Analog Communication Systems
Analog Communication Systems
Analog Communication Systems
Introduction
Elements of Communication System:
Communication: It is the process of conveying or
transferring information from one point to
another.
(Or)
It is the process of establishing connection or link
between two points for information exchange.
Elements of Communication System:
Information source:
The message or information to be communicated
originates in information source.
Message can be words, group of words, code, data,
symbols, signals etc.
Transmitter :
The objective of the transmitter block is to collect
the incoming message signal and modify it in a
suitable fashion (if needed), such that, it can be
transmitted via the chosen channel to the
receiving point.
Elements of Communication System:
Channel :
Channel is the physical medium which connects the
transmitter with that of the receiver.
The physical medium includes copper wire, coaxial
cable, fibre optic cable, wave guide and free
space or atmosphere.
Receiver:
The receiver block receives the incoming modified
version of the message signal from the channel
and processes it to recreate the original (non-
electrical) form of the message signal.
Signal, Message, Information
Signal:
It is a physical quantity which varies with respect to
time or space or independent or dependent
variable.
(Or)
It is electrical waveform which carries information.
Ex: m(t) = Acos(ωt+ϕ)
Where, A= Amplitude or peak amplitude(Volts)
w = Frequency ( rad/sec)
ϕ = Phase (rad)
Types of Signals
• Analog or Continuous Signal
• Digital Signal
Analog or Continuous Signal: If the amplitude of
signal continuously varies with respect to time or
if the signal contains infinite number of
amplitudes, it is called Analog or continuous
signal.
Types of Signals
Digital Signal: If the signal contains only two
discrete amplitudes, then it is called digital signal.
• With respect to communication, signals are
classified into,
• Baseband signal
• Bandpass signal
Baseband signal: If the signal contains zero
frequency or near to zero frequency, it is called
baseband signal.
Ex: Voice, Audio, Video, Bio-medical signals etc.
Types of Signals
Bandpass signal: If the signal contains band of
frequencies far away from base or zero, it is called
bandpass signal.
Ex: AM, FM signals.
• For multiplexing
Switching Modulator:
Generation of AM Wave
The carrier signal c(t) is connected in series with
modulating signal x(t).
Sum of these two signals is passed through a diode.
Output of the diode is passed through a band pass
filter and the result is an AM wave.
V1(t) = x(t) + c(t) ---(1)
Amplitude of c(t) is much greater than x(t), so ON &
OFF of diode is determined by c(t)
When c(t) is positive, V2(t) = V1(t) ---(2)
When c(t) is negative, V2(t) = 0 ---(3), Finally,
V2(t) =
Detection of AM Wave
Demodulation or detection is the process of
recovering the original message signal from the
received modulated signal.
Types of AM Detectors:
1. Square Law detector
2. Envelope detector
3. Rectifier detector
Detection of AM Wave
Square Law detector:
Rectifier detector:
Detection of AM Wave
• In rectifier detector, diode acts as rectifier which
allows only positive half of the modulated signal
to the filter.
S(f) =
This is the spectrum of DSB-SC wave.
Demodulation of DSB-SC
Coherent Detection:
The modulating signal x(t) is recovered from DSB-
SC wave s(t) by multiplying it with a locally
generated carrier and then passing through a
LPF.
Demodulation of DSB-SC
V(t) = s(t) c(t) ---(1)
Where,
S(t) = 1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]—(2)
C(t) = cos2πfct ---(3)
Substituting (2) & (3) in (1)
The output of multiplier S1(t) = [m1 (t) Cos (2πfct + m2 (t) Sin (2πfct)] x
Cos (2πfct)
= m1(t) Cos2(2πfct) + m2(t) sin(2πfct) Cos(2πfct)
= m1(t)/2(1+Cos4πfct)) + m2(t)/2 Sin(4πfct)
=m1(t)/2 + m1(t)/2 Cos(4πfct)+ m2(t)/2 Sin(4πfct)
Second and Third terms are high frequency signals are eliminated by
LPF. So that output of LPF is m1(t)/2
The output of multiplier S2(t) = [m1 (t) Cos (2πfct + m2 (t) Sin (2πfct)] x
Sin (2πfct)
=m2(t)/2Sin(4πfct)+m2(t)/2-m2(t)/2Cos(4πfct)
First and Third terms are high frequency signals are eliminated by LPF.
So that output of LPF is m2(t)/2 .
Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
Heterodyne means mixing two frequencies and
generating single or constant frequency and the
output of mixer will be fixed frequency.
Specification of AM Receiver:
• The frequency range of AM-MW( Medium wave)
: (540-1640) KHz
• Band width of receiver:1640 KHz – 540 KHz = 1100 KHz
• Band width of each AM station : 10 KHz
• No. of stations available: 110
• Intermediate frequency (fIF): 455 KHz
Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic signal into
electrical signal.
RF Tuned Amplifier:
• It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier.
• Tuning circuit designed to select 110 stations and amplifier provides
amplification for 1100 KHz band width.
• RF tuned amplifier is responsible for sensitivity, selectivity, Image signal
rejection and noise reduction.
Mixer:
• It is combination of frequency mixer and Band Pass Filter (BPF).
• Frequency generates sum and difference frequency of incoming signal
and locally generated signal.
• BPF selects difference frequency at the output whose center frequency is
equal to= 455 KHz.
Local Oscillator:
• It is either Colpits or Hartley oscillator.
• It generates carrier frequency 455 KHz greater than the incoming carrier
frequency to produce constant or fixed frequency.
Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
IF Amplifier:
• It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency amplifier which provides
amplification for 10 KHz band width at center frequency of 455 KHz.
• It is cascade CE amplifier which provides 90% of total receiver
amplification.
Detector or Demodulator:
• It is frequency translator circuit which extracts modulating signal from
AM signal.
• Usually Envelope detector is used.
• Fidelity of the receiver is mainly depends on detector or demodulator.
Audio Amplifier:
• It is low frequency amplifier which provides amplification at (20- 20K) Hz.
• It contain cascade CE Voltage amplifier followed by Power amplifier.
Loud Speaker:
• It converts Electrical signal into sound or audio signal.
ANGLE MODULATION
• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
Frequency Modulation
The process of varying frequency of the carrier in
accordance with the instantaneous values of the
modulating signal.
M.I.=Frequency Deviation
Modulating Frequency
mf =δ
fm
In FM M.I.>1
= δmax
fmax
Mathematical Representation of FM
where,
ec = Instantaneous amplitude
c = Angular velocity
= 2fc
fc = Carrier frequency
= Phase angle
(iii) FM Wave:
Highest order side band = To be found from table 2.1 after the
calculation of modulation Index m where, m = /fm
e.g. If m= 20KHZ/5KHZ
From table, for modulation index 4, highest order side band is 7th.
Therefore, the bandwidth is
B.W. = 2 fm Highest order side band
=2 5 kHz 7
=70 kHz
Types of Frequency Modulation
FM (Frequency Modulation)
Narrowband FM Wideband FM
(NBFM) (WBFM)
[When modulation index is small] [When modulation index is large]
Comparison between Narrowband
and Wideband FM
Sr. Parameter NBFM WBFM
No.
1. Modulation Less than or slightly Greater than 1
index greater than 1
2. Maximum 5 kHz 75 kHz
deviation
3. Range of 20 Hz to 3 kHz 20 Hz to 15 kHz
modulating
frequency
4. Maximum Slightly greater than 1 5 to 2500
modulation
index
5. Bandwidth Small approximately Large about 15 times
same as that of AM greater than that of
BW = 2fm NBFM.
BW = 2(+fmmax)
6. Applications FM mobile communication Entertainment
like police wireless, broadcasting (can be used
ambulance, short range for high quality music
ship to shore transmission)
communication etc.
Representation of FM
FM can be represented by two ways:
1. Time domain.
2. Frequency domain.
1.FM in Time Domain
Time domain representation means continuous variation of voltage with respect
to time as shown in Fig. .
2. Circuit diagram
4. Time constant T = RC = 50 s T = RC = 50 s
3. Modulated signal
4. Modulation Index
m=Em/Ec m = / fm
Generation of FM
1.Armstrong Method
1.Reactance Modulator
2. Varactor Diode
Reactance Method
Disadvantages of FM
The greatest disadvantages of FM are:
1.It uses too much spectrum space.
2.The bandwidth is wider.
3.The modulation index can be kept low to minimize the
bandwidth used.
4.But reduction in M.I. reduces the noise immunity.
5.Used only at very high frequencies.
Applications of FM
1.FM radio broadcasting.
2.Sound transmission in TV.
3.Police wireless.
Demodulation of FM Signal
Local Oscillator:
It is either Colpits or Hartley oscillator.
It generates carrier frequency 10.7MHz.greater than the
incoming carrier frequency to produce constant or fixed
frequency.
IF Amplifier:
It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency amplifier which
provides amplification for 20 MHz band width at center
frequency of 10.7 MHz.
Super Heterodyne FM Receiver
Limiter:
It is combination of hard limiter and BPF.
Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper removes the noise
spikes.
Detector or Demodulator or Discriminator:
It is frequency translator circuit which extracts modulating
signal from FM signal.
De-emphasis:
It is LPF which attenuates frequencies of Audio signal from 2
KHz to 20 KHz to get the original modulating signal.
Audio Amplifier:
It is low frequency amplifier which provides amplification at (20-
20K) Hz.
Loud Speaker:
It converts Electrical signal into sound or audio signal.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Allocation of different frequency bands or carrier
frequency to different channel is called “Frequency
Division Multiplexing”. And it is used to transmit
Radio & TV signals.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
FDM Multiplexing:
•Different carrier frequencies are used for different
stations or channels.
•Modulator is used in the transmitter
Band width of FDM system,
BWFDM = N. BW CH+ (N-1) BWG
Properties of ηB(t):
• ηB(t), ηi(t) , ηq(t) will have same power.
• The PSD of ηi(t) & ηq(t) is,
Figure of Merit calculation in DSB-SC
g(t) = x(t)
NATURAL SAMPLING
Case ii: When c(t) is low
Switch s is open
g(t) = 0
The time domain representation of naturally
sampled signal is given by,
g(t) = x(t)
The spectrum of naturally sampled signal is given
by,
G(f) =
Pulse Width Modulation(PWM)
In PWM, the width of pulses of carrier pulse train is
varied in proportion with amplitude of
modulating signal.
PWM GENERATION
Selectivity depends on
• Receiving frequency
• Response of IF section
Radio receiver measurements
Fidelity:
It is the ability of a receiver to reproduce all the
modulating frequencies equally.
INFORMATION & CHANNEL CAPACITY
Information:
Information is defined as a sequence of letters,
alphabets, symbols which carries a message with
specific meaning.
Source of Information:
Properties of Entropy:
1. Entropy is always non negative i.e H(x) ≥ 0.
2. Entropy is zero when probability of all symbols is
zero except probability one symbol is one.
3. Entropy is maximum when probability
occurrence of all symbols is equal
i.e H(x) =
Entropy of symbols in long independent
sequences
• In a statistically independent sequence, the occurrence
of a particular symbol during a time interval is
independent of occurrence of symbols at other time
interval.
• If P1, P2, P3, ……. PM are the probabilities of occurrences
of M symbols, then the total information content of the
message consisting N symbols is given by,
R = rH
Joint entropy:
Conditional entropy: