnpitnl cost than other peak units
'
2. It can pickup load rapidly within a matter offew minutes.
I
3. Plants con be mode to control by automation as well as as remote.

4. Free from effects ofenvironmental pollution.
5. Less power is required for pumping which is available at cheaper rate.
. 11. ,vhat are the different. types of receivers a.nd heliostats used in.solar power
plant'?
Receivers:
O Cavity receiver ii) External receiver
I •
H lioslats: ' '

O Glass reflecting surfuce ii) Plastic reflecting sur:fuce
12. What arc the essential factors which should be considered while selecting
~ site _fof hydropower plant? (AU-May/June 2009)
i) Availability of water
ii) Capac~ty of reservoir
iii) Working head of the water

iv) Distance from load centre
v) Topology ofland site
vi) Accessibility of site for men, machine and material
' ..
13. What do you meant by specific speed of the turbine?
. (AU-Apr/May 20.11, Nov/Dec 2009)
It is the speed of the geometrical similar turbine runs to develop unit power
under the unit head of the water. the geometrical similarities are shape, dimensio~
blade angle, gate opening etc. ·
I • J•
N/P
Specific speed - Hs/4
I• • • ' , .,. ....
.) ·Where' ,: ·· · ·· '· · · · f• I • • '
.• I, I ,
• I
'•
I I •• , :
i .
•
N;
=:Speed in TIJm • 1
• I
.,· . .
•. 1 ·1:,, ., , · • P .= .- Power output of the turbine in kW
H= 1··Netheadiifmefer ' ~·: ;.· ,:. ·. · i.·.
14. What'i~ ·the ~ignificance ·o f tli€specUic 'speed of the -hydraulic turbine?

· (;tU:.May/June 2009)
Q The specific speed plays an important role in selection of the turbine.
ii) It is an irilportarit 'p~ramet~r to· ·d e;i~·:·a 'turbine with respect to Speed,
·. :·, :Power'an·d·head.,' i f J .h i . u· ',,; : ... · ' 1 , _i;. 'j .I , . ; · '. ·, • . ·, •. .. , •· ,_, .•
. in) Tlie 'pe~fdrmarii:'e' th~hirb'ine'cah oe 'preciicted by'sp~cific-speed. •.· ..

·.r · . ,, ' ., .
,
, _. .
.... . j -
. ·. ' '
• • r •• •. ' J •,. •
OvVER FROM RENEWABLE ENER
~ ~ -·
4.61
5 What are the advantages d .

J• an disadvantages of OTEC power plant?
(AU-Apt/May 2008, 2011)
;\d-vantages
j\11 It is pollution free energy c .
0 nvers1on.
it') No fuel cost.
fu') The temperature is steady state.

iv) It does not occupy any valuabl 1 d
. e an area. ,. .
Disadvantages
9 The. cold water is about I 000 m therefore 30 ~ ~f power ge~e;ated ~~-~Id

beusedforpumpwork · , ._. - - ·, · .. -. · ·-
il') L?w capacity pow~r plant is possibl because oflarger size components. ·
iii) Very _large ~oating bed is too difficult ~d expensive ..
•I I • : • .. ...
iv) Non corrosive materials are required.

v) The system has to withstand Tsunami and hurricane.
16, What is OTEC?(AU-NovAJec 2008)
The surface of the ocean absorbs the solar radiation and maintained ~ s~rface
temperature of 27° C and the water at deep sea (1000 m) is maintained the
temperature of 4° C. This results a temperature difference of23° C. This heat
energy stored in the ocen is converted-into electrical energy by means of organic .
vapour Rankine cycle is called Ocean thermal E.Qergy C.onv~rsion. - •·
17. What are components .used in tid~l.PQlfer plant? (4 U-Novf!Je.c. 2009) . ·-~
0 Dam or ~arrage
ii) Slu:i~e ways (Gate)
iii) Power house with generator, ge~r box, tur94I~ and ~~-~ tub~. : ,
18. What are the advantages of geothermal power plant? (AU~Mll)!/Jlfnf! 2007)
~ . . . en~rgy frpµi t,h~,in~.~rio,r_p~r,tpf~~e :e~p. is .\lJµipljt~d. I~ is
The geothermal ~
absolutely renewable.
ii) No emission of hazardous ga~es.
iii) It is low cost and versatile.
L
~canneaw1 tn t;am.::>ca.nner
4.62 POWER pt.ANT ENGINEERING
iv) It delivers great amount of net energy from its system as compared to other
power plants.
v) Geothennal power plant has high annual load factor (85% to 90%).
vi) It is amenable for multiple user of geo thennal power plant.
19. What are the microhydel plants? Why they are important nowadays?
(AU-Apr/May 2007, 2008)
A small ~cale power plant between i 0 kW to 200 kW that generates electricity
using the e~ergy potential
. .
of water. Micro-hydro power plants convert the energy
of flowing water into elec~cal ~nergy. I •
Now a day, the concept of sustatn_able_development relies heavily on sensible

use of natural resources.
The causes and effects of environmental problem arising from an unbalanced
·-~ . I - • ' l• ; - • . •
approach and the large macro hydro projects are complex, interlocked and
unmeasured. This impact frequently synergistic in nature and it is irreversible.
To minimize these impacts the smaller the project with_lesser _the impact is
required. So ~ic~hydel e.tojects play an important r~le now ~ day b~cause
they rarely cause any environmental damage. ·
20. For.which ~urpose, Hydro electrlc projects are developed? (AU-Nov/Dec 2013)
I • I • f J • ..
,·. ~_._ Ithashigher.efficiencyovera·co~siderableload, ange. ,. · . •. ·

ii) It is ·suited- to meet peak load•clemands. :· ·~ ··· .·· · . · . ·1 • : • --~ - , • .1
:fu) It provide additional benefits like·iirigatioh'and flood control.· . ···· r.

. . ~. 1 , ' ' . ' .. : -.
21. What are the advantages of gas coole_d reactor Nuclear Power Plant?
'1 , • f' • • • \ ' • - • • • • • • • I • o - • o '"
~ Fuel processing is simple . . . ·~ . . . ' .:
h) !11e use ?f~0.2as ~-o ~l~-~-~-o;~plet~l~ ~_limin~tes the p~ssib_ility ~f ~xplosion

m reactor. r , . .
, - • \. t " , 1
1 • , · t
,. J ·? • • • ' I f . f
ili) No corrosion problem. ,., ,-j;

• ;- ,. , ••
~f-i •11--'\ ,
4 - "'
, ; 1 •1 •, t . , ·, ; ,
• • I
,
I '
••
• ,
I' J ,.· , ,
. •
.,. • I •
( [.. , t'_.
22. What is.the function ofFore~1~Y.~. ··,\',,.) .., :,_i . _: ·i . 1 ~.r. · ,_1. : , 1 , . .1 : .. · , • •. ,i ,.., .'• •
A forebay ~s .~_nlartifj~i~~-~!t ~a~r_~l P9.?.l.?f.,wa~e~ !~ front_ot ~ l_~t~rr bpdr of

water..It.~~ a9~.~s a temporary storage of water in the rivere during flooding and
the part of water is stored and released in a controlled way into the larger water
body.
i:Scannea. w1 tn <..;ami:Scanner
¢--R_F~R~O_M_R_E_N_EW_A_;;:B:.:L:::.E.::.EN~E:!:R~G~Y-___:__ ____:_ _ ~-----4.~
" What is the function of . ?
Z.J• coo 1ing system in Diesel Power Plant·
The burni~g gas temperature in the engine cylinder is around J500 to 200?0 ~;
The functmn of coo ling system is to remove the heat from the engine :y hndan
and.keeps the temperature of the cylinder at low range to improve the hfe of'
engine.
24, Define draught, what is the use of draught in thermal power plants?
Draug ht ts. defime d as a small pressure
· difference
· - · betwe_
req~tre~ · e~ ·-.
th e fuel_bed.
(fiurn ace ) an d ou t SI"d e air,
· to maintain
· · constant
· flow of atr 1 °
··· an d t d'scharge
.. the
gases through chimney to the atmosphere. Draught can be obtained by ch.11~ney,
fan, steam jet (or) air jet (or) combination of these.
· use d to supp ly required
O It 1s · quantity
• of air
• to the furnace 1or
&: combustion
. . of
fuel.
ii) It is used to draw the combustion products through the system.
iii) It is used to remove burnt products from the system.
- o I ....
.. ' ,
..... .
1 ' •
I • •
ENERGY
-
ECONOMIC ANO EI\IVIROI\IMENTAL
==
ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS '• f '
f II
I
, I
i - - - - _,_ _ lno ~b actl_y __ .1 POWER TARIFF TYPES .

( . Tho rnlo or011or1:1y HOid 101110 cuRtome,·
~'owor t, riff byt10 i • gcncrnlly dupund s upon lho typo of
· lo. ddin rlbu.·tlon 11 r ma art, customur ns following: , · ,
O DomcHI lo
Colnp. rl on oPdlttt elootlon orltctrl iO , , :unorclnl
Rel tlvn tnotltu 11d ,t 111c2rlt iiO huluslrlnl 1
· , Capl~I n11d O~or~ttnu coot of dlfforont Tho rntc Is nltm g1Z~onlls upo,Hho lond
· ·powal'lph11ttl\
'
·
' 1:'oll~llon control 'tt1Qbnoloolo lttoludlho
footor nncl tO~Q!!Y cunHl1tncd. 1 - f"
• • Tho tifriffshould sntisfy lho foll<iwin'g
• w 'ts dlopoo I 011tlo110 far Coal , "" rcquircmont. . .. . , , ,· • ., . ' I
Nucl •r ~'l>\vorpl~11to
O ft should provide minimum rntc for
higher consumption. I I
iQ It should provide minimum charges

for power connections than lighting.
• • I i~O It S~)?U_ld ,cnc~uro¥c,ll!r ~~~~mer.to
' use high lond focility.
' I ' • • I t t I I • I j I ' , •• , I • ,. · ' I. I ' I.
, }y). I~ ~l o~.l~ no~~~ c~mr.~ct~<.1,. ...

ul~,?9.P~\dqr,.the ,~~xi.mum
• .,VI) .l~ ~ho_
dcmuncl charges and energy
charges.
. . I I I ,
,
I
I
I
I '
5.2 POWER PLANT ENGi lEEPJHG
5.1.1 Types of tariff

The different types of tariffs are
i) Flat demand tariff
ii) Straight line meter tariff

fu) Step meter rate
iv) Bloc~met~tariff
v) Two part tariff (Hopkinson demand rate)
vi) Three part tariff (Doherty rate)
' .
.
vii) Wright. demand
.
rate
.
~e ge~eral form of tariff can be stated as follows.

Z = ax+by+c
Z - · Total amount of bill for the period considered.
X - ~aximum deman~ in ko/-
y - Energy consumed in kW hr
. .. ~ ---
'a 1 - .. Rate per
' kW.of
..
maximum
. .
demand
. '
··~· ·_ ~~~rgyrat9perkW -hr

. _{
c - Constant; amount charged to the customer during billing. This may be

· · · · · i.Iidepensfont 9f different demand or energy rates.
' '
i) Flat demand rate
I • " •
. . ,-
x=1
X :: 2
'
x= 1 ..
___. ,. ___. ... .
Energy Consumed (Y} Energy Consumed M

• • I •
f I
· Figure 5.1: Flat demand rate
i:)canned. w1tn c..;ami:)canner

-
ENERGY, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Or POWl: R ,, LANT 5,:J
d
It is based on the number oflamps ioslullcd und u lixcd 11urnbor hour~ of use, pol.' or
month or per year. This energy rate expresses U1e cerlnin ch urge, pew unit of <lomL111<l of lhc
consumer. In this demand rate, the meteriug equipmc,nt con bo totolly olo1ninulcd. Jt 0011
be expressed as
Z = ax
· The energy biH demands onl onmaxjmum demnnd in-cs~I®fono 'BY
consumed. ·
~
ii) Straight line meter rate
-
N
.......
~..
..... ·c
0
Ill
0 s
Ill
s 0
·O I
~
i i I I
_. ~
Energy Con·sumed (Y) Energy Con_

sumed (Y)
Figure 5.2: Straight line mete,· rate ·
The tarrif can be made according to the consumptio ener and'it is rec.ordered .Qt
k ~This amount is directly propo~iona to the consumption 'ofconsumer. lt can
be expressed as ' j'
Z = by .. ' I '
The m - f t~e ~ystem is, the consumer 11~ed not pay_anymorc

eventhough the plant
. ihc~d
....._ ~--..
some ex i to . vide reailliies - . ' e the customer.
The m~~fthis:~traight line rate is simplicity in power tariff calculation but_it
does not encourage to use electricity. ,
~ I
· - --·· ~ ~Y) .,
M
_ , _-iii) - Step-·meter rate

In this tariff the charges can be r ~ when the ener consumption is increased. '
. . ' -~ - V'\/1 .
Itis~xpress~das . . -~•;. :·:-"
•• I
Z = -by· 1f '. 0~y~A
' . ',
Scanned with c...:am~canner

POWER pl.ANT ENGINEERING
5.4
Where y, y1, y2 are the energy rate perkW and A, B and C a

re the different Jimits of
energy consumptiort.
--
N
-VJ
--
t:!,
VJ
0 0
t) t)
Jg ]
-. ,
~ ." ~
t t
~
-+
Energy Con·sumed (Y) Energy Consumed (Y)
(a)
--...
·N
VJ
--
N
VJ
0 0
t) (.)
-~
m
-
ro
~
t _.
1 ___.
... --. ---- .,
:
Energy Consumed (Y) Energy Consumed (Y)
•-J-
(b)
Figure 5.3: Step meter rate
· iv) ·Block meter-rate

- -------------"" - _ -~ ---·-
......
--
In this tartif, a certainamountperunit(kW) is charge.9 focalloranypartofthe block
ofeach unit. •
-- - ----··' --· ._ :i •• _J _,
The reduced price per unit are charged for all or any part of the succeeding block of
,, ~ e o o~kmeteraccomplishesthesamep~easing~
with increasing conswnption as UJ(;,M6it1-,Ul withou! its defect. The main demerit is,
it lacks a measure of the usto _ ..!;..~.....i;w;-~x..-- ---------
~
2Y2 + ~3y3 .. ...

b 1, b2, b3 - aretheunitcharges
yl' y2, y3 - aretheenergyconsumed
I
------------------7:s~c~a□n:unect. w1tn c.;am~canner

ENERGY. ECONOMIC AND EN
-- VlRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS 5,5
v) 1\vo-part tariff (hopkin
son dernaud rate) ,
In this tariff the total a
,mountofb'II ·
--~ o ~ expressed as J is based on the ma~imum demand and energy
Z == ·ax+by
Two meter are required O .
to measure the maximum de~· n_e ~s :,nergyi_kW-hr) me~er and another one~~~uired
.c: t d ~ and It JS ~ .ed for mdustn,. This tariffdiscourages to use low
power 1ac or ev1ce:···· - "J•
vi) Thr_ee-part tariffq>oherty rate) ,. . ,,

In this truiff.' the._ . ,cJ~tomer
.~ m m t e fixed amount m . add1tion
. . to energy charges
and. demand ~
tiiriff. charges . · The fiixed amount- JS· depends
· • labour cost
11
upon, the fuel pnce, etc.,
This 18 also smtabfo for industrial consumer who have control over maxunum emand.
It can be expressed as ~-------------
(!}
Z ~ ax+by+c
vii) W~ight demand rate ~
This rate intensifies the~eme by lowering both the dem charge and energy
charge for a reducti · m maximwn deman : other: words,.it intensifies.the, load factor: 0
T1iis-rareTs m a ~ t r i a consumer who have some measure ofcontrol
over their ~ w n demands. >-- .. ---; f) .. ..
The rate 1s modified ·by stating a wrumwn charge-which must be paid if the energy
for the billing period falls below the amount by such charge. For- allowingfair returns,some
adjustments-in the rate forms are providectS0rfie"oftherii are, · · ·
1. Higher demand charges in swnmer.
2. Fuel price adjustment to provide a rate change when fuel prices deviate from the
standard price.
3. ·Wage adjustment.
4. Tax adjustment.
5. Power factor atlj hstment.
.6_.Discount to,be given to·the·customers•for prompt payment of bills .
.Scannea Wl tn C..:am.scanner
5.2 LOAD DISTRIBUTI.ON PARAMETER

5.2.1 Types of Load
i) Residential load
It includes domestic light and domestic appliances such as Television, Refrigerator,
Air conditioner, Water heater, Electric cooker, Microwave oven, small motor for pump
' .
etc.
ii) Commertial load
It includes lighting for shop, advertisements and electrical equipments used in ~et
shop and restaurants.
iii) "Industrial load
- -- - - __... - . -
It includes .lighting fu~ indus~ ~~d load ~eE1~~ for different equipm~nts used in
industry~·. :~: .
•, I
Below25KW Small large scale industry

100 - 500KW - Mediumlargescaleindusr."'" ,.
above 500 KW . - Heavy industry '.. --·
:-:
1
·,
.iy)_ Municip~l load _;
---- - - - - ... - . _ , ...... _,,.,,,._,______
' /
..- --
;. J r
' I
It includes street light, traffic sign~l and fargermotorused to run water supply and
I ., .., - ---
drainage. · \ •"'' ~ \ '. - ., . ,, , •
... '.
·, .,. .,
J • ' '
v) Irrigation load
. .
It includes electric motor to drive pump for irrigation purpose.
' . . . ·\· ,·
I
' .
' \
' .
'
J 1 I: '
vi) Traction load

It includes railways, tram cars, trolly etc.
5.2.2 Various terms and definitions of load
(
• • .- 1 I , , I , _, • ,
i) Connected load
rt is sum of rating in kilowatts of each equ1p)nen~ installed by the 'consumer. If the
consumer connets four tube lights of40 watts, 2 fan of 60 watts~d one ~efrigerato:i;-of,40Q,
. - '
watts. Then the total connected load
I
will be •
' • ,# • I t ., ' .i ' \ ' .. ~ , I : ~' •, ':. ' ..~, .' .. i .
4oor >~.-~580 w~tts

= (4 x 40) f (2 x 60) + Cf x_ I •
eRGY, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONM 5.7
~ ENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS
iO ~aXimum load
It is the maximum possible Io d hi •
a w ch a consumer uses at anytime.
iii) oemand factor
It is defined as the
/ ratio of maxun·um load toconnec ted 1oad.
M ,Average l~a~ / _ .
:. Average load _ energy consumed in 24 hours

24
total energy
time period
Y) Load factor
average load
Load factor·
max imui;n load or pead load
'.
total energy consumption x 24 hours
peak load x 24 hours
load factor always less than unity.
vi) Diversity facto~
sum of individual maximum demand
simultaneous maximum demand
vii) Maximum effective demand
connect load x demand factor
- ' ·.
diversity factor
vili)Peak diversity factor
maximum effective demand of consumer
- demand of consumer during the system of peak demand
· It) System peak demand ·- ·
maximum effective demand
. p_eak diversity factor • ·
l) Plant capacity factor ·
, t • • I ' 4} •
average load ~ t _ kWh generated in a year

plant capacity x t kW' installed x 24 x 365
:::;canned. w1 tn cam:::;canner
peak Ioa<l x load factor

=
plant capacity
= use factor x load factor
x) Plant use factor
annual energy produced
- capacity of plant x operating hours during the year
'
xi) Reserve factor
I I !
· _
load factor ) · .
capacity factor · I f •
5.2.3 Load curves and Load durati ti curves

The electrical power developed in various power plants are used by the consumer
as and whenever required. However, this cons~mption i.e., load will always vary
considerably with respect to time and will not be constant. This variations ofload can be
related with time through graphical representation called load curves.
1 ,I
Peak load
.. 'v
. ; .
.~
~ Avera e load
_\_
·'O
n) • I,
0
• ...J
, ..
Load curve
12 3 . 6 9 12 . ' 3 6 9 ' 12 .,.

AM PM,
, Time, hrs -- , -
~Figure' 5.4:. ·Day'load c~rve (24 hours)
' . . ' ' - \
Load curve is the graphical representation showing the load demand for every instant
during a particular time interval; 1)iis curve is called hourly load curve, ifload.is plott¢ on
hourly basis and is called daily or weakly or monthly or annual load curve, ifload is plotted
RGY, ECONOMICANE> ENVIRO 5.9
~ NMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS
oil daUyorweeklyormonthlyor
. year I.Y bas1s. respectively. The load curve on 24b urs is °
shO".'••,0 tn figure 5.4. When plann·mg a power plant, the two parameters are requir · ed to
decide
O Total power output to be installed (kW)
it) Size of tlie generating unit
. .
. 1be total installed capacity requir~d·c ~ be,d.eti ~ned from
O Estimated demand h) Anticipated demand in) Reserve c~pacity.demand
The load curve for industrial load, urban traction load, residential load, street lighting
load is show~ in figure 5.5. The metropolitan area load area load-for a week is also ~~1~wn.
Industrial load Urban tractionload

\.
- - Summer load
kW kW .f )-
- - - - Winter lead
-
12 6 12 6 12 12 6 12 6 12
AM PM AM PM
Residential! load Street lighting
11 12 6 12 6 12 ' 12 6 12 6 ·12
AM PM AM PM
- • I • ...
Metropolitan area load
. ' .
12 ·s 1i s 12 s 12 s 1'2 6 12 6 12
· .·.1fy1 ·: ,P,M AM . - PM
: . . . ~,,,,, .· ~
· AM . PM
Figu~ s.s: ·Typical hourly variation in energy '!-emand for d~ffer.ent types
'· of electrical load and curv.es.oftotal•load in a metropolitan area
l
Scanned Wl th cam~canner
A typical annual load curve is shown in figure 5.6. The load demand noticed according
to the consumer requirement during particular period can be categorized into Base load,
Average or intermediate.load and maximum or peak load. Base load is the quantum of
power that has to be supplied by any power plant at all the titn~s.
I
, ~
/\
J I
\ ]
r\ I ~ ' ,.. Jo:
m
11.
I \ I \ I
~
:::?:
~--- 11--- -\- --- ~1-- ---- ---- -~- --- ---- --1- .
"C
C1I
a
...J \
I
·\ I ]
'
i I '\. j :\ I.· (It
~
.,
I J ~
\
Jan
-
Feb Mar Apr

I
;
May Jun July Aug

'
Sep
' Oct Nov Dec
1 ..
.2
GI
I., " ''

- + lime.Months
Figure 5. 6: Annual load curve
The average load during a ,day can be obtained from the daily load curve by
dividing the area under the energy .curve by the time period.
Peak load is the maximum load which a consumer uses at any time. It is a
graphical representation between loa~ (kW) and time (hours). The graph slows the
variation in power station.
The types of load curv~s are
O Daily load curve : plot for 24 hours
ii) Month~y load curve . : pl<;>t for 30 or 131 days
. ' . .
ii) Annual load Cllf\'.:e plot for 365 days ' --J
/.
B~ERGY. ECO NO. IIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF PO VER PL.ANTS 5.11
S.2.3.l Significance ofload c11n·es
The load curYe provides complete information about the incoming loads thus
helping to predict the annual requirements of energy. Based on the annual energ,
consumption, capacity of the plant to be installed to meet the peak and fluctuating
to
loads can be decided. These cun;es also helps e-timate the generating cost and to
decide the operating schedule of the pO'werstation i.e. the sequence.sin which different
units to be operate.
5.23.2 Uses of load curves

1. The area under the load cmve give.s the total energy consumed by the user
during a particular period llllder consideration.
2. The area under the load curve divided b) the total number of hours gi, es the
average load on the power station.
5.2.4 Load duration curves
Load duration curve is a graphical representation depicting the daily load cmve by
simply rearranging all the load elements of a dail load curve in descending order of
magnitude. The ordinate represents the load and the abscissa represents the duration
during which a particular load exists.
501,1w
40MW
I
I 12MW
I
I
I
I
,....__~-----------------
0
I
3 10 12 24
--+ lirre,Hours
~crure 5. 7: Load duration curve
The figure 5.7 shows a typical load duration curve. Any point on the load duration
curve indicates the number of hours in a given P,eriod during which the given load has
prevailed. The area under the i~ad a~tion c~; and the corresponding chronological
load curve is equal and represents the total energy d~livered by the power plap.t
~canned. w1tn uam~cat:i'. ner

Load duration curve gives a clear analysis of generating power economically proper
selection of base load plants and peak load power plants becomes easier. It may be noted
that, from this single curve, the peak dem~d, the variations in demand which is to be k~t
d9wn·to minimum, the duration they existed and the total energy involved, can be easily
summarised. I
M
MW
1 ,
·-.:~.. . . - -·... ... .....
·•.... Month
1
6 6 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1416 18 20 22 24 - Day
AM .' PM I I I I I I I I I
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 720 - Month
I I I I I =I I I I I
0 0
a
a..-
0
0
o
0
0
o
0
0
a
0
0
a
0
0
o
8
0
8 g
0 ,-._
Year
N M ~ Li) . (0 ...... co co
, (~) ~oaQ_curves (b) Loa~ duration curves
5.~-~-~ura.twm Cll"7e constructed from the chronological load
I
I
Fi8U,re
I 1 curve ofa day .
I · __ _
I
By compiling the load hours on various days, the• load curve for one month (720
I I • •
hours) or one year (8760 hours) can be obtained. Daily, monthly and yearly load duration
curves helps better planning. .
for economical.~tilization
.., .. . of the power plants, existing or
planned. ·
I •
.' . ) . ' • I • - i. . ' ' ..
.. -
. '. . . .. . . ,.. __-· •·.J •fl• , •
-
I. .l . 1
..
·- ' I .) • I
. TI , .,
J • t ~ •
·, -
f ...
• I
I I
-- - - · --· ---· -- - -
........
~ 3 COMPARISON OF SITE SELECTION OF VARIOUS POWER PLANTS
S.N. Description Steam Diesel Hydro Eledric Gas

~ !
Nuclear\ "'
G)
~-<
Power Plant Power Plant Power Plant Power Plant Power Plant m
()
1. Availability Coal is the fuel for steam Di1tsel is the fuel for diesel Water is very important; Gos is the fuel and it Uranium is the fuel used 0
of labour power plant. A 400 MW power plant. 270 litres per there should be dole of should be cheap and in nuclear power plant z
0
steam power plant requires MW fuel is required at full run off for proposed site. available plent)' near and it should be s:
5000 to 6000 tonnes of coal load. If the plant is large it by site. The amount of ()
per day. It should be located should be nearer to the
.
liquefied gos fuel
required is 265 litres .
z►
nearer to coal field. refinery. Otherwise it should 0
be nearer to the fuel station. per hour. m
z
Water is a coolant for The moderator of nuclear
<
2. Availability Water is a working fluid and Water is a coolant for diesel Water availability ::0
of water coolant for cooling tower. engine. Sufficient quantity of throughout the year and gas turbine. Sufficient power plant requires 0
water should be available storage of water at site quantity of water should plenty of water for boiler, z
The fresh water requirement
is estimated to be in the range nearby site. is important even in dry be available nearby condenser cooling and ~
periods. site. makeup water. The fresh z
3.5 - 4 m3 /h per MW.
~
Therefore it should be located
nearer to river, reservoir
water requirement is
estimated to be in the •
CJ)
CJ)
or sea; range 16-17 m3 /h per
C
MW. It should b~ m
I . located nearer to river,
CJ)
0
reservoir or sea. "Tl
""O
The cost of the land The cost of the land is 0
The cost of the land
3. Cost of land The cost of the land Is Mostly it ls in the heart of
reasonable. ~
the city or industrial area. :should be cheap. should be cheap. m
r.i II
reasonable.
. The cost of the land is high. I
::0
""O
Pl
t;:1 The site should be free The bearing capacity The bearing capacity of ~
4. Nature of Land should have high The sub soil condition for
the land should be high.
z-;
t;:1 a foundation should be from earth quake and of the land should be
(1) land bearing capacity to with The zone I is highly safe CJ)
capable of withstanding he~vy fioods. hfgh.
A II stand dead load. Mostly - against earth quake is
~ II coastal area Is suitable. heavy vibration. , . •r
suitable for site.
..... -
ct
p :
-. -
•' . . . (11
~
C C,,.)
Pl
s
ti.
r:,
Pl
t;:1
t;:1
(1)
1-;i ~
.,_
!.Tl
......
S.N. Description Steam Diesel Hydro Electric Gas Nuclear
~
Power Planl Power, Plant . Power Plant Power Plant Power Plant
5. Transportation Ap1;>roach of Railway or roa_d Approach of land, rail and Good land transport is Approach of land, rail Approach of land
trar:,sport Is necessary. For larid water transport is necessary. required nearby site and water transport is transport is necessary.
transport of coal and heavy to transfer h':ary necessary.
machinery. machineries.
6. Waste - A 400 MW power plant Not applicable. .
J •
Not applicable. - Not applicable. The nuclear waste is
Cjilsposalr _ _.req1,1lres l O Acres of waste . radioactive; there should
iand ; - . .. .
be a sufficient space for ,
,.• . .
I
-' -
waste disposat
7. Size of tne ·:Larger size Is Smaller size ls Larger size is Larger size ls Larger size is
I
~Ian!, -
-- -economical. economlcal. economical. economical. economical.
8. Nat~re o( : The !and sho!Jld be The site should be The land should be The land should be The land should be
Land' - · cheap and rocky. - rocky or hard soil. cheap and rocky to cheep and rocky. rocky.
II I
I • - - . - --- .. - - construct the dam.
9. Load centre The site for the power plant The site for the diesel power The site for the power The site for the gas The site for the power
I
.-, shoul.d be nearer to the load · plant should be nearer lo the plant should be nearer powerplant should be plant should be nearer to
I
' -~ areq'.. load centre and transmission to the load area to nearer to the load the load area i_f possible.
-' -,
loss should be minimized reduce the transmission centre and transmission
when peak loads. loss. loss should be
: ., ~
- minimized when peak -0
I
. 0
tZ
0 II
·, -
loads .
~
$l) l 0. Public safety ' Should be located far away Should be located far away Should be located for Should be located far Should be located for m
:::0
l::f 1
.... ~from the towns to avoid the from the residential area and away from the towns to away from the away from the populated -0
l::f
(1)
.. nuls_a nce of fly ash and smoke. business to avoid the heavy ovoid floods. residential area and area to save them from ~
p - noise and smoke. business to ovoid the hazards . z
'• I -I
~ ::;.~· . ::
I
heavy noise and smoke. m
....
ct 11. F.uture
-
-
-
The site should allow future Not applicable. The site should allow The site should allow
z
G)
· The site should allow future •
p extensions extension . extension. future extension. future extension. z
C . m
$l) 12. Availablllty Lobour should be avallable Lobour should be available Lobour should be , Labour should be Lobour should be
m
a
tZ
of labour
. .. nearby site.
. . - . .. - - - nearby site.
-
a~a~able nearby site. available nearby site. available nearby site. z
::0
G)
0
$l)
l::f
l::f
(1)
t.i
..,
ENERGY, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS 5.15
5.3.1 Economics comparison of nuclear power pla'n t and thermal

power plant
No. Nuclear power plant Thermal power plant
l. More economical than lhennal power No economical to compare with nuclear

plant at same capacity. power plant at same capacity.
2. The expenditure on fuel transport, The expenditure on fuel transport,
handling and storage is less. handling and storage is larger.
3, Less man power required. More man power required.
4, Less space required. , More space required.
5. Cost of maintenance is high. Cost of maintenance is low.
6. Capital cost such as stmctuml material Capital cost such as stmctura\ material,
I
piping and storage is less. piping and storage is higher. ·
7. Operating cost is less. Operating cost is high.
'
8. Cost for waste disposal is less. Ash disposal cost is higher. -
5.3.2 Economic comparison of gas turbine plant over thermal power

plant
No. Gas turbine Thermal power plant .
I. Ash disposal is totally eleminated. The cost of ash disposal is high.
2. Less space required. More space required.
3. It can be located near by the load It can·be located nearby availability
centre. ofwater.
4. Compact in size. Larger in size.
5. It is desirable in peak load. It is desirable in base load.
6. It is more economical for operating It is n~t economical for operating
conditions below load factor. conditions below load factor.
7. It can be brought into peak load It cannot be hr.ought into peak load
quic~y. quickly.· -
5.16 . POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
5.3.3 Economic comparison gas turbine plant over diesel power

plant
No. Gas turbine Diesel power plant
l. Maintenance cost is less. Maintenance cost is high.

2. Fuel cost is low because low grade Fuel cost is high. High grade fuel can
fuel can burnt. burnt.
3. Initial cosfis low. Initial cost is high.
4. Less space required. More space required.
5. Poor part load efficiency. Good part load-efficiency.
6. It is economical for smaller output. It is not economical for smaller output.
7. 1t is comparitively slow to respond It is quick to respond load variations.
load variations.
.
5.3.4 Site selection of nuclear power plant
i) Availability of water
The modem nuclear power plant requires plenty of water for condenser cooling and
makeup water requirement. Therefore it should be nearer to a river, reservoir or sea.
ii) Distance from populated area
The nuclear power plant should be constructed·far away from the populated area to
avoid the radioactive hazard.
iii) Distance from load centre .
.' '
It should be located nearer to the load centre to reduce the tranmission loss and
power loss.
iv) Waste disposals
The nuclear wastes are radioactive. Therefore the sufficient safely space for disposal
is required.
v) Safe against Earth Quakes
The country divided in to five seismic zoqe codes (zone 1,2) ;4·and 5) by seismic
survey of geological survey of India. The zone 5 will not be the most suitable because of
frequently occured tremors and earth-quakes. The zone 1 will be highly suitably place for
nuclear plant.
ENERGY ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS 5.17
i) Soil cor,dition r\4j'

Th. b ming cnpa ity of the oil f /i very important role in sel ction of foundation.
1 ii) Accessibility
1l1e PO\ er plant should be connected with exceUent transport facility.
5.4 COST OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

]be cost ofelectrical energy generated consists of fixed cost, running cos~ customer
charges and investors profit.
The cost of electrical energy is classified as shown in figure 5.9 .
.SA.1~
The fixed cost are those cost which remains same for a given capacity. It does not
vary with output
The fixed cost includes the capital investment ofinstallation ofentire plant.
This includes
a) Capital cost of power plant
b) Capital cost ofprimary distribution
c) Other capital cost
5.4.1.1 Capital Cost of Power Plant
The capital cost per kW of Thermal power plant does not change much, but it
changes more for hydraulic power plant because the cost of hydraulic power plant depends
upon foundation required, type of dam, land, quantity of water and spill ways used. It
includes the following cost.
i) Cost ofland
il) Cost ofbuildfog
'
iit) Cost of equipment
iv) Cost ofinstaJlation .. ,_ l I I l " !
v) .Cost ofdesigning and:planning,the·station ·. 1, .• I I ' I '
• I '
I
I
. ' •
' '
' .I . .
I
'·'
I • •
• t • • I
~cannea. w1tn c..;am~canner

u,
->.
CXl
Cost of Electrical Energy
.·
Fixed Cost Operating Cost Customer charges Investors profit
i) Cost of fuel i) Capital cost of secondary distribution

ii) Cost of Labour ii) Cost of inspection and maintenance
' iii) Cost of material iii) Cost of publicity
(Oil, Grease, Chemical, iv) Office staff for meter reading
• • ... and Water)
Capital Cost Capital Cost of Of.her

of Powerp/ant Primary distribuUon Capital Cost
• - - I..
♦
a) Cost of substation a) Interest
b) Cost of transmission lines b)Tax "tJ
0
tr.
r:,
Pl
~
- a) Cost of land
c) Insurance
d) General management cost
e) Depredation cost
~
m
::a
b) Cost of building "'O
~ I
I t;
CD ~ c) Cost of equipment z
p
'd) Cost of Installation \ ~
m
~
..... ,e) Cost of designing and planning z
ct ..__. G)
P" \ z
m
C Figu~ 5.9: Classification of cost ofElectrical energy m
Pl ::0
a
tr.
r:,
z
(i)
Pl
~
~
CD
t-;t
a) Cost of building and land
It does not change much with different types of power plant. The cost of land
depends upon topography, and contour and development cost.
b) Cost of equipment and installation
right from site selection to final execution and commissioning.

' .
It varies considerably with respect to type of power plant. Installation cost includes
c) Cost of planning and design

It does not change much with respect to the types ofpower plant.
5.4.1.2 Capital cost of primary distribution
This includes the investment cost ofsubstation and cost of transmission lines.
5.4.1.3 Other capital cost
Tl1is includes interes~ tax on insurance, general management cost and depreciation
cost.
a) Interest
The interest during constmction that is the payment made before commissioning of
the plant must considered. A suitable rate of interest must be considered on the capital
inv~d
b) Insurance
The investment to.....insure the equipment
' . \.vill be necessary
. to reduce the risk. The
annual_premit~maybe2to3%.ofann~installmentAfixedsumisallotted_everyyearfor
insurance charges. Even though it is must for security against risk.
.
c) General management cost
This cost includes day to day expences of administratio!}, training, salaries to
permanent staffre~rea_tiop etc. , ·; ·_- ,
' • ' I
d) Depreciation.·.
.,
.. !he d~pr~ci~ti~_n ~s ~au~~~t~~ ~d tear of the _equi~me_nt. This can be
IIlllllll11sed upto.sop_Je extent-by ~care·and.mamtenance. This capital mvestment must
be r~ered by the·time oflifespanoff 1~,Ns:over. So that this will be helpful to replace,
by a new equipment. For this purpose the~·phmt is opened a depreci~tion fund. Till the
'
plant is in operation. The amount collection.~ stopped till it is.eq¢ to the capital ipvestrnent.
POWER pLAJ IT Ef lGl
5.20
The different methods used to calculate the depreciation cost ofpower plant are
O Straight l'ine method
.
ii) Sinking fund method
iii)· Diminishingvaluc method
i)· Straight line method
This method assumes that the loss ofvalue of an equipment is directly proportional
te its age.
n = Life of plant in years

r = Annual rate of compound interest on the investment capital
A = The de·preciation amount per year
C = [nitial,investment to initial the plant or capital cost
s· = Salvage value·attheend of plant value
C
0
..;.. ~
co·-
- (J
..., ~ l!'.
a.
1/) a,
0 -0
u
Life in years ►I
Figure 5.10: Straight line method
Then the depreciation amount in Rupees. ·-· --

C-s
A=-
n
This method of ca1cu1ating depreciation_fund is_also known as fixed installment
method, because evety year some emount is deduGted and it does not consider the
maintenance and repair charges, which gradually increases with respect the age of the
plant.

ii) Sinking Fu~d Method
llis method consists ofproviding depreciation by means of._pxed periodk charges,

which aggregated with compound interest over the life of the equipment or plant. The rate
of interest is also constant through out the life of the machine.
• I
Annual depreciation -(A) = C- s ·[ r O ] •
(l+~) -1
where C = principle or capital cost of the plant
s - salvage value
n - useful life in years
r = rate of interest
C
.Q
-io
rtl ·-
... u
...
1/l
~~
C.
Q)
'·
0 "C
u
Q)
Cl (I)
rtl ::,
>
- rtl
-
rtl
Cl)
>
Life in years
Figure 5.11: Sinking Fund Method
Let A = Annual depredation amount

Then after one year the amount will earn interest and that it become
A+Ar = A(l +r)
. -- ... ...
After 2 year the amount will A ( 1 +r)-become
- A (1 + r) + A (i + r) x r
- A+Ar+Ar+Ar2
- A(l +2r+r2)
- A (1 + r) 2
The amount A set after (n - 1) years with interest. .

_C-s~ _A+A(l+r)+A(l+r) 2 + .... +A(l+r) 0
... (1)
. .
C - s =· A [1 + (1 + r) + (1 + r)2 + ... + (1 + r) 0
]
Multiplying(! +r) both sides

(1 +r) (C- s) = A [(l + r) + (1 + r)2 + (1 + r) 3 + ... +(I + r) 0
] ... (2)
Substracting the equation 1 and 2
r (C- s) = A [(1 + r) 0 - 1]
A= C-s[ r ]
(1 +rr-1
iii) Diminishing value method
Th~ amount is se~side per year ,ct_ecrease~e life of the plant incre~ This is
also called Reducing balance method. The diminishing value ofthe plant is much greater in
the,..,early.i'.:..ars and lesser in latter years. ~ ~
Under this method, the book value of the plant goes on decreasing as its existence
continues. A certain percentage of the current book value is taken as depreciation.
Let x be the fixed percentage taken to calculate annual depreciation·-on the book
value.
I I
Then X = 1-(~J . . .. . .
where
. \
s
.
- salvage value
. .. .. .. . 1 I f
• •
I I \.
• ' • , , \
f .,. 1 '\
I
J
C - .., capital cost

.
n - number ofyears of life · •' •

• •• • • .· ' I .. • • I
• • 1 .. • • •• • • I • ' •' t J 1 i f ,. \ I' \
5.4.2~ .. . , . ·.· ..·. ·.. •.1_·_. ;_,, ·•1·.···.- .·>.·,•--.

Operating costs are varies with respect to.the output9fthe plant, . .
• p <... . . ' . I .. . . ~ ... ,_I . . ~ '. ' .. # ' I
.
This includes cost offuel, operating labour, maintenance cost, material for regular
. . ' - - . ,.
maintenance, water cost, lubricating cost, water treatment chemic'a1s; etc.' · _. ·· 1
i:)cannea. w1 tn cam~canner
• ·1
ENE~GY, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLAN~S 5.23
Cost F~cl and Lubricating Oil

The cost offuel and oil proportional the output generated. The consumption ~f fuel
is also varies with load on the o~erplanlA.t foll load the fu~l consumption is minimum
because the prune-mover works at maximum efficiency.
Cost of water, chemicals and other maintenance material and labour

This cost of material and water are also proportional to the output of the plant.
5.4.3 Customer Charges
This cost is qepends upon the suantity of customers. This includes the_capital cost
of secondary distribution system cost of inspection, maintenance of distribution lines, the
cost_oflabour required for meter reading and cost of publicity.
5.4.4 Investor's Profit · · ~
The investor expects some pro.fit on his investment. The pro.fit rate varies accorctind
,______
to the business ·condition. The cost power generation can be reduced
. by the following.
i) By r~duction of capital cost
,,
nY'By running the power plant
in) By install~g the power plant nearer to the load centre
iv) By reduction of line loss
v) By effective burning system and-increasing the efficiency of the equipments. ·
'
POLLUTION ' CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES INCLUDING WASTE
DISPOSAL OPTIO_NS FOR COAL AND NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS ,,-
5.5.1 Pollution control technologies including waste disposal
options for coal
The environment pollution by thermal power plant is a great extent co_mpare
than othe_rpower pl~ The -~ Uution is caused by thermal power plant is very high
by burning fuels Iik&c1at. The combustible elements of fuel are converted into gaseous
produc~tibl~ ele~ents t o ~ · - ,, - • ·
,.--_ 1 , • I t I '•••• · ' • 1 • •
The emissions ~an~·clas.sified ~t~ ~o-~ ~~s. __ : . _.

1. Gaseous emiss on · 2. Partic~~~te emi~sion
- ~ ' . . . .
3. Soid'waste emission 4. Thermal pollution
-
5.24 POWER PLAI lT EHGU EE.R I
1) Gaseous Emission
The various gaseous pollutants are
,
i) Sulphur dioxide
ii) Oxides ofNitrogen
iii) Hydrogen Sulphide
iv) Carbon monoxide etc.

i) Removal of Sulphur dioxide (S02)
SO 2 is removed by wet scrubber as shown in figure 5.12. It is also used to
separate the particulate matters.
Cleaned gas
Spray mentfold
Tangential gas inlet
Swinging inlet damper
Dirty gas inlet

Water inlet
I I , • t
-; , .
..' Figure.5.12: Wet Scrubber .. ' . ! - .' J I•
Polluted (dirty) gas is sent into the scrubber tangentially. Water spray ab;orbs
these gases and particulate ·matters. It is ~ollected on-the surface of the scrubber are
washed down by water. This water is again treated,--filtered and reused: The collection
efficiency of this scrubber is 90%. ~
--'----
6'-~ GY. ECONOMIC AND ENVJRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS 5.25
Table 5.1: Effects of gas emission
Effects
SJV. Pollutarrt
011 materials/
On man On vegitation animals
I. S01 Corrosion
Suffocation, irritation Destruction of sensitive
of throat and eyes crops and reduced yield
respiration system
'
2. .. .
N02 Irritation, bronchitis, - --
oedema oflungs
3. H2S Bare disease, Destruction of crops Flourosis in cattle
respiratory djseases grazing
4. co Poisoning, increased -- -
accident-liabiHty
Applications
I. C~ustry (
2. Grain milling industry
Disadvanta;;;--
D The pressure drops are very high. ;:{J
ii) The used water will contain sulphuric and sulphu~cid which corrode
the pipettiieafids~·c_ru_b_b-er~.-. - - - - - - - - - - ---- -
-
ii.t) The used water cannot be drain into the rivers.
~
iv) The gases are cooled to_such an extent that they must be reheated before
--
being sent to the stack.
Nonnally the thermal power plant has high sulphur content coat and it must be
removed before burnt. Some sulphur oxides and the fly-ash will removed by coal
washing.
Similar.to we_tscrubber system, Flue-Gas J?es_u_lp~ur:iz~tion (FGD) system is
employed in power plants ..Th.e types of.FGD systems are
I. The recovery or regenerative system.
2. Throwaway or non-regenerative system.
i:scannect w1 tn uami:scanner
RcgcncratiYc system
1. vVet Magnesium oxide process
2. F\\T - Bergbau process
3. Wellman-Lord process
,vellman-Lord FGD system
Figure 5.13 shows the Wellman-Lord FGD system removes S02 by absorption
in sodium carbonate. S0 2 is recovered as sulphur or sulphuric acid process.
Clean flue gas Condenser
to chimney
Steam
Sulphur
Fglause ► S0 2 recovery Sulphur or
dsorbe plant or sulphuric
sulphuric acid product
acid plant
Evaporation
crystallizer Sodium
Dissolving carbonate
tank make up
Figur_e 5.13:, We.~ lman-Load abdsorption FGD regenerative system

..
FW-Bergbau Process - ,'
l'
FigITTe 5.14 shows FW-Bergbau process S02_is_removed by absorption and

sulphur is called as molten sulphur.
To chimney
Hot sand char

regenerator Coal
S0 2 Re'c ycle gas to

Boiler ~ Clean flue gas char adsorber
flue gas char
adsorber
CO 2 saturated char To char To molten sulphur · ·
Screen adsorber storage tank
To bottom ash disposal

To fly ash disposal
Figure 5.14: F. W. Be'rgbau Forshung adso_rption FGD r.egenerative system
____.
Non Regenerative System

In this system the reactants are not recovered. T~e final products are sulphur
salts of calcium and magnesium.
Line or Lime stone is the reactant in non regenerative system. the slurry is made
int~ sludge by adding fly-ash and othe~ proprietory sludg~·additives and the sludge is
disposed. In this method no,sulphur or sulphur product is recovered and the reactant
is not generated as in case ofFW Bergbau process.
Emission" of NOx ·· ·
on ·n air is accompanied by the f ~ c
o~which is subsequently ~rtly~idise~ Nitrogen dioxide (N~ The
resulting mixture is represented by NU;'<. Where x has a value between 1 and 2.
..---from coal, oil and gas furnaces.
Nitrogen oxides are present in stack gases ---------
The following methods are used to reduce the emission ofNO~ from thermal
'
power plant.
1. Reduction of residence period in combustion zone.
~of temperature in combustion zone.
2. Reduction
~
3. Increase in equivalence ratio in the combustion zone.
----
~ .
Particulate Emission and its control

The particulate matters are,
., • I,•
0 Dust (diameter 1 micrpn) rVhich do not settle down.

'
ii) Particles (diam~ter 10 micr..ons) which settle down to the ground.
,,_
The emission ofp~icles can be classified as follows .

1. Smoke 1
'\
, 2. Fumes(. fU 6)1) n,P/. '

• I
3. Fly-ash,::
1 . r , ,
4. Cinde~l -
1) Smoke
• lIt ~q~_sj~t~_.-9.f. ~~le_~u~pen~ion_of particl~. These are visible only in the
•
aggregate. The diameter is less than 10 microns.

r--- --..._
2) Fumes
These are very small particles which. .
is obtained from chemical reaction. It is
composed ofmeta)s
.... and metallic.oxides .
3) Fly-ash
The-diameter of fly ash particles ~re less than or equal to 100 microns .
.---
4) Cinders-
The diameter of ash'particles are more than or equal to 100 microns.
The performance parameters for any particula(e ~emover is called the collector
efficiency.. .
~
. .
I, • . - ' • • !'J°ass of "dust removed x l 00
•
Collector-efficiency = Mass of dust present

, .
The collector efficiency varies from 50 to 99%. For an electrostatic
precipitator M ~ 90%. '-.._
a) Cinder Catchers
The figure 5.15 shows th~ ~ifferent methods of cinder catches.
. .
(a) Sudden decrease in gas velocity (b) Sudden change in the direction
of the flow of flue gas
••t •
~canned. w1 tn c.;am~canfier
- - '
Figure 5. I 5(a) shows sudden decrease in gas vclocily makes the particulate
separate and fall. Figure 5. l 5(b) shows a sudden change in the direction of flue gas
throws the particulate away and can be collected. · .
Figure 5.l 5(c) shows the irnpringement of flue gases on a series of baffle stops
the particulate matter. These are commonly used in stoker and small cyclone furnaces
where crushed coal is burned rather than the very fine pulverised coal. The collection
efficiency of Cinder catchers are from 50% to 75%.
Cinder-Vane fan is shown figure 5.15(d). It uses the fan which imparts centrifugal
force to the particulate and they are collected_. The ~ffici~~cy is from 50 ~o 75%.
b) Wet Scrubbers
Wet scrubbers are generally used for rem.oval of gases. It is also used to removal
ofparticulate matters but the gases will have to be rehe_ated before.they are sent to the
stack. It is not commonly used to remove the particulate matters.
, I .
c) Electrostatic Ptecipitator
I
High voltage electrode
Collector plates
Fi~~r~ 5~ 16: Electrostatic Precipitator
An ~lec~r.ostatic precipitate~ is shown in figure 5.16. In this device very high a

voltage of30 KV to·60 KV is applied to the wires suspended. The ~res are suspended
in a gas flow pa~s-efge between two grounded.-plate~. ~he par ticles in the gas stream
0
gets a charge from negatively charged wires and arc th~~ attr~cied to th~ ground
plates. The ground plates are periodic~Ily n~pped by a steel plug which is raised and
dropped by an electromagnet. Dust is collected in th~ hoppers below.
~cannect w1tn uam~canner

• The collector efficiency is about 99%.

• It is suitable for power plants where fly-ash_content is high.
• Fly ash having high electrical resistivity does not separate in the electrostatic
precipitator. It can be done by injecting sulphur trioxide into the exhaust gas
which improves the conductivity offlyosash. This again poses a problem of
discharging Sulphur trioxide into the atmosphere is objectionable So wet
scrubber is used after electrostatistic precipitator.
d) Baghouse filters
It is used to remove the particulate matters where low sulphur coal is used. This
filter is cleaned by applying a forced air in reversed direction. It needs large filters
area of about 6,5 m2/MW of power generation. So installation cost is high.
• Filter cost is 20% of installation cost.
• Life period is I½ to 3 years.
• This is widely used in coal-firing systems.
Figure 5.17: Baghouse filter
Solid waste disposal

• In fossil fuel fired ,Power plant large am£)unt of ash is discharged iri the form
·· of solid. This ash is removed~ottom_!Sh or ,§}ug_frcigf the furnace. The
discharged solid wastes are calcium and magnesium salts which.is generated
by absorption of SO 2 and SO 3 by react~Iit like lime sto"rie.' · · \ .- .' ' ~ ·, · · · ·
• • t I•
. ..
- • i
l • • .' .
ENERGY, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS 5,31
Thermal Pollution
·~ /'
Discharge of thermal encr1,ry Jnto water js commonly called Thermal Pollution.

Water is the m~i~m t~nsc steam in thermal power plant. If this
heated water is disc~d int.ct)~kes or rivers, the water tcmp_er~turc ~oe~ u{t)·
about 35° C the dissolved oxygen will be so low that the acquat1c hfe will die. X ·
~ 1 --------- · -
. But in very cold regions, letting out ho.t water into the Jakes or rivers helps in
incrc~growth, But in our country, such places ar~ n.ot many andJ!_ence it is
necessary to minimise this therm~rton of water.
..___,__._ - I
One of the regulation stipulates that maximum temperature of water let out can
be l 0 ·c abo.ve the atmospheric temperature. Thus the thermal plant bas to resort to '
. metho fa dh.
various ermg.to.th'1s regu I.
at1on. . · - · -T----._...
· --
rgc Index (TDI)
Thermal Power discharged to environment in MW thermal

TOI -
Electrical Power Output in MW Electrical
The index cannot be zero or else the plant violates the second law of
thermodynamics. This index should be as low as possible to improve the efficiency of
the plant as well as to keep the pollution level low. TOI is dependent on the thermal
efficiency of the plant.
Reduction methods of thermal pollution
In thermal power plant, the water from a river or lake is pumped through the
condenser and fedback to the source. The rise of temperature will be about 10° C
which is highly object,ionable from the pollution point of view. Hence, tbjs}taste h_:_at
which is removed from the condenser will have to be thrown into the atmosphere and
not into the water source, in this direction the follow~g metlio can ~~~,.,.~cl.
~
l. Construction of a separate lake.
2. Cooling pond.
' .
3. Coolin$ tower.
1) Construction of a separ.ate lake
A sufficiently large water storage in the fonn of a lake can be built and one-
through cooling the condenser can be adopted. If the natural cooling of water from the
. _J
lake is not sufficient,.floating spray pumps can be emp, oyed. This ipethod i~pr:_oves
the thennal efficiency of the plant but can rove expens· _ . Also, it may not always be
·•. ·· -
possible to have a large enoug ake artificta y m t. • ·
-
2) Cooling pond -. t:.J ··• --- _
. .A cooling pond with .continuously operating ~ai~s can be adopted for smaller
' . .
power plants. This wiir als·o·serve as a beautifying feature of the power plant site ...
.
~ . ..... --- ---- . -- .... - ::. ...____ .
3) Cooling to'Y~r
In order ~o th_row heat into th~ atmosphere most power stations aQ_opt the cooling
towers. The hyperoolic shape given to the tower automatically induces air from the
~ t~\flow upwards and the water is cooled by coming in direct c o n ~ e
ait'fhis is called w~~-:-coolin] to~.
---~ (V • - " ~ .
The overall efficiency of such plants will be lower than those of the plants adopting
one-through cooling system. There will be considerable vapour flumes escaping from
the cooOing towers. Sometime, make-up cooling water may be scarce. In such cases,
dry cooling tower can be adopted. Dry cooling towers are much more expensivejhan
wet cooling towers, Thewet and dry cooling towers are expensive and add to the
initial investment of the plant: Small plants can adopt mechanicaical-dr£_1ft systems
using induce~ or forceq draft system. This helps in avoidng height to the cooling towers.
Thus the initial cost is reduced-but the maintenance cost of mechanical-draft systems
are high. •
5.5.2 uclear Waste .Disposal Methods
. ',
Reprocessing
- .. .. • ••
.
-· . ' "
. f •
Space
dispo~I r----,Transmutation
· Figure 5.18: Nuclear·waste disposal •

..
• I
'
~canned w1tn uam~canner

' I
The various methods of nuclear waste disposal is shown in figure 5. 18. There are
three important factors to be considered when assessing the rriethod of waste disposal.
0 The volume of nuclear waste is large and needs to~~ a~c?~nte_~·

iO The half-life of nuclear waste.
iiO The suslainability of any plan needs to be understood.
'
The radioactiv~sJe is produced from the nuclear fuel cycle proce~s antnuclea!
power£eneration. The high level radioactive wastes are produced as by product ih nuclear
~ling. The low eve ra JOactive wastes are produced in the n ~ r
g ~ fencrgya?l'deffluent extraction. It requires a safely arrangement to a~oid
----
permanent damage to the surrounding environment. It consists offi.ss1on products (short-
-------=--:-:---
hal.flives) and actinides (long-half lives) ofTc99 , 1129 , Pu139, Pu240, U235 , U238 • ' I
Nuclear waste dlsposal

management
• J ' ,
Long term management

Short term management 1. Geological disposal
1. Vitrification 2. Transmutation
2. Ion Exchange 3: Waste re-use ,' ..
4. Space disposal
Figure 5.19: Nuclear waste disposal management
This
- nuclear waste disposal management
. is classified into:
0 short-tenn management
it) long-term management.
5.5.2.1 Short-ternrmanagement,-·,
Nuclear waste can be tem~~ly ~eated on-site such as vitrification or ion exchange
is short-term management. : ·
\ ,
1) Vitrification ... f '- ... . ' ..,,I '

., • ' • I I •
• t , \ i '
The pwpose ofvitrification is to prevent reaction or degradation ofwaste for extended

period of time. It is the process of tuming·radioactive w~te into glass. The waste is mixed
5.34
. . .
w1th molten glass and hardened_JQ fonn a new solid. It W1 crys
·u
tallize when heated
. and
~ ~
tnen calcinated. The cal-:-- . process er1mmates
cmation . the water from the waste to mcrease
the stability.
HLLW feed pipe
Glass feed pipe

i
--- .,,,,.--,__,
Main
electrode
Refrsctory Auxiliary
electrode
Pouring nozzle
Ajr cooling for a
~eezing valve
Figure 5.20
The calcinated materials are continuously transferred into a heated furnace at 1200°C
and mixed with fra~~ glass. In hardened ~te, the radioactive material is covered to
avoid it from leakage. It reduces t h e ~ of the waste for thousands of years.
2) Ion Exchange
-----
Similarly Ion Exchange combines with chemical to concentrate waste and en_case in
----
cement
5.5.2.2 Long-ter~ mana~ement
!.-_,__----- -----:-
The different types oflong-term manag~~~thods inc~de ·geological disposal,

transmutation, waste re-use, and space disposal~ · · ,· · -.
•
ENERGY, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS
1.. Geological Disposal

ITh fa I .cal disposal centers for b].unmring_nuclear WHSh? into the gt')lmd,
e p ace o 0 eo ogt 1· I Tl \\r:\ ~lt::
where the h~an should not reach. The_j!_E~l of the buri~l should be ve~ 1~g ~- . 1~ ·• •, ~
~
shotild beproper 1ypro tec ted to avoia lealdfge · Seepao-e . . the waste could
_ ___::,_ from . t.onr.,mm,Hc
ihe water tabl;if the burial location is aboveor be.low the \,~ter level.
- .. - a - - -
Figure 5.21: Geological disposal
Geological Disposal
To isolate high-level nuclear waste the following things are required
. .' ' .
O The waste needs to be properly fastened to the burial site
. ..
.
ii) Structurally supported in the event ofa major seismic everit
• I
iit) Natural Bedrock ~ _..

• ' ' ~ ' f I I
iv) Itwoul~ be to even assume that nuclear~a~te could simply lie in rt:posito1y thnt
far below the ground
v) The Sites shoJ,tld have appropriate hydrological"and geochemical environments
- - -- -
5.5.2.3 Reprocessing
• I • _. . • /I • I
, Re~ro~~ss~~.is .also emerged as a viable method for,aealing with nuclear wnst .

the_ tepro~~ssirigp'roc:~s 'is ·~1~e~. ~epiiia_t~ ~e (;~ent( C~~~Oii~~is trOni em~nt. In
particular, it mvolves ~g the fis;fefnable matenal out from the tmldiated nuclear foel. 111c
re-processing has largely focused around nuclear proliferation and it would aUow fissionable
material to spread.

5.36
POWER pLANT ENGINEERING
5.5.2.4 Transmutation
. provides
. Transmutation . for long term d'1sposa l· It particularly involves
. a solution
.
conv~t1,mg~arwa~ . anomer
element mto 1~ 1
less narm1u 1e e
ment. The •,accelerator
provides an in.tense continuous beam- of protons. The neutrons h'tandsplitlong==-livesuch
r--........ - 1 __
.,,.._-. - .----- - -
. . . . d rt
as amencmm and ctmum creatmg energy an sI10 - 11ve nuc . le,· whjch 1s easier
•~ for storage
andrpr.ocess.
~
--------
Accelerator
Spallation target
' ; 1!.ong- lived - .

. . radio· active _
1 , nucleus Transmutation
: · : Energ;. _ _____,,,<CM. +.
· , J'• . --~"
l '
Figure 5.22: Transmutation
Natural transmutation can also occur over a long period of time. Natural
transmutation a~so-serves·as the principle force benmd geological-storage on the
assumption,that.gi~ing the 'taste enough isolated time will allow it to become a.l!_Qn-
fissionable.material'tharposes>little or no risk~
s·.s._~:s. Space·Disposal,
Space disposal'is·also-one ofitliealtemative.methods for nuclear waste disposal.
The nuclear waste is put on a,spaoe shuttle and fatmclied,into·space for disposal. But it is
ENERGY. ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS 5.37
n o t ~ . This becomes n problem for both aw·octicolity und economic standpoj~t.•

Bcc~msc vc1y Ii tU,c nmounl of mlclciir wnsfo Cllll be slllppc~~ by a sing~~ shuttle. It 1s extremely
~~ wt 1 10 oln nmo,un~ ~'Wj•sle that would need for disposal. Furthermore,
there ts poss1b1hty oft ho shuttle cxpl6~i6n on the way to space. (t could only make the
nuclear wnstc to sprcnd outfnr beyond ru1y~casonablc measure of control. ~ ! . -
5.6 WASTE DISPOSAL SCHEME FOR NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

1) Nuclea~ Fuel cycle nnd wnstc
The nuclenr fuel preparation and productipn of fuel assembly for pre reactor
and waste mnnngement after post reactor is shown in the Fuel cycle.
The various steps involves arc,
I) Mining Extracting Uranium ore from mines.
2) !vfiUing and refining It is done to produce Uranium concentrate:
U30s.
3) Processing Conversion of U30 8 cake into UF 6 (Uranium
hexafluoride).
4) Enrichment Treatment ofUF6, to increase the concentrate of
U235, which is ready for •fu·e1 (0. 7% U2 35 )
(Isotopic enrichment).
5) Reconversion Conversion of rich UF6 to Uranium dioxide (U02).
6) Fuel Fabrication The U02 is pelletizing; encapsulating in rods and
sealed in Zirconium alloy tubes and arranged.
7) Generation Loading of fuel to bum to generate electric power,
and low level radioactive waste disposed as spent
fuel.
8) Reproc~ssing The residual unburnt Uranium is proce~sed and
high level radio active waste is separated. The
processed UF6 - is sent to processing unit for
recycle .
• •• • .. .. - .. - .. •• ... .. . . 1, ,
Processing
U 3 0 8 ➔ UF6
UF6 (Recover~)
Enrichment
UF6
Spent'fuel
Nuclear Energy Reconversion

Reactor generation UF6 -UO 2
Fabrication of
Fuel Assembly
Figure 5.22: Nuclear fuel cycle
2) Intermediate level waste

It contains radio active nuclides with 10 to 100 nanocuries per gram of transuranic
contamination. It require shielding, but not cooling. The intennediate level waste are
resins, chemical sludge and metal fuel cladding. It disposed off by ground burial or
geOlQgical repository.
'
It is. 7% of over all v~lume of waste.
3) High-level waste . · ·.
It is 3% of overall volume rate. It contains contamination above 100 nanocuries
per gram of transuranic nuclides.
It exist in two forms.
1. First and second cycle raffinate and other waste stream created by nuclear
reprocess mg.
2. Waste fonned by vitrification ofliquid high-level waste.
Most high level waste consists of Pu-238, Pu-240, Pu-241, Pu-242, NP-237
and U-2.36.
It is produced when reprocessing the spent fuel, during reprocessing. It contains
Plutonium 240 with a half life of24,000 years and others Plutonium 240 and Iodine. It
is possible to reuse 95% of spent fuel and 5% of highly radioactive wastes are disposed.
6,39
Ac ot'dhi g to hulf Ufo pol'iod

I) 11IRNl011 p,·oductN
Fltmio11 productu u1·c high un11l11blc und mdiouclivc, Many frwtopcR have a very
8hot'l hnl fl if'c un<l there/' ro glvo off h11·ge nmount of tadfation.
I ut thoy urn high lrnzu rd,

Stnrnlum 90 .. High energy bet~ particles with hal f life pcrio4 of30 years and
'acsium- 137 high energy ga mma particle with half life period of30 years; but never
fades out quickly, Its life may be upto I 000 years. They do not emit alpha pa~icles,
2) Neutron actJva tJon product
The 61% of the nucleons jn Uranium-235 arc neutrons. When this nucl~i
undergoes fission, stable ruthenium-WO is 56% neutrons produced and stable ),C~pQn-
134 is 60% neutrons produced and undergoes beta decay. This is ac~i?ved ~J:i.~n the
low level wa/jte contains less than IO nanocurics per gram of alpha-emitting transuranic
I • ~ f
nuclides with half Jj fc less than 500 years. The low level waste di~pos~Q by land burial.
. '
Jt docs not require shielding but some tjmes it may require.
There arc three types of low level wa,ste, Class A, Class .B an9 C,·Qr~ater.than • I
.CJass C.
Class A A low l.evel waste contains radio nuclides,w,ith
I I • fft :
lowest concentrations and ~~e sh,ortes~ IJcJlf-liY.~S.

95% lqw l~vel wastage is 9~tygp,rj;z,e.d &s
.Class A. It fads to back~r9,u,nq ·1.evel ~it~n
10.
'
0 years.
..
C.lass.B ,and C : . C~ntain grfater concentration of radionuclides
with longer life period. It fads to background level
in less than 500 years. They must meet very strict
dj~posal rul,es than ~lass A.
,G,rpater than .Class C
• I i • lt c;ontain .&r~~~~~-~Wl~.ep,tr~~~o~ o_r r~d_i9~uc_l_ides
.t.~an-~l.a.s.s.~.~nd_.C. H.f~~~ to bac.kground level
AJOJ~_tp~p 500 :ye.~rs. .. . . . . . ' -
. .. ..
POWER pLANT ENGINEERING
5.40
Types of nuclear waste

.
The different types of nuclear waste than requires
· d"tueren
a:: t types of final disposal.
It is classified into -· --··
a)According to the intensity ofradiation,
.'
~ Low level waste
ii) Intermediate level waste
iiI) High level waste
b) According to halflife period
~ Fission products
it) Neutron activatioJ:?. product
iiI) Actirides
c) Gaseous effluent
d) Uranium mill and mine tailings
According to the intensity of radiation
i) Low level waste '.
Low level waste includes items that have contaminated with radioactive material.
The contamination obtained from reactor water treatment residues and discarded. It
is low radio active. Moving neutrons are absorbed by primary reactor coolant. To
n~dµ~e this two or three loops link.ed by heat exchangers are used ..
• , JI \ • I ' • •
Actirides • I
'
When Plutonium 239 is dismantled the actirides are produced as·a result or
capture of neutrons. Actirides are lo~g-lived, and they have a major impact on risk
assessment of geologic repositqries. the actirides decay is mainly by emission of alpha
particles. They are highly toxic. It requires very thick shielding.
c) Gaseous effluent
as
• . I 1 ·, .., • , • • , • • .-,
Nuclear power plant release the chemical inner nobel gas such Krypton and
Xenon. ,. ·,· · - · · . · · · ·. , ·.·. ·_ .·.' , , '
' /
d) Uranium mill tailing · ' · .. ,_.".',') · · /
The Uranium mill use chemicals'tcrextract-Urarlium. It produce mill tai~s,
which is a sandy waste containing heavy metals and radium. They are highly radioacive.
i:Scannea. w1 tn c...;ami:Scanner
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 1:
A 200 kW diesel power plant was purchased in 75 lakhs in !11 January 1986. The
erection and installation cost was 10 ·lakhs. The diesel power plant is replaced by
a new one on 31 D~c.2006. If the scrap value is 15 lakhs, what should be the rate
of depreciation and depreciation fund on 15 th June 1999. If after 15 years of
running, some cooling system and lubrication systems are replaced and th e
replacement cost is 5 lakhs wh'at will be the new rate of depreciation. • •. ·
Solution:
For a diesel power plant
Total cost = Purchase cost+ Erection and Installation cost
= 75,00,000 + 10,00,000
= 85,00,000
r -
Scrap or salvage = 15,000
I
Life ~f the diesel power plant = 20 years ' I '
C-s 85, 00, 000 -15, 00, 000

· Rate of depreciation - - - -
n 20
= 3,50,000
Depreciation in value of the diesel power plant per year = Rs. 3,50,000
Now, the depreciation fund on 15 July 1999, that is 13 instalhnents from 1st January
1986 to I 5 July 1999 can be accumulated .
.·. For 13 year, the depreciation amount will be
= l3 X Rs. 3,50,000
..
= Rs. 45,50,000/-
A:fter 15 years of running, the replacement cost of cooling syst~pi and_\ubrication
system is 5,00,000. ·
' \ • I I I · '
Now the book value in 15 years wiU be

= 85,00,000-(}5 X 3,50,000)'
' '
-:- Rs. 32,50,QQ0 . ' . -, • I •
Replacement = 5,00,000
:. New Book'Vnlue = 32 00,000 + 5,00,000
= 37,00,000
The,scrnp ,value is smne .l 5,00,000.

:. The new depreciation value for rest 5 years
= 37,00,000 - 15,00 000
- 22,00,000
The new rate of depreciation
22, 00,000
= 5
= Rs. 4,40,000
Example 2:
The generator for a thermal power plnnt is purchased for Rs. 40 lakhs. The
estimated life of the machine is 15 years and salvage value is Rs.15 lakhs. If the
rate of interest on depreciation fund is charged at 5'1/o. Calculate the rate of
depreciation by sinking fund method.
Solution:
For a generator
I , I 'I
C = 40,00,000
s = 15,00,000 . .
r = 5% · = 0.05
n ...: 15 years
,. • I • ' ♦ I (
• J I • •
= 40:00~000-·is;oo,ooo[ . 0·0 5., ] /

, I - ·..
.. .
: • I
,(l+0.05) . -:1
I • l, I
= Rs. '1,15;740174
• t,
OMICAND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS 5.43
.Jtx~mp1~3:
A ge,rnrator for hydro power plantis 80,00,000 and the assumed life is 10 years
1'nd 1rnJvt1ge YuJu~ la 20,00,000. If the depreciation is charged by dim~nishing
l ttht,,cc method, caJcuJafo the percentage by which value of the generator is
r •ducJtJg every year and deprE:ciation fund after 2 years. ·
8oJutJom
Fur generator
,,
C == 80,00,000
s = 20,00,000
n = 10 years
Uy dlmlnh1hl11g baluncc method
I
X =
1-(J
I • • •
= 1_(20,00,oooJi ··
80, 00,000
= 0.1294
The pcrcontngc required = 12.94% I ,. • •
Vnluo of generator afler l year = Rs. 80,00,000 -(1-:- 0.1294)

= 69,64,80Q
Dcprccintion fund aHer 1 year = 80,00,000
Vnlue of generator after l year
= Rs. 80,00,000-(1- 0. 1294)
= 69,64,800
'
Dcprccintion ftmd after 1year = 80,00,000 - 69,64,800
,I
, , , =;= •Rs. 10,35,200
I ' • I•
' I
The vnlue of the generator after 2 years

= 69,64,800 ~ (1-0.1294)
= 60,63,555
.....
5.44 POWER pU\NT ENGINEERING
Depreciationfundforsecondycar = 69,64,800- 60,63,555

·- 9,01,245
Depreciation fund after 2 years = 10,35,200+9,01 ,245
= · Rs. 19,36,44~
Example 4:
A power station supplies the following loads are necessary to the consumers
Time in hours 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-22 22-24
Load in MW 20 50 60 40 80 70 40
Find (a) the load factor of the plant

(b) what is the load factor of a stand-by-equipment of 20MW capacity if
i~ takes up all loads above 60MW?
Solution:
a) Load factor of the plant
80
70
I
60
.
I.
I
I .. I
; .
'·' "
50
40
I
' I
'
30
:
20 -
'
10
I I I I I I I I I I I
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Average load
,. L.F -
I ' I • 1 ;" f I 1 ,,'
. Peakload
, _ .Total energy
Average load
· Time period
'
Total energy = (20x6) + (50x4) + ~60x~) + (40x4) + (4x80) + (70x2) + (2x4f)
E = I 140 MW-hrs.
i:Sca-nnec.t. w1 tn c..;ami:Scanner
-
Average load = E = 1140 = 47 _'5 MW

T ' 24
47.5
Load factor, F1 = 8()
!Fi :== o.5941

b) Load factor of a sta11d-by-eq11ipme11t
E = (20 x 4) + (10 x 2) - l00MW-hrs.
E 100
Average loadP0 :..: T- - 16.667MW
6
16.667
FI = 20
!Fi = 0.8331
Exampl~~=
The power plant supplies the loads baving maximum demands of 40MW, S0MW
and 30MW respectively. The load factor of the plant on the basis of annual load
curve is 60% and the diversity factor of the load is 1.2. Determine a) maximum
load of the plant b) the capacity of the power plant required to take the loads, and
I
c) annual energy supplied by the power plant.
Given. data:
F1 = 60% = 0.6
Fdi= 1.2
Solution:
.. .
a) Maximi1111 load of the plant · ·
Sum of in~ividual maximum demands
L , ·-:~ '
' . Fdi -
Simultaneous maximum demand
. . _ . ' (40+50+30)
' .2 . ·. -
·-1- --;-
pIIllllt
• ': f
...I

5.46 POWER pLANT ENGINEERl~G
b) Capacity oft/re power plant

= 40 + 50 + 30 = 120 MW
c) A111111al Energy s11pplied
p:ws
FI =
pllln."C
_ pnvg
0.6
100
E
p
nvg
= T
T = 365 x 24 = 8760 hrs.
E = Pnvg x T = 60 x 8760
E = 525.6 x l0 3 MW-hrs. •
Example 6:
A power plant has the following annual factors. Load factor= 70%, capacitor
factor= 50%,_,use factor= 60%, Maximum demand is 20MW. Find a) Annual
Energy Production b)Reserve capacity over and above peak load c) Hours duri~g
which the plant is not in service per year.
\ , t 11 • \
Given data ·
, 1, j, 11,. I • , •• '
' ' ' .

• I t '
F, = 70% = 0.7
F = 50% = 0.5
C
Fu =. 60% = 0.6
'. • , , f • 1• I t \
P - 20MW .
11\tl."(
Solution:
a) A1111ual Energy Production . .. -.
' • I l • • ·' • I • •
pavg xT
,
•• '... t •• •• ~ \ f , • • ' '
p._avg,. \' '\ '

0.7 = 20 ... . (\,., ...
~
• . • l t I •' • 1 • • ~\ I • •"' 1•
' • • ' ,, l ~. ' • ., • \ ·• • ._ 1 •• ', • '. , I <l"" • • • , ' ; j
IPavg = 14 MW! E = 122.64 x 106 kW-:hrs. · r► , ·.
iScannea w1 tn {.;amiScanner
ENERGY, ECONOMICAND
- ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS 5.47
-
IJ) Reserve capacity over and above peak load
F = P,1v8
0
Plant capacity
• •14 I
0.5 =
Plant capacity
Plantcapacity == 28 MW
:. Rcversccapacily = 28 MW -20 MW = 8 MW
c) flours during wlticl, //,e plant is not in servic'e per year
E
FII =
Plant capacity x t
14x365x24
0.6 =
28x t
t = 7300 hrs.
Hours nol in service 1 .' . .
t = (365 X 24)- 7300 = 1460 hrs. per year
' . .
Exnmj)Jc 7:
r
The following dnta for a 2200 kW di~sel powe'r station is giveri. The peak loa_d on
the plant is 1600 kW and its load factor is 45%.
Capacity cost/ kW installed = Rs. 15000
Annual costs = 15% of capital
Annual Maintenance cost = Fixed Rs. 10,0000 a~d Variab.le Rs. 20,oo·oo
Annual operating cost = Rs. 60,0ClO0
Cost of fuel = Rs. 0.8 per kg.
Cost oflubricating oil = Rs. 40 pe'i" kg
C.Voffuel .= 40,000 kJ/kg:
I
Consumption offucl - 0.5 kg/kwh
Consumption oflubricant oil = ¼ookg/kw~·

Deteqn.ine (a) the annual energy produc_~d (b) cost of generation per ~h
(cJ '-«lciency: ' ✓
~canned. Wl th t;am.::>canner
5..48 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
Solution:
(a) the annual energyproduced

Capital cost= Rs. 15,000/l'"\v= Rs. 15,000 x 2200 = Rs. 33 x 106
15 6
Annualcost = 15%ofcapital = 100 x33x10 = Rs. 4.95 x 106
-p
0.45= ~
1600
Pnvg - · 720kW \'
E
p - -
avg T
E = Piivg x T = 720 x 365 x 24

I E = 6.31 X 106 kW-hr
Conswnption
• I
offuel
'
-: .· 0.5 kwhr
., • •• , •
.~g .x.6.31x10
• kwhr
1
6
. '
m = 3'j~,4 x ·io 6 kg
. . Fuel cost = Rs. 0.8. x 3.154 x 106
• • • ~ • ' • f t • •
= Rs. 2.523 X } 06
I I .
.1 . kg.. .. 6 . ·_. ·. . ..
Consumptionoflubricationoil" :_ - · - - x 6.3 lx 10 · kwhr - .·· ·
400 kwhr .
..
m :- 15775:· kg-
Lubricatingoilcost == Rs. oAo;x-,15775.
• • I ' ,
_: Rs.0.631"'>< 106 .
b) Fixed cost
F.C == 4.95 X 106 + oj-;-io 6·.
I
F.C == Rs. 5.05 X 106 I
-- I
-
5-.49
Variable cost
V.C = ff.6 X 106 + 0.2 X 106 + 2.523 X 10°6 + 0.631 X 106 .;
V.C = Rs. 3.954 x 106

Tt,tal cost
_. ; I
T = F.C+V.C
'· , = Rs. (5.05 x 106 + 3.954 x 106)
'
T.C ' = Rs. 9.004 X 10 6
Cost of power/ kwhr. •, I
T.C 9·:004xl0 6
- -=
E 6.3xl06
= Rs. 1.43 ·
c) Efjicie11cy· .
Output •.
Tl _.
Input
' . '
Outputpower = E = 6.3~ x_~06 kw-hr.
= 6.31 X 106 X ?60Q
'
I
' . . .. ' 'Kl
x 1610 ·1cw.:.sec. ·:.:. '· -· ·- .sec
I
E . . .:. 2·2716 = KJ
· sec
Input power
- 3.154 X 106 5<40,000
- 1.26}6 X 1011 .KJ r I t"
2.2716xI0t0 • .
rt = 1.2616)<10~
J \
I
.' ' 1 ' t l I,, f I
.
L
, , r · I . •. ' , I •~ ; •. P 1 •
0
\
I, , :· ,• 1 .

. , .., \ . .. ' ' . . 1\.' . . . - '
-.
' \•
Example 8:
The following dat~ relates to a steam powe·r station of 120 MW capacity which
takes 100 MW peak demant at 80% load,factor.
Annual cost towards the interest and depreciation ::a:Rs.1000/KW installed
Operating costs - Rs. 1200 X 10 4 / year
Maintenance costs - Rs. •200 x 104 / year (fixed)
- Rs. 400 x 104 / year (variable)
I
Miscellaneous costs - Rs. 100 x 104 / y'ear

Cost of coal used = Rs. 320 / ton
C. V. offuel used · ~ 25000 kJ/kg
. '
Overall efficiency of the plant = ' 20%

.,
Steam consumption in kg/kwh ::.: (0.8 + 3.5 x·~.F)
. '
Determine (a) cost of coal per year (b) overall cost of generation.
Solution:
(a)Costofcoalperyear
,, '
.. .
j • '
p
0.8. = . ~
· · .'•. 100
P .. = ·so MW-·
nvg
E = pavg x T == _80 x 365 x 24 = 700.8 x 103 Mw-hr/year
Steam consumptioninkg/kwh = (0.8 + 3.5 x L.F) == 0.8 + 3.5 x 0.8

~ ' 3:6 kg ·. . · ·
steamconsumption - ~:: ~-'~,i~~f[:::~!::::::;;:::J

Output
l1 - Input
...--
-. ,,.
~ -scannea. w1tn cam~canner

.§_NERGY, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE~ OF POWER PLANTS 5.5j
Output = E == 700.8 x I03 MW x 3600 sec.

Output == 2.523 x I09 MJ
::::
2.523 X 10 12 KJ
Input = mxt V
- m x 25000 KJ/kg
Input - 25000mKJ ' .
Outpl;lt ,
11 :z:
Input ·
2.523Xl0 12
0.2 -
25000m
· m_= 504.576 x 106 kg/year
• • • I, . . : . ..-. "_.,, ..... . '
= 504.576. X 10_3 tons/ye~- ,
:' . ·'~- .·. ·/, •. I • .' •
Cost of coal = m x 320 I ton

• I • :..
t • 1 : .' , f, .,J • • ". I : • i I • J .. • •
- 504.576 X 10 3 X 320
I ♦• • ., • : •,
Cost of coal = Rs. 161.464 x 109 i~ar

(b) Overall cost of generation
Annual cost towards Interest and depte:~iationf
= Rs. 1000 X -120 X 103
= Rs. 120 ~ i'o~ t year' ,·
Fixed cost = Rs. (120,x LO~.+ 200 ?< 104)
' I _ I
= Rs. 122 x 106 / year. .

Variable cost =. Rs. (1200xl04 + 400~10 4 t lPQ.~ J04 .+ 161.464xl06)
• • • • l
,- -
= Rs. 178,464~X 10_6 • I • • \ •
_
'I ' •
.
. ~
I • C., - , ." • ' • •I ,.,
· ·Rs. 300.464 X 106 •
G:dstofpowergeneration · = '?O'0:g,x1-os,_x•103=
I ,, ,·.
. . ..
' -· .
- • " .
. ' . ' ., '
' ' • ' • , I . I " •• I •• i. I
= Rs. 0.43 / kw-hr.

I f " I I
I I \ ' .
5.52 p Y/ERPtA ' iiT
E_~amp1e9:
From the follov;ing data, estimate the generat[ng co.s1Jn p-af.g;e/kvth de1i 11e.r6d ())1
the station.
Installed ~pacity of the plant = 142.5MW
Ann 11 al load factor - 60'%
Capacity factor - 50%,
Capital cost of the pla.n t = Rs. 130 X 107
Annual cost of co~ oil tax and salaries = fu. 18..8 X 107
Rate oi interest = 5% of capital
Rate of depreciation = 5% of capital
Units of energy used to ran the plant an:i:fliary= 6% ofthe total unit mpplied
Wna.tis the n~s.erve .available?
Solp#on: . .-. -- ... ..
p.
=z
F= C Plant capacity
p
~
0.5 -
142.5
Pr;g = 71.25MW
Pr,'6
F1 = pma:
71.25
0.6 -
PlmX - 118.75MW
!Reserve= Plantcapacity-Pmu ~ 142.5-118.75 = 23.75MWI

"' • l • • 'I ,; - • ' • .,. ' I,, - • •,..•• ,. a •,.: •
E• = PZVJ ~ '.J.
T = 71.25 x 103 x 365 x 24
. ;· -
.
,, ,·, • •
- 624.15 X 106 kw-hr

I. I • • - . - - ; •.., •, • , , • ~J ;. .-.. -
E. .= 1.06 x ,.624.15 x· i06 = 661.6 x 105 kw-hr ~

.- -
_/'
-- - - w1 tn c.;am~canner
~canned. . -
ENERGY, ECONOMIC AND E
-- NVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS -
5.53
IntereSt = 5% ofcapital
. . -5
=== ·-xl30xl0 7 = Rs. 65 x' 106 /y~ar
100
Dep~iation = 5% of capital
5
= -xl30xl0 7 = Rs. 6s ·x 106 /year
100 .. ... .
Total cost = Rs. (18.8 x 107 + 65 .x 10. 6 +.65 x 106)
= Rs. ~1.8 xJ0 7 /year
- . .'
'
Cost of power generation = Rs. 31.8 X 10

7
' 661.6xl0 6 : 1 I
·· = Rs. 0.48 / kw-hr = 48 paise

. / kw-hr
, '
Example 10: • , t f I
The energy is supplied to a group of 50,000 domestic consumers. The re~enues

expenses per year from the consumers are given below:
,,
Fixed charges . = Rs. 2.5 x 107
Energy charges = Rs. 2 x 107
Customer charges = Rs. 0.5 x 107

Profit = Rs, 20 X 105
Maximum demand = 5000 kW, ·_-.
''
Diversity factor = 4,
.- .
Load factor = 0.3 . ' '
Form a three charge rate allowing 25% profit in fi!e~ charg'?s, 50% in energy
charges and remaining 25% in customer charges.
-- -- _ __ ,.... _ __ ___ _ _
Solution: - t i
• I • •
,· : · . · . -_•, ·. ., .· .-... 1. , -
I L,, I
' _ ,
•
, , _.. . .... "' ,."' .....
•
~ -, ...
' · · · Fixed·c·osf -~-lts. (2.5 x·101 +0:2s-x20 x·ro5)· ·-- -

~
.• _· . '- ·.'. . ·;-= Rs.;i'.ss ·; 107 ·;. ·-
\ • • • i - - • I " •·' • , • -- ,.C. (. l .. .,..
-~
Energy cost= _Rs-_(2 ~ 10\ t- 0.5 x 20 x 10

, ' ' I • J. l ' .. . "'I I ~· . ~ ,~I .:
5
)
•• • ·. • -:_, ~Rs:·2\ x-10.. • -~ -

1 7
r--.________
Customer charges ~ Rs. (0.5 x 107 + 0.25 x 20 x l 05)

= Rs. 0.55 x 10 7
FI =
0.3
= pnvg
5000
Pnvg = 1500 kW.
E = Pavg xT
= 1500 X 365 X 24
- 1.314 X 107 kw-hr
Sum of individual maximum demand

f d =. , S.iinul4Ineously maximum demand
• ' .. _ Lo
Sum
. of individual maximum
. demand
4 -
5000 ·
~of~diyi<;l~-m
t
axjmwn~niand
I • f ~
= 20,000
, f ! 1 t1 • \ • , , • . J• •. •
·
1
= _0.002 ~ 10'1' KW i
'· •►:: •
~s. 2.55,x l0 7
f !~~~ CQ~t per Y..W -
~ " • ' t ~- • •
0.002x107
"
\
- Rs. . . . / .KW
,, . . 1275
~ .
_ : Rs. 2.1~10 7.. _ 1,

Eµergy rate/ kwh - - 7 .
!, "' t. • I
,.,,..
· 1.314 X 10
- Rs. 1.59.82 / kw-hr
t' • ' • ,.. .. , • ~. I
=,R.5..110-/. 9ops\1P}~~ · "f 1 I • .,--
' . . {

~RGY, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS
£):nntple 11:
-
5.55
fhe capital cost of a hydro-power station of 100 MW capacity is

N,.s. 10,000/KW. The annunl depreciation charges are 15% of the capital cost: A
roy~ty of Rs. 21 KW per year nnd Rs. 0.3 / kwh generated is to be paid for ~stn_~
the river water for power generation. The maximum demand on power station•
70 M\V a nd annual load factor is 0.6. The annual salaries, maintenance charges
are Rs. l0 • 1f 20% of this expense is also chargeable as fi.xed charges, calculate
7
the generation charge in two-part tariff.

Solution:
Capacity = 100 MW
Capital cost= Rs. 10,000 / kW
Annual depreciation charges - 15% of capital cost
Royalty - Rs. 2 / kW
Charges forriverwater - Rs. 0.3 /kwh
Pmax - 70-MW
= 0.6
Fl
Annual salaries, maintenance charges = Rs. 107
Normal Fix~d .char~es._.. ~ . 20% of salaries and maintenance charges
'
_Capital cost = · Rs. 10000 x . l00_x 1q3 ..
- Rs. 1000 X 106

Annual fvced charges
Depreciation
, . 15% of capital cost
- ~x l000x 106
100
Depreciatio~ - Rs. 150 X 106
Salaries and maintenanc~ - 20% of salaries and maintenance
- 20 x107
100
- Rs. 2 x 106

5.56
Total fixed charges = 150 X 106 + 2 X 106

= Rs. 152 X 106
_ 152xl06 +2
.Cost per kW
70xl03
- 2173.43 / kW
Annual Running Charges··

Salaries and maintenance = Rs. 8 x 106
· E=P avg xT
= F I xp ma.'I:
xT
= 0.6 X 70 X 103 X 365 X 24
E = 367.92 x 106 kwhr
8xl06
Total Running Charges/ kw-hr = 6 + 0.3 = Rs. 0.322 / kw-hr.
367.92xl0
:. Twoparttari.ff = Rs.(2173/kw+0.322/kw-hr)
Example 12:
A power station supplies the following loads are necessary
-
to the consumers
I .
Time in hours 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-22 22-24

Load in MW 20 50 60 40 80 70 40
Find 1) Draw the load curve and estimate the load factor of the plant.
2) What is the load factor of a stand-by-equipment of 30MW capacity
if it takes up all loads above 70MW?
3) What is its use factor? (AU-Nov/Dec 2006)
Solution:
1) Load curve and estimate the load factor. of the plant
Energy generated = Area under the load curve
= (30 x 6) + (70 x 4) + (90 x 2) + (60x4) + (100~4) + (80x2) + (60x2)
= 1560 MWh . . -•·
.,..
w1tn cami:>canner
.-- NVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS 5.57
100 -
90 .
~ 80 '
~
C:
'O 70 I
co
0
' _J
60
.. I I
·,. .
50
I (' , t
40
30
'
. ,
' . .
,
20
- . . .
10
I
. .' ' -
I I I I • t I I I I I
2 4 .
6; 8 10 · 12 14 f6 18 ·20 ·. 22 -24
t l
- - - - - - . Time. in hours
Average load = 1560 MWh = 65 MW

' 24h
c. t
Load 1ac or = -
65
c
.. .
0.65
.. .,,. ' ,.
100
:2) Load/actor ofa stand-by-eqi~ip~~r,t of30MW_CflP."~~ty ,if:~t.tpf!es,~p,ql/,lo~t!s
ahove70MW
I
Energy generated = (20 x 2) + (30 x 4) + (10 x 2)
,,
= 180MWh
Time during which the stand by unit remains in operation '
- 2+4+1==8h
,
::a: 180 MWb = 22.5 MW . ., .. .'

Average l'??rl . ·sli ;· ·
1,oad_.fa.ctor = 22 ·5 = 0:75
30
6
3) Use/actor
Load factor = ___E_.. n_e_r=gy'-g:::...e_n_er_a_te_d_ __

Plant capacity x Operating hours
= 180 X 103 kWh = 0.75

30 X 103 kW X 8h
Example 13:
Find the cost of generation per kW-hr from the following data:
Capacity of the plant - 120 MW
Capital Cost - Rs. 1200 per kW installed
Interest and Depreciation - 10% on capital
Fuel consumption - 1.2 kg/kW-hr
Fuel cost - Rs. 40 tonne
Salaries, wages, repairs and maintenance - 600000/Year
The maximum demand is 80 MW and load factor is 40%.
(AU-Nov/Dec 2004)
Solution:
Load factor = Average Load

Maximum Load
0.4. = Average ;Load

80
Average load = 80 x 0.4
- 32MW
AnnualEnergyproduced = ·32 x 365-x,24· -
- 280320 MW-h
= 280.3 X 106 kW-h
'. ~cannea w1 tn c..;am~canner

- NVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS 5.59
Total Capital cost ==

Installed capacity x Capital cost per kW-h installed
- 120 X 103 X 1200
=: Rs. 144 X 106

Fuel consumption pe _ p · .
r year- uel consumption x Annual Energy produced
=: 1.2 X 280.3 X 106
== 336.364 X 106 kg 1 :
== 336.36 x I 03 tonne
Fuel cost per year == Fuel consumption per year x Cost of fuel .
I , , • •
= 336.36 x 10 3 x40 •' '

• J • • •
- Rs. 13.45 X 106

.
Fixed cost = Annual interest and depreciation
I ·, I I
= Rs. 14.4 X 106
Annual running cost = Fuel cost per year + Cost of salaries, wag~~,·r~pairs
and maintenance
;=. Rs.13.45 ~.106 + Rs. 600'000
= Rs.14.05 X 106
Total cost = Fixed cost+ Running cost
= Rs." 14.4 x 106 + 14.05 x10 6
= Rs. 28.45 X 106 ·, ,- , ,' . , 1• •
f
.
I•,"'
. ..
,• 1 • I•
\
J t '
, .
•.
1
I ,
-
•
' '
Generation cost per K\¥-h = Total coSl per year

Annual Energy produced
• 28.45 X 106
280.3 X 106
. ' .- Rs. 0.1015/kW.... h

Example 14:
A residential consu~er ~a~ 10 lamps of 40 w ·each. His demand is
; I
Midnight to 5 .~m - 40 W
5 am to 6 pm _._ No load , .. ' •. - ·:-::: . ..
6pmto7pm - ... -·-· .
- 329W
..
7 pm to 9 pm .. ., - -_360 W.
. . •
•
1
J • •
9 pm to Midnight ·---: _160 W

- -
Plot the load c~rve~Find the
. a~erag~ load, maxi~um
. . lo~d, demand factor and
load factor. i - (AU-Nov/Dec 2014) •• ·- -4 ..
Solution: .
·- ·
I
. - . ; _ '!t . . - . .
• I '
-.
' - , .
Energy consumed: ~ .Area under. load curve . , .I l l
'
.= (5 ~ 40) + {13 ·x 0) + (1 x.329) + (2 X 360) + (3 160)
.. .-
X
- 1729 W
Average load at 24 hours .. -~ l ~! 9 .. , .~.. - ~. ., 1 ,
= 72.04 W
.- • : t- ~ - • Average lo"ad . ~ . . . ' . , I
Load factor
l- · .. c:: Peak· load· ····· - · · · · ·
' '• I I ' I
•• I! J" ~ • • • .., •.._ ._ ,. -•, • • jr- • - ',
: 72,04 1 I , I ,
t , - - - . -. - -
360 ..
'• "
.,
I
- J ! '\
'
- 0.2
I~
m
:;o
G)
.:<
m
()
0
z
0
.s::
()
Load Curve ~
0
500 m
450
Paa doa
~
--...
~
....
~
~
;u
~ 400 0
- Jm z
329 .s::
~ 350
E
~ 300
- - m
z
C
8 250 r~
>, . ' C/)
e> 200- ' C/)
Q)
-
.- ' . 160 C
Jj i 150- m
. I
- C/)
A, eraa e lo 1d (7 2)
100
50
-- - .. An -- - -- - -- - -. - - - -. - -- - - -
'"":" -- - -I~ -
... - -,._ -- - - -
-- -- 0
"Tl
"1J
0
0
'1'
~
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 m
g :;a
"1J
Pl
~
Hours .
·-, ~
~
z
-i
(1) en
A . - ..·
~
....
ct
,'
"-
_,._. -- .-·.
p ...' '(
C
' . SJ'
0)
~
Pl
s
g
Pl
~
~
(1)
~
Maximum load
Demand factor -
Connected load
360
10 X 40
= ,0.9
Example 15:
A power plant of 210 MW installed capacity has the following particulars.
Capital cost - Rs. 18,000/KW
Installed interest and depreciatio~ , - 12 %,
Annual load factor - 60%
Annual capacity factor - 54%
Energy consumed by power plant auxiliaries = 6 °/o
. -
Calculate (i) the cost of power generation per kWh, (ii) the reserve capacity.
(AU-Apr/May 2015)
I •
.. .
, , I
Solution:
Capital cost for 210 MW 1800() x· 1000 X 2'10
- Rs. 3.78 x 1-09
Interest and depreciation (12~) · •. . ' • ' t
- _g_ X 3.:78 X 109 .

100
- Rs, 453 :6 X 106
Energy consumed by auxiliaries .· .
• I . ' I I
- _i_ X 3. 78 X 109
100
- Rs. 226.8 x 106
Annualrunningcharge - Rs. 200 x 106
Total cost - (453.6 x 106 + 226.8 xl06 + 200 x 106)
~ Rs. 880.4 X 106
ENERGY, ECONOMIC AND EN
,-- VIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS 5.63
Cost of power generation = 880.4 X J06
993.384 X } 06
= __T_o_ta_l_co_s_t_ = Rs. 0.8862 Rs/kW-hr

Energy generated
- Rs. 88.62 paise per unit
Capacity factor - Average load

· Plant capacity
. 0.54 -
Average load
Average load = 113.4MW

210
. . ' 1,
.. . ., • r
Average load
Load factor - . .,•' ' • •
......
• i , , ..
Maximum load
r . . , ·. ..
:. Maximum load - 189MW
.'
The reserve capacity - (Installed capacity)-(Maxim~ load)
:, , = }l_0 - 1?9 .
- 21 MW
Energy generated = Average load x·Time .
- 113.4 X 103 X 365 X 24
' '
- 993.384 x 106 kW-hr
I •,
- 993.384 x 106 units
Capital cost of the plant - Rs. 18,000/kW.
I ' • ·' .
' ' I • , I • • f • !_" • ,. .... f . ' .. - .. ,. .
I 1• i ' .1
1 t
... ..
5.64
TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND .ANSWERS

·1. Define fixed cost. (AU-May/June2007)
- ~cir, I"cr~-..
The fixed cost are those cost whlch remains same for a g1ven ..,._r;...Y. ✓- • ~ - • .1.-.
vary with output. It includes a) Capital cost of power plant, bJ Cz;pr:2 ~ .:
primacy distribution, c) Other capital cost.
2. What are the different methods used to calculate the depred.a:tinn crJ'st af
power plant?
i) Straightlinemethod
. .
_it) ~inkingfund~~thod .
fu) Diminishing value method
3. Define demand factor.. ·
It is defined as the ratio of maximum load to connected load.

4. Define average load. .,
energy consumed in 24 hours
:. Average load = 24
total energy
time period
5. ··Define Load factor. -:. · (AU-May/June2006,Apr/May2005, ·ov/Dec2006
. .. average load .
Load factor . ---------
maximum load or pead load
T~e average value ofloadfactor for indian power plant is 90%.
6. Define diversity factor. (AU-Apr/May 2005, av/Dec 2005)
sum of individual maximum demand
Diversity factor = simultaneous maximum demand
7. Define peak diversity factor.
' I '
' .· i' • ' . marimumeffectivede~dof consumer-
, I• ' . ·. ·: · · , ·.- :.'
Peak diversity factor= .

demand of consumer dunng the system of peak demand·
I \- • 'J .: ~~ .,,:1 •• ', ~· , J •1 _
8. Define plant capacity factor. (A U-1Vov/Dec 2006)

• r r , 1 ·:- { .1~ • 1 s 1•
Average load __ peak load x loadfactor

Plant capacity factor= Plant capacity ""' plant capacity
____....
l. .::icannee1 wi tn (.;am~canner
~ERGY, ECONOMICAND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF POWER PLANTS 5.65
9. Define Load curve. ,

It is a ~~hical representation between load (kW) and time (hours). The graph slows
the van~tion ~ power station. , . .
JO. Name some power plant pollutants of major concern?
0 Sulphur oxide ii) Nitrogen oxides iit) Carbon oxide .
iv}Thennal pollution v)_ Particulate matter '·· · · ..

.
11. What is particulate emission?
After burning the fossile fuel in the power plant, th~ particulate matter (du5t
particle approximately I micron) do not settle down and it is carry over along
with smoke. r' ~ . '
12. Name the methods used to control particulate emission. , ·

0 Sudden decresae in gas velocity. , , . ,, ·.. _ : ,
ii) Sudden change in the direction of the flow of the gas. ·
iiQ Impringement of flue gases on a series ofbaffle·stops.
iv) Cinder-vane fan.
13. Define thermal discharge index?
It is the ratio ofthem1al power discharged to envuonment and electrical power output.
Them1al power discharged to environment in MW
TDI =
Electrical power output in MW
This index should as low as possible, and it depends on thermal efficiency.
~ ' 'I • '
14. \iVhat are the methods used to reduce thermal pollution?

~ Constructing a separate lake i:J.) Cooling pond iit) Cooling towers
15. \Vhere are Baghouse filters used? .,
Baghouse fil_te~ ar~ lJ:Se_d in removiJ?.g particulate matters when low sulphur coal
.
I. s used ; ~ ·
. ...
I
I '
.... -- · . . -· · . ·
t I
.. .
16. Name the methods of storage or disposal of radioactive waste material?
.. I \ f ,• • .,. • • , • f • & f
j
~ Storage tanks ii) Diluti01;1 fu) Sea disposal

iv) Space disposal - v) Burial· -
Scanned. with camscanner

17. \iVhat do you understand by load duration curves? (AU-Apr/May 2015)

The load duration curve indicates for how m·any hours a certain load has been
required in the course of the day. By compiling load hours on various days, the
load duration curves for one month (720 hrs) or one year (8760 hours) load
duration curve.
Daily monthly and yearly load duration curve helps better planning for economical
utilization of the power plants, existing or planned. We can calculate base load,
intermediate load and peaking load fr~m load duratio.n curve. '
18. Define base lo.ad Power Plant?
. '
It is the minimum load in the load in the load curve and the demand never falls
below base load. The power plant operates with its full capacity to meet the
base load are ·call~d-base foad·power plant. Example: "Coa~ based power plant.
. . ' .
19. Define Peak Load Power Plant?
. .
4 • , • • r . .: . . • _> ; ., • .. • - • • • • ••
It is the maxium demand at a particular time in the load curve. It is greater than
base load. ~
' '
Peak loacl hours
50
Base load
O;----,---,--r--.----r-~--..
0 4 ·a 12 16
Time of the day ►
Peak load powe_r plaµt operat~s only at pea1' ~oa~Aours ~'? ~eet the peak load
demand are called peak load power plants. ·· ·
• ) 1( I .r, •\ ' c", f ' _. . _ • ,,.. I t.. ,i,. ' \' \ • , ._.
Example: Gas turb~~ .P,-?~~rRl.~ !,,di,e.s~-1~~~er pla~i't.and Jiy.dro ~lectri~~l power

1 t
pan . >• - , .. I . • ' ·, . . •
I • ' .)
- .. 'J.-. ' , . . •. .. I I ~ • I ' \ ,. • - • •
'(
' ' • I I. ' t '.., f ' .J -;; . ' .. (.. ~ ~ ~·· ' i
• • ' .J~ ' J I ' • ' ' . I '. ' l t I • +•1 I ' • t
20 - How the tariff for electricity energy is arrived? (AU-Nm,/Dec 2013)
The general form of tariff can be stated as

Z = ax +by+ c
Where,
Z = Total amount of bill for th~ given period

x = Maximum demand in (KW)
. . I I ,,
y - Energy consumed in 'K!.W

I
I .,
a = Rate per KW of maximum demand
b - Energy rate per KW - hr
I • f.
c = Constant amount charged during billing Th ~s l!lAY, be

independent of the different demand or energy rates. f , , • , I 1' '
21. List the various cost which constitute the total cost _
of power gcncrat~on.
. '
i) Fixed Cost '1, ..
' a) Cost ofland and building b) Cost and design of design and planning
c) Cost of equipment d) Cost oflnstallation.
e) Cost of Substation f) Cost of equipment
g) Insurance h) General management cost
~ Depr~~i~~o~ c~~t
ii) Operating Cost
-. .
. - . -- -
I) Cost of fuel and lubricaitng oil 2) Cost of labour
3) Cost of material . 4) Cost of maintenance
Sf Cost of Water treatment~
-.. r; - .: . . . 6) Cost of chemical .
.. • l I
7) Cost of grease and consumables

• I • ' •• ' .,, l .: . •. \ . ,: . t - . • l • : .. : , •_, ·' ,...., , ,l I. • _-, , .. .. , ' •
22. Define .demand for electricity? (AU-Nov/Dec 2013)

It is the load on which a consumer uses at any time. The demand for electricity
will always less than or equal to the connected load.

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COAL BASED THERMAL . .

• Conde11aers 111c important steam power cycles are,

The.h~at c\dgitio~ ~urin~ process 4 - 1, \uration .

. Q1-:- T1 (s1 -S4)

Q2~ T2 (s1 - s4).

5; .Plant size:for.the,sp.e.cifi.ed' poweroutputisJarg~ ~ml specifie·steam,consumption,

.:>cannee1 w1tn uam.:>canner

1.1 STANDARD RANKINE CYCLE

··,process.cury~ 2-3 ~7pi:~s~nts tQe heat ryie.~t$ ,in:$~ co~de~.~r.(JJ1~·diffe.rence.~e~_~en

[ qin - qouJ + [Win - W ouJ = dh kJ/Kg

Boiler •(w = 9) .'lin = h1 -:-14 = Qi . . ' .

w,ict = qin - qout

= V:'turbinc out - Wpump in

(or) ·Wnct - Q1 -Q2

1.2 IMPROVISATIONS OF RANKINE CYCLE

iiO By increasing temperature

c), by using both reheat and regeneration.

Ideal reheat cycle , I I .

Figure 1.3: An ideal reh:ecit cycle -- .

~canned. w1tn uam~canner

Low pressure turbine

- · ,· Q in-= Qprimary -~ Oreheat =. (h1 - h6) + (h3 ~h2)

Further the efficiency of any,~y~~~:can be 4tipr9ved by reducing the heat rejection:

~cannee1 w1tn c.;am~canner

.' .1 1},: .. . . r • •, .. , 1 1 , "'· ! 1 • 'J ·_ ;..J • •.~ ' . :.

,·I ·. • . . 1 • 'I . I I. \ I '

Figure 1. 6: T-S diagram ofan ideal regenerative cycle

: . ~egenerative cycle efficiency - camot cycle efficiency

..PRACTiCAL REGENERATIVE CYCLE

•-t~.♦, .... t. ,-~ .. • '• •••• '.1 I

Figure 1. 7: Practical regenerative cycle

.' . _.. __ - - --- ""

consists offollowing fommain circuits: : !

3. Feed water and steam flow-oireuit

i:>cannect. w 1tn (.;ami:>canner

ti. High l..ow Cooling water

1. Coal and Ash circuit

-CUuJ1:1v:e~y~o~rs~,~bu~c~k~e~te:l:ev:a~t~or~s~,gr~ab~bu;c;;;,e~e=ev~a~or~,~~;;-~ ..--- , e c.,

4. Cooling water circuit

condenser: Ifsufficientqu.antity is•notavailable, the water from the condenser is passed

current and then recircul~t~_d( • · , ~. .1 •• 1 • •• .J .1

3. Power generation does not depend on the natural phenqmena.

1~3.3 Disadvantages of steam P,Q~er plant

2. It is possible to maintain more stable pressure level. __,

~canned. w1tn (.;am~canner

Water circulating ' ,.

' ·, . , ·1t .Higli'evaporatioh rate. . '.'

I I . . . . . ' . 1 ' ' ' · ' •• ' I .' •. .., . , .

Qls.~d".',ntagel · '1 .'

·, · ·I. 'Salts and sedimen'' ts'.are deposited on the:inn'er surfaces bf th~nvatettubes .

· ' , '; '.1

I • •~~11 : . _1_'': t ~,. _. , •

1.5.1 Loeffler boile~

lock Fi~re ~.11: Loeffler boiler

steam have the same density and no bubbles fo · ~ ,

Construction and working (i}-_: . . . . ._ . ,'

components ofBenson boiler. ; · · ·

Air ,preh~a~er,is .used'f0r preheating.the.air r~q~iI.e~.for ,etficient combusti0n•

~cannect w1tn c.;am~canner

-' 1:6· 'FLUIDIZED 'BED 'BO[LERS

·.,:~ ·. ,1. I ~F~.w ~nows.an e~1eps\s9l!~ ~ o l i d mixing.,

' I' I I 6,-. if q4.s-,l~'. . ··¥~~~~i~h·r~s~lt~-~°hig4he'at rele~e rate;per ~i'furiiaf{~ 'I

.... -, •\ . - .. .b).M~diiµµ:p..in~s.(2:\<?.1P.a~).-;-; ..•, •,· .- .;._~_,.,, ;i_. _. ;,_... ;~-:\r.i·. ·.::.