Fluid Mechanics & Fluid Machines (Book)
Fluid Mechanics & Fluid Machines (Book)
Fluid Mechanics & Fluid Machines (Book)
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1
QUANTUM SERIES
For
B.Tech Students of Second Year
of All Engineering Colleges Affiliated to
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,
Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow
(Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University)
By
TM
CONTENTS
KME 302 : Fluid Mechanics & Fluid Machines
UNIT-1 : FLUID & BERNOULLI’S EQUATION (1–1 A to 1–33 A)
Definition of fluid, Newton’s law of viscosity, Units and
dimensions-Properties of fluids,mass density, specific volume,
specific gravity, viscosity, compressibility and surface tension,
Incompressible flow, Bernoulli’s equation and its applications -
Pitot tube, orifice meter, venturi meter and bend meter, notches
and weirs, momentum equation and its application to pipe bends.
UNIT-2 : FLUID FLOW & CONTINUITY EQUATION (2–1 A to 2–35 A)
Continuum & free molecular flows. Steady and unsteady, uniform
and non-uniform, laminar and turbulent flows, rotational and
irrotational flows, compressible and incompressible flows, subsonic,
sonic and supersonic flows, sub-critical, critical and supercritical
flows, one, two- and threedimensional flows, streamlines, continuity
equation for 3D and 1D flows, circulation, stream function and
velocity potential. Buckingham’s Pi theorem, important
dimensionless numbers and their significance.
UNIT-3 : FLOW THROUGH PIPES (3–1 A to 3–49 A)
Equation of motion for laminar flow through pipes, turbulent flow,
isotropic, homogenous turbulence, scale and intensity of turbulence,
measurement of turbulence, eddy viscosity, resistance to flow, minor
losses, pipe in series and parallel, power transmission through a pipe,
siphon, water hammer, three reservoir problems and pipe networks.
Boundary layer thickness, boundary layer over a flat plate, laminar
boundary layer, application of momentum equation, turbulent boundary
layer, laminar sublayer, separation and its control, Drag and lift, drag on
a sphere, a two-dimensional cylinder, and an aerofoil, Magnus effect.
UNIT-4 : IMPACT OF JET (4–1 A to 4–54 A)
Introduction to hydrodynamic thrust of jet on a fixed and moving
surface, Classification of turbines, Impulse turbines, Constructional
details, Velocity triangles, Power and efficiency calculations, Governing
of Pelton wheel. Francis and Kaplan turbines, Constructional details,
Velocity triangles, Power and efficiency Principles of similarity, Unit and
specific speed, Performance characteristics, Selection of water turbines.
UNIT-5 : CENTRIFUGAL & RECIPROCATING PUMPS (5–1 A to 5–51 A)
Classifications of centrifugal pumps, Vector diagram, Work done by
impellor, Efficiencies of centrifugal pumps, Specific speed, Cavitation &
separation, Performance characteristics. Reciprocating pump theory, Slip,
Indicator diagram, Effect of acceleration, air vessels, Comparison of
centrifugal and reciprocating pumps, Performance characteristics.
UNIT-I
Definition of fluid, Newton’s law of viscosity, Units and dimensions-Properties of fluids,mass density,
specific volume, specific gravity, viscosity, compressibility and surfacetension, Incompressible flow,
Bernoulli’s equation and its applications - Pitot tube, orifice meter, venturi meter and bend meter,
notches and weirs, momentum equation and its application to pipe bends.
UNIT-II
Continuum & free molecular flows. Steady and unsteady, uniform and non-uniform, laminar and
turbulent flows, rotational and irrotational flows, compressible and incompressible flows, subsonic,
sonic and supersonic flows, sub-critical, critical and supercritical flows, one, two- and three-
dimensional flows, streamlines, continuity equation for 3D and 1D flows, circulation, stream function
and velocity potential. Buckingham’s Pi theorem, important dimensionless numbers and their
significance.
UNIT-III
Equation of motion for laminar flow through pipes, turbulent flow, isotropic, homogenous turbulence,
scale and intensity of turbulence, measurement of turbulence, eddy viscosity, resistance to flow, minor
losses, pipe in series and parallel, power transmission through a pipe, siphon, water hammer, three
reservoir problems and pipe networks.
Boundary layer thickness, boundary layer over a flat plate, laminar boundary layer, application of
momentum equation, turbulent boundary layer, laminar sublayer, separation and its control, Drag and
lift, drag on a sphere, a two-dimensional cylinder, and an aerofoil, Magnus effect.
UNIT-IV
Introduction to hydrodynamic thrust of jet on a fixed and moving surface, Classification of turbines,
Impulse turbines, Constructional details, Velocity triangles, Power and efficiency calculations,
Governing of Pelton wheel.
Francis and Kaplan turbines, Constructional details, Velocity triangles, Power and efficiency
Principles of similarity, Unit and specific speed, Performance characteristics, Selection of water
turbines.
UNIT-V
Classifications of centrifugal pumps, Vector diagram, Work done by impellor, Efficiencies of
centrifugal pumps, Specific speed, Cavitation & separation, Performance characteristics.
Reciprocating pump theory, Slip, Indicator diagram, Effect of acceleration, air vessels, Comparison of
centrifugal and reciprocating pumps, Performance characteristics.
Course Outcomes:
x Upon completion of this course, students will be able to mathematically analyze simple flow
situations.
x They will be able to evaluate the performance of pumps and turbines.
Books and References:
1. Introduction to fluid mechanics and Fluid machines by S.K Som, Gautam Biswas, S Chakraborty.
2. Fluid mechanics and machines by R.K Bansal.
3. F. M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed., Tata McGraw-Hill, 2008.
4. Fluid Mechanics and Its Applications byV.K.Gupta et.al.
5. Fluid Mechanics byYunusCengel.
6. Batchelor, G. K. (1999). Introduction to fluid dynamics. New Delhi, India: Cambridge University
Press.
7. Acheson, D. J. (1990). Elementary fluid dynamics. New York, USA: Oxford UniversityPress.
8. R.W. Fox, A.T. McDonald and P.J. Pritchard, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed., John Wiley,
2004.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 1–1 A (ME-Sem-3)
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Definition of Fluid, Newton’s .................... 1–2A to 1–5A
Law of Viscosity
PART-1
Definition of Fluid, Newton’s Law of Viscosity.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.1. What is fluid ? State Newton’s law of viscosity and derive
the same. What are its applications ?
Answer
A. Fluid :
1. A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously when subjected to
external shearing force.
B. Newton’s Law of Viscosity :
1. This law states that the shear stress () on a fluid element layer is
directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.
du
Mathematically, =
dy
C. Derivation :
1. From Fig. 1.1.1, let two layers of fluid at a distance ‘dy’ apart, move one
over the other at different velocities u and u + du.
2. The viscosity together with relative velocity causes shear stress acting
between fluid layers.
3. This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with
respect to y. It is denoted by .
Upper layer
Lower layer
u + du
dy u
y du
Solid boundary
u
Fig. 1.1.1. Velocity variation near a solid boundary.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 1–3 A (ME-Sem-3)
du du
Mathematically, or =
dy dy
Where, = Constant of proportionality and is known as
coefficient of dynamic viscosity or viscosity.
du
= Rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient.
dy
D. Applications :
1. Lubrication in bearings.
2. Relative movement between two plates.
Answer
5
Given : = 5 poise = = 0.5 N-s/m2, D = 0.5 m, N = 200 rpm,
10
L = 100 mm = 0.1 m, t = 1.0 mm = 1 × 10 – 3 m
To Find : Power lost in the oil.
1. Tangential velocity of shaft is given as,
DN 0.5 200
u= = 5.236 m/s
60 60
du
2. Using the relation, =
dy
Where, du = Change in velocity = u – 0 = u = 5.236 m/s
dy = Change in distance = t = 1 × 10 – 3 m
0.5 5.236
= = 2618 N/m2
1 10 3
3. Shear force on the shaft,
F = A = × DL ( A = DL)
= 2618 × × 0.5 × 0.1 = 411.23 N
4. Torque on the shaft,
D 0.5
T= F× 411.23 = 102.81 N-m
2 2
1–4 A (ME-Sem-3) Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
2N
5. Power lost = T = T ×
60
2 200
= 102.81 × = 2153 W = 2.15 kW
60
Answer
BC 1 1
Where, sin =
AC 2
2.5 12 2.693
1
F = W sin = 200 × = 74.27 N
2.693
du
2. Now = ...(1.3.1)
dy
Where, du = u – 0 = 0.4 m/s and dy = 5 × 10 – 3 m
F
4. We also know, = ...(1.3.2)
A
5. Equating eq. (1.3.1) and eq. (1.3.2), we get
F du
=
A dy
F dy
=
A du
74.27 5 10 3
= = 3.7135 Pa-s or 37.135 Poise
0.25 0.40
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 1–5 A (ME-Sem-3)
Fluid C
Plate
u = 0.4 m/s
Thickness of 1.0
fluid film
m
m W = 200 N
2 2.5
A B
Fig. 1.3.1.
PART-2
Units and Dimensions, Properties of Fluids, Mass Density,
Specific Volume, Specific Gravity, Viscosity.
Questions-Answers
Answer
Some physical properties of fluids are as follows :
a. Density or Mass Density :
1. It may be defined as the mass per unit volume at a standard temperature
and pressure. It is also known as specific mass. It is denoted by and its
unit is kg/m3.
m
Mathematically, =
V
Where, m = Mass (kg), and
V = Volume (m3).
b. Weight Density :
1. It can be defined as the weight per unit volume at the standard
temperature and pressure. It is also known as specific weight. It is
denoted by W and its unit is N/m3.
1–6 A (ME-Sem-3) Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Weight mg m
Mathematically, W= = g
Volume V V
c. Specific Volume :
1. It is defined as the volume per unit mass of fluid.
V 1
Mathematically, v=
m
d. Specific Gravity :
1. It is the ratio of the specific weight of the given fluid to the specific
weight of a standard fluid.
Answer
PART-3
Compressibility, Surface Tension and Incompressible Flow.
Questions-Answers
Answer
a. Compressibility :
1. The property by virtue of which fluids undergo a change in volume
under the action of external pressure is known as compressibility.
2. It is the reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity which is defined as the
ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain.
3. Let, V = Volume of gas enclosed in the cylinder, and
p = Pressure of gas when volume is V.
4. If the pressure is increased to p + dp, the volume of gas decreases from
V to V – dV.
dV
Volumetric strain = –
V
Increase of pressure dp
5. Bulk modulus, K = =
Volumetric strain dV / V
1
And, compressibility =
K
b. Surface Tension :
1. It is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in
contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquids.
2. It is denoted by sigma () and its SI unit is N/m.
3. This occurs due to the force of cohesion at the free surface as shown in
Fig. 1.6.1.
1–8 A (ME-Sem-3) Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Liquid
Fig. 1.6.1.
4. Consider a liquid molecule in the interior of liquid mass, surrounded by
other molecules all around and is in equilibrium.
5. At the free surface of the liquid, there are no liquid molecules above the
surface to balance the force of the molecules below it.
6. As a result, there is a net inward force on the molecule and this force is
normal to the surface.
7. Thus at the free surface a thin layer of molecules is formed which acts
as membrane because of which a thin small needle can float on the free
surface.
c. Incompressible Flow :
1. It is that type of flow in which the density is constant for the fluid flow.
i.e., = Constant
2. Incompressible flow is also known as isochoric flow which means same
area or space.
3. These type of flow are easy to model as temperature and pressure of
liquid and gases do not vary in incompressible flow.
Answer
dp 60
1. Bulk modulus, K= = 4 × 104 N/cm2
dV 0.15
100
1 1
2. Compressibility of liquid = = 2.5 10 5 cm2/N
Bulk modulus 4 10 4
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 1–9 A (ME-Sem-3)
Answer
4 7.5 10 5
d= = 0.1667 cm
0.0018
PART-4
Bernoulli’s Equation and its Applications-Pitot Tube, Orifice Meter,
Venturimeter and Bend Meter.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Continuity Equation : It states that the discharge throughout the
flow remains constant.
Mathematically, Q = Av = Constant
Venturimeter : It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a
fluid flowing through a pipe.
Pitot Tube : It is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at
any point in a pipe or a channel.
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. Bernoulli’s theorem states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible
fluid, the total energy at any point of the fluid is constant.
2. It can be mathematically stated as given below,
Pressure energy + Kinetic energy + Potential energy = Constant
p v2
z = Constant
g 2 g
3. Bernoulli’s equation for real fluids is,
p1 v12 p v2
z1 = 2 2 z2 hL
g 2 g g 2 g
Where, hL = Loss of energy.
Que 1.10. How will you obtain Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s
equation of motion along a streamline ? Write assumptions of
Bernoulli’s equation.
Answer
A. Assumptions :
1. The fluid should be ideal, i.e., viscosity is zero.
2. The flow should be steady.
3. The flow should be incompressible.
4. The flow should be irrotational.
B. Bernoulli’s Equation from Euler’s Equation :
1. Euler’s equation of motion is given by,
p
gdz v d v = 0
2. On integrating, we have
dp
gdz v d v = Constant
p v2
gz = Constant
2
p v2
z = Constant ...(1.10.1)
g 2g
p
Where, = Pressure head,
g
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 1–11 A (ME-Sem-3)
v2
= Kinetic head, and
2g
z = Potential head.
Eq. (1.10.1) is known as Bernoulli’s equation.
Que 1.11. Water flows through a 0.9 m diameter pipe at the end of
which there is a reducer connecting to a 0.6 m diameter pipe. If the
gauge pressure at the entrance to the reducer is 412.02 kN/m2 and
the velocity is 2 m/s, determine the resultant thrust on the reducer,
assuming that the frictional loss of head in the reducer is 1.5 m.
Answer
Given : d1 = 0.9 m, d2 = 0.6 m, p1 = 412.02 kN/m2, v1 = 2 m/s,
hf = 1.5 m
To Find : Resultant thrust.
1. From continuity equation,
v1A1 = v2A2
2 2
v1 A1 d1 0.9
v2 = v1 = 2 4.5 m/s
A2 d2 0.6
2. Applying Bernoulli’s theorem at section (1) and (2), we get
p1 v12 p v2
z1 = 2 2 z2 hf
g 2 g g 2 g
1 2
v1 v2
0.9 m 0.6 m
Fig. 1.11.1. 1 2
p1 v12 p v2
= 2 2 hf
g 2 g g 2 g
Que 1.12. Suggest the device used for the measurement of fluid
flow through ducts or pipes. Explain them.
OR
What are the various applications of Bernoulli’s equation ? Explain
them.
Answer
Some of the simple applications of Bernoulli’s equation are as follows :
A. Venturimeter :
1. A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid
flowing through a pipe.
2. It consists of three parts, as given below :
i. A short converging part,
ii. Throat, and
iii. Diverging part.
3. It works on the principle of Bernoulli’s theorem.
4. As shown in Fig. 1.12.1, a venturimeter is fitted in a horizontal pipe
through which a fluid is flowing.
d1
(2)
(1) Throat
Inlet
Fig. 1.12.1.
p1 v12 p v2
z1 = 2 2 z2 ..(1.12.1)
g 2 g g 2 g
7. As it is horizontal pipe, hence z1 = z2
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 1–13 A (ME-Sem-3)
p1 v12 p v2
= 2 2
g 2 g g 2 g
p1 p2 v2 v 2
= 2 1 ...(1.12.2)
g 2g 2g
p1 p2
8. But is the difference of pressure heads at sections (1) and (2)
g
and it is equal to h,
p1 p2
=h
g
v22 v12
h= ...(1.12.3)
2g 2g
9. Applying continuity equation at sections (1) and (2), we have
a2 v 2
a1v1= a2v2 or v1 =
a1
10. Substituting this value of v1 in eq. (1.12.3), we get
2
a2 v 2
v 22 a1 v2 a2
h= 2 1 22
2g 2g 2g a1
a12
or v 22 = 2 gh
a a22
2
1
a12 a1
v2 = 2 gh 2 gh
a a22
2
1 a a22
2
1
11. Discharge, Q = a2 v2
a1 a2
Q= 2 gh ...(1.12.4)
a12 a22
12. Eq. (1.12.4) gives the discharge under ideal conditions called as
theoretical discharge whereas actual discharge will be less than
theoretical discharge and is given by,
Cd a1 a2 2 gh Qact
Qact= Cd
2 2 Qtheo
a a
1 2
13. It the liquid flowing in pipe and liquid in U-tube manometer have different
specific gravity, following cases may be considered to obtain the level of
difference of two liquids :
Case I :
1. If pipe is horizontal (i.e., z1 = z2) and the differential manometer contains
liquid heavier than the liquid flowing through the pipe.
p p S
Then, h = 1 2 x h 1
g g S
o
Where, Sh = Specific gravity of the heavier liquid,
So = Specific gravity of the liquid flowing through pipe, and
x = Difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube.
Case II :
1. If pipe is horizontal (i.e., z1 = z2) and the differential manometer contains
liquid lighter than the liquid flowing through the pipe.
p p S
Then, h = 1 2 = x 1 l
g g So
p p S
Then, h = 1 z1 2 z2 x h 1
g g S
o
Case IV :
1. If pipe is inclined and the differential manometer contains liquid lighter
than the liquid flowing through the pipe.
p p S
Then, h = 1 z1 2 z2 x 1 l
g g So
B. Orifice Meter :
1. It works on the Bernoulli’s principle and is a device used for measuring
the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe.
2. It consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edged hole
called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 1–15 A (ME-Sem-3)
p1 v12 p v2
z1 = 2 2 z2
g 2 g g 2 g
p1 p2 v22 v12
g z1 g z2 = 2 g 2 g
p p
Where, 1 z1 2 z2 = h = Differential head
g g
v22 v12
h=
2g 2g
v2 = 2 gh v12 ...(1.12.5)
5. Now section (2) is at the vena-contracta and a2 represents the area at
the vena-contracta.
6. If a0 is the area of orifice then,
a2
CC =
a0
a2 = a0 CC ...(1.12.6)
Where, CC = Coefficient of contraction.
1–16 A (ME-Sem-3) Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
7. By continuity equation,
a1 v1= a2 v2
a0CC
v1 = v2 ...(1.12.7)
a1
8. Substituting the value of v1 in eq. (1.12.5), we get
2
aC
v2 = 2 gh 0 C v 22
a1
2
aC
v22 = 2 gh 0 C v22
a1
a 2
v 22 1 0 CC2 = 2gh
a
1
2 gh
v2 = 2
a
1 0 CC2
a1
a0CC 2 gh
i.e., Q= 2
...(1.12.8)
a
1 0 Cc2
a 1
2
a
1 0 CC2
a1
CC = Cd
2
a
1 0
a1
11. Substituting the value of CC in eq. (1.12.8), we get
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 1–17 A (ME-Sem-3)
2
a
1 0 CC2
a1 2 gh
Q = a0 Cd 2
2
a a
1 0 1 0 CC2
a1 a1
Cd a0 2 gh Cd a0 a1 2 gh
= =
a
2
a12 a02
1 0
a 1
Answer
1030
Given : Cd = 0.98, l = 1030 kg/m3, Sl = = 1.03 kg/m3,
1000
SHg = 13.6, d1 = 75 mm = 0.075 m, Q = 0.011 m3/s, a2 = 1000 mm2
= 1 × 10–3 m2
To find : Height difference.
a1 a2
1. As we know, flow rate, Q = Cd 2 gh
a12 a22
2
a1 = d1 (.075)2 = 4.4178 × 10– 3 m2
4 4
4.4178 10 3 1 10 3
0.011 = 0.98 × × 2 9.81 h
(4.4178 10 3 )2 (1 103 )2
h = 6.092 m
1–18 A (ME-Sem-3) Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
SHg
2. We know that, h=x 1
Sl
13.6
6.092 = x 1
1.03
12.57
6.092 = x ×
1.03
x = 0.4992 m
Answer
1. Area at A, AA = (0.16)2 = 0.0201 m2
4
Area at B, AB = (0.08)2 = 0.005026 m2
4
2. Difference of pressures,
pB – pA = 0.981 N/cm2 = 0.981 × 104 N/m2 = 9810 N/m2
pB pA 9810
3. Pressure head, = = = 1.25 m
g 800 9.81
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 1–19 A (ME-Sem-3)
16 cm
2m
B
8 cm
Fig. 1.14.1.
4. Applying Bernoulli’s theorem at A and B taking the reference line passing
through section B,
pA v 2A p v2
zA = B B zB
g 2 g g 2 g
pA pB v2 v2
zA zB = B A
g g 2g 2g
v 2B v 2A pB pA
– 1.25 + 2.0 =
g
1.25
2g 2g
v 2B v 2A
0.75 = ... (1.14.1)
2g 2g
5. Now applying continuity equation at A and B, we get
vA AA = vB AB
v A AA v A 0.0201
vB = = 4vA
AB 0.005026
B
x
Fig. 1.14.2.
1–20 A (ME-Sem-3) Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
16 v 2A v 2A 15 v 2A
0.75 =
2g 2g 2g
0.75 2 9.81
vA = = = 0.99 m/s
15
S
8. We know that, h = x g 1
S
o
p p p pB
Where, h = A zA B zB A + zA – zB
g g g
pB pA
= – 1.25 + 2.0 = 0.75 g 1.25
13.6
0.75 = x 1 = x × 16
0.8
Que 1.15. Explain Elbow meter with neat sketch and give its
application.
Answer
A. Elbow Meter :
1. When a liquid flows in a pipe bend, there exists a difference of pressure
between the outside and inside of the bend. This difference of pressure
is used to measure the discharge in pipeline.
2. In a pipe bend, the pressure at the outer wall of bend is more than that
at the inner wall.
3. Now from Fig. 1.15.1, we see a pipe bend with two pressure po at outside
wall and pi at inside wall of the pipe. These two points are connected to
the limbs of U-tube manometer.
4. From the relation between velocity and pressure difference, we have
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 1–21 A (ME-Sem-3)
Pipe bend
Q v po
pi
Flexible
tubing zi zo
U-tube
manometer
Horizontal datum
Fig. 1.15.1. Elbow meter.
v2 p p
K = o zo i zi
2g w w
1 p p
v= 2 g o zo i zi
K w w
Where, K = Constant (1.3 to 3.2 de pe nds upon size and
shape of the bend).
v = Velocity of flow.
p p
5. Discharge, Q = Av = Cd A 2 g o zo i zi
w w
1
Where, Cd = Coefficient of discharge = (0.56 Cd 0.88)
K
B. Applications :
1. An elbow meter can be used for the measurement of discharge in pipes
which are fitted with bends or elbow.
PART-5
Notches and Weirs.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Notch : A notch is a device used for the measurement of the rate of
flow of a liquid through a small channel or tank.
Weir : A weir is a concrete or masonry structure placed in an open
channel over which the flow occurs.
1–22 A (ME-Sem-3) Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Questions-Answers
Que 1.16. What is notch ? What are the different types of notches ?
Answer
A. Notch :
1. A notch is a device used for the measurement of the rate of flow of a
liquid through a small channel or a tank.
2. It may also be defined as an opening in the side of a tank or a small
channel in such a way that the liquid surface in the tank or channel is
below the top edge of the opening.
B. Types of Notches : The different types of notches are as follows :
i. Rectangular notch,
ii. Triangular notch,
iii. Trapezoidal notch, and
iv. Stepped notch.
Que 1.17. Derive the expression for discharge over the following
notches :
A. Rectangular, and
B. Triangular.
Answer
A. Discharge over Rectangular Notch :
1. As shown in Fig. 1.17.1, consider a rectangular notch provided in a
channel carrying water.
2. Let, H = Head of water over the crest, and
L = Length of notch.
3. In order to find the discharge of water flowing over the notch, consider
an elementary horizontal strip of water of thickness dh and length L at
a depth h from the free surface of water.
Nappe L
H
h
dh
Crest or sill
Fig. 1.17.1.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 1–23 A (ME-Sem-3)
Q= C d L 2 gh dh Cd L 2 g h1/ 2 dh
0 0
3/ 2 H
h
= Cd L 2 g
3 / 2 0
2
Cd L 2 g H 3/ 2
Q=
3
B. Discharge Over Triangular Notch :
C
A
h
dh
A B H -h
C H
/2
O O
Fig. 1.17.2.
AC = (H – h) tan
2
Width of strip = AB = 2 × AC = 2 (H – h) tan
2
= 2 Cd (H – h) tan 2 2 gh dh
H
= 2Cd tan 2 g ( Hh1/ 2 h3/ 2 ) dh
2 0
H
Hh3/ 2 h5/ 2
= 2Cd tan 2 g
2 3 / 2 5 / 2 0
8
Q= Cd tan 2 g H 5/ 2
15 2
Que 1.18. Define weir and give its classification. Differentiate
between notch and weir.
Answer
A. Weir :
1. It is any regular obstruction in an open stream over which the flow
takes place.
B. Classification of Weirs :
a. On the Basis of Shape :
1. Rectangular weir, and
2. Cipoletti weir.
b. On the Basis of Nature of Discharge :
1. Ordinary weir, and
2. Submerged weir.
c. On the Basis of the Width of Crest :
1. Narrow crested, and
2. Broad crested.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 1–25 A (ME-Sem-3)
Answer
B F
A E
2 h
C D
L
Fig. 1.19.1.
1–26 A (ME-Sem-3) Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
PART-6
Momentum Equation and its Application to Pipe Bend.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Momentum Equation :
1. This equation is based on the law of conservation of momentum or on
the momentum principle.
2. According to law of conservation of momentum, the net force acting on
a fluid mass is equal to the change in momentum of flow per unit time in
the direction of force.
3. According to Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma
Where, m = Mass of fluid,
a = Acceleration in direction of force, and
F = Force acting on fluid.
dv dv
F= m a
dt dt
d (m v)
F= ( m is constant)
dt
This is known as the momentum principle or momentum equation.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 1–27 A (ME-Sem-3)
B. Uses :
1. This equation is used to determine the force or impulse acting at the
bend in the bend pipes, reducers, moving vanes and jet propulsion etc.
2. This equation is used to determine the characteristics of flow in sudden
enlargement in a pipe.
Answer
1. Consider section x-x and y-y in a bend pipe having pressure,
cross section area and velocity as p1, A1, v1 at x-x section and p2, A2, v2 at
y-y section.
p2, A2, v2 v2
y v2 sin p2A2 cos Fx
Fy v2 cos
y
x p2A2 sin
p1, A1 Fy
At section y-y at pipe bend
v1 Fx
x Fig. 1.21.1.
2. Forces Fx and Fy are acting on the pipe bend due to fluid flow but force
exerted by the pipe bend Fx and Fy are acting in opposite direction.
3. Using impulse momentum equation in X-direction,
d
p1A1 – p2A2 cos – Fx= (mv)
dt
p1A1 – p2A2 cos – Fx= Q (v2 cos – v1)
Where, Q = Mass of fluid flowing per second, and
v2 cos – v1 = Change in velocity in X-direction.
Fx = Q (v1 – v2 cos ) + p1A1 – p2A2 cos
4. Now, using impulse momentum equation in Y-direction,
0 – p2A2 sin – Fy= Q (v2 sin – 0)
Fy = – Q v2 sin – p2A2 sin
5. Now the resultant force FR acting on the bend,
FR = Fx2 Fy2
1–28 A (ME-Sem-3) Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Fy
= tan 1
Fx
Answer
y v
2 = 45°
m x
m
0
15
z2 = 1.5 m
= 45°
d1 = 300 mm
Fig. 1.22.1.
0.4 = (0.3)2 v1 = (0.15)2 v2
4 4
v1 = 5.66 m/s
v2 = 22.64 m/s
2. By applying Bernoulli’s equation,
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 1–29 A (ME-Sem-3)
p1 v12 p v2
z1 = 2 2 z2 hf
g 2 g g 2 g
FR = 17.67 kN
1 Fy
5. We know that, = tan
Fx
6.169
= tan–1 = 20.436°
16.556
Thus, force of 17.67 kN acts on the bend at an angle of 20.436° from inlet
axis.
Answer
A1 v1 1
v2 = × 10 = 20 m/s
A2 0.5
p1 v12 p v 2
= 2 2 ( z1 = z2)
g 2 g g 2 g
p2 2.943 10 4 10 2 20 2
=
g 1.16 9.81 2 9.81 2 9.81
v2 sin 45°
v2
p2A2 sin 45°
45°
2 A2
p2 v2 cos 45°
Fig. 1.23.1.
6. Similarly force along Y-axis, Fy = Q[v1y – v2y] + (p1A1)y + (p2A2)y
Where, v1y = 0, v2y = v2 sin 45° = 20 × 0.7071 = 14.142
(p1A1)y = 0, (p2A2)y = – p2A2 sin 45° = – 29255.8 × 0.5 × 0.7071
= – 10343.39
Fy = 1.16 × 10[0 – 14.142] + 0 – 10343.39
= – 164.05 – 10343.39 = – 10507.44 N
Answer
2
1. Area of pipe, A1 = d = (0.3)2 = 0.071 m2
4 1 4
2
2. Area of nozzle, A2 = d2 × (0.075)2 = 4.418 × 10–3 m2
4 4
3. Applying continuity equation,
A 1 v1 = A 2 v2 = Q
Q 0.15
v1 = = 2.112 m/s
A1 0.071
Q 0.15
v2 = = 33.95 m/s
A2 4.418 10 3
4. We know that,
p1 v12 p v2
z1 = 2 2 z2
g 2 g g 2 g
p1 v12 v2 p
= 2 [ 2 = Atmospheric pressure = 0, z1 = z2]
g 2 g 2g g
p1 v 2 v 12
= 2
g 2g
(33.95)2 (2.112)2 2
p1 = 1000 = 574070.978 N/m
2
5. Net force in direction of x, Fx = Rate of change of momentum in direction x.
p1 A1 – p2 A2 + Fn = Q (v2 – v1)
Where, Fn = Force exerted by fluid on nozzle.
574070.978 × 0.071 – 0 + Fn = 1000 × 0.15 × (33.95 – 2.112)
40759.04 + Fn = 4775.7
Fn = – 35983.34 N
Here negative sign indicates that the force exerted by the nozzle on
water is acting from right to left.
a. Compressibility,
b. Surface tension, and
c. Incompressible flow.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.6, Unit-1.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 2–1 A (ME-Sem-3)
2 Types of Fluid
Flow and
Continuity Equation
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Continuum .................................................... 2–2A to 2–2A
Continuum.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Continuum : A continuous and homogeneous medium is called
‘continuum’.
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. Continuum can be defined as a continuous and homogeneous medium.
2. The continuum concept helps to study the overall behaviour and
properties of fluids without any reference to atomic and molecular
structure.
3. In continuum approach, fluid properties such as density, viscosity,
thermal conductivity, temperature, etc. can be expressed as continuous
functions of space and time.
4. There are factors which are to be considered with great importance in
determining the validity of continuum model. One such factor is the
distance between molecules which is a function of molecular density.
5. The other factor which checks the validity of continuum is the elapsed
time between collisions.
PART-2
Free Molecular Flows – Steady and Unsteady Flows, Uniform and
Non-Uniform Flows, Laminar and Turbulent Flows, Rotational
and Irrotational Flows, Compressible and Incompressible Flows.
Questions-Answers
Answer
a. Steady and Unsteady Flows :
1. Steady flow is that type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like
velocity, pressure, density, etc., at a point do not change with time.
Mathematically,
v p
= 0, = 0, =0
t at fixed point t at fixed point t at fixed point
v p
0, 0, 0
t at fixed point t at fixed point t at fixed point
Example : Flow of liquid through a long pipe of constant diameter at
either increasing or decreasing rate.
b. Laminar and Turbulent Flows :
1. Laminar flow is one in which the fluid particles move along well-defined
paths or stream line and all the stream-lines are straight and parallel.
Example : Flow through a capillary tube.
2. Turbulent flow is that type of flow in which the particles move in a
zig-zag way.
Example : Flow in natural streams, artificial channels, sewers etc.
v
Mathematically, =0
S t = Constant
Where, v = Change of velocity, and
S = Length of flow in the direction S.
Example : Flow through a straight pipe of constant diameter.
2. Non-uniform flow is that type of flow in which the velocity at any given
time changes with respect to space.
v
Mathematically, 0
S t = Constant
Example : Flow around a uniform diameter pipe bend or a canal bend
and flow through a non-prismatic pipe or channel.
PART-3
Subsonic, Sonic and Supersonic Flows, Subcritical, Critical
and Super Critical Flows, One, Two and Three Dimensional Flows.
Questions-Answers
Answer
a. Subsonic, Sonic and Supersonic Flows :
1. When Mach number is less than 1 (M < 1), flow is subsonic flow.
2. When Mach number is equal to 1 (M = 1), flow is sonic flow.
3. When Mach number is greater than 1 (M > 1), flow is supersonic flow.
b. Subcritical, Critical and Supercritical Flows :
1. When Froude number is less than one (Fe < 1), the flow is subcritical flow.
2. When Froude number is equal to one (Fe = 1), the flow is critical flow.
3. When Froude number is greater than one (Fe > 1), the flow is supercritical
flow.
c. One, Two and Three Dimensional Flows :
1. One dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the flow parameter
such as velocity is a function of time and one space co-ordinate only.
Mathematically, u = f(x), v = 0 and w = 0
Where u, v and w are velocity components in x, y and z directions
respectively.
2. Two-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the velocity is a
function of time and two rectangular space co-ordinates.
Mathematically, u = f1(x, y), v = f2(x, y) and w = 0
3. Three-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the velocity is a
function of time and three mutually perpendicular directions.
Mathematically, u = f1(x, y, z), v = f2(x, y, z) and w = f3(x, y, z)
PART-4
Streamlines.
Questions-Answers
Answer
i. Streamlines : A streamline may be defined as an imaginary line within
the flow so that the tangent at any point on it indicates the velocity at
that point.
ii. Path Line : A path line is the path followed by a fluid particle in motion.
A path line shows the direction of particle as it moves ahead.
iii. Streak Line : The streak line is a curve which gives an instantaneous
picture of the location of the fluid particles, which have passed through
a given point.
PART-5
Continuity Equation for 3D and 1D Flow.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Continuity Equation : It is based on the principle of ‘conservation
of mass’. It states that, if no fluid is added or removed from the pipe in
any length then the mass passing across different section shall be
same.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.5. Derive the continuity equation for 1-D fluid flow through
a pipe.
Answer
1. Consider two cross-section of a pipe as shown in Fig. 2.5.1.
2
1
1
2
Fig. 2.5.1. Fluid flow through a pipe.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 2–7 A (ME-Sem-3)
Answer
1. Consider an elementary rectangular parallelopiped with sides of length
x,y and z as shown in Fig. 2.6.1.
Y
C C
B
B
( x, y, z) P
y (uyz)
D D
z
A x A
O X
Z
Fig. 2.6.1. Elementary rectangular parallelopiped.
2. Let the centre of the parallelopiped be at a point P(x, y, z) where the
velocity components in the x, y and z directions are u, v and w respectively
and be the mass density of the fluid.
3. The mass of fluid passing per unit time through the face of area yz
normal to the X-axis through point P is,
(uyz)
2–8 A (ME-Sem-3) Types of Fluid Flow and Continuity Equation
4. Then the mass of fluid flowing per unit time into the parallelopiped
through the face ABCD is,
x
(u y z) (u y z) ...(2.6.1)
x 2
5. Similarly the mass of fluid per unit time out of the parallelopiped through
the face ABCD is,
x
(u y z) (u y z) ...(2.6.2)
x 2
6. Therefore, the net mass of fluid from eq. (2.6.1) and eq. (2.6.2),
x x
(u y z) – x (u y z) 2 (u y z) x (u y z) 2
= (u) x y z
x
7. Similarly the net mass of fluid that remains in the parallelopiped per
unit time
=– (v) x y z, through pair of faces AADD and BBCC
y
=– (w) x y z, through pair of faces DDCC and AABB
z
8. By adding all these expressions the net total mass of fluid that has
remained in the parallelopiped per unit time is obtained as
(u) (v) (w)
– x y z ...(2.6.3)
x y z
9. The mass of the fluid in the paralleopiped is ( x y z) and its rate of
increase with time is
( x y z) = (x y z) ...(2.6.4)
t t
10. According to law of conservation of mass, equating the eq. (2.6.3) and
eq. (2.6.4), we get
(u) (v) (w)
–
x
y
z (x y z) = t (x y z)
(u) (v) (w)
=0 ...(2.6.5)
t x y z
11. Eq. (2.6.5) represents the continuity equation in cartesian coordinates
in its most general form which is applicable for steady as well as unsteady
flow, uniform and non-uniform flow, and compressible as well as
incompressible fluids.
12. For steady flow since, = 0, eq. (2.6.5) reduces to
t
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 2–9 A (ME-Sem-3)
Que 2.7. A 500 mm diameter pipe carrying water at rate 0.5 m3/sec
branches into two pipes of 200 mm and 400 mm diameters. If the rate
of flow of water through small diameter pipe is 0.2 m3/sec. Determine
velocity of flow in each pipe. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Q1 m
0 0m
=2
d1
Q
d = 500 mm
d Q2
2 =4
00
mm
Fig. 2.7.2.
3. Similarly, Q1 = Area of pipe 1 × Velocity
2
Q1 = d v
4 1 1
0.2 = × (0.2)2 × v1
4
v1 = 6.36 m/sec
4. Similarly, Q2 = Area of pipe 2 × Velocity
2–10 A (ME-Sem-3) Types of Fluid Flow and Continuity Equation
2
Q2 = d v
4 2 2
0.3 = × (0.4)2 × v2
4
v2 = 2.38 m/sec
Que 2.8. A jet of water from a 25 mm diameter nozzle is directed
vertically upwards. Assuming that the jet remains circular and
neglecting any loss of energy, what will be the diameter at a point
4.5 m above the nozzle, if the velocity with which the jet leaves the
nozzle is 12 m/s ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
Given : D1 = 25 mm = 0.025 m, v1 = 12 m/s, h = 4.5 m
To Find : Diameter at a point 4.5 m above the nozzle.
1. Consider the vertical motion of the jet from the outlet of the nozzle to
the point A (neglecting any loss of energy)
Initial velocity, u = v1 = 12 m/s
Final velocity, v = v2
3. Using, v2 – u2 = 2gh
v22 – 122 = 2 × (– 9.81) × 4.5
v2 = 122 2 9.81 4.5 144 88.29
= 7.46 m/s
A
Jet of 4.5 m
water
Diameter = 25 mm
Nozzle
Fig. 2.8.1.
4. Now applying continuity equation to the outlet of nozzle and at point A,
A1v1 = A2v2
2
D1 v1
A v (0.025)2 12
A2 = 1 1 4 = 0.0007896 m2
v2 v2 4 7.46
5. Let D2 = Diameter of jet at point A.
Then A2 = (/2) D22
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 2–11 A (ME-Sem-3)
0.0007896 4
D2 = = 0.0317 m = 31.7 mm
Que 2.9. Two velocity components are given in the following
equations, find the third component such that they satisfy the
continuity equation :
u = x3 + y2 + 2z2, v = – x2 y – yz – xy
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05
Answer
PART-6
Circulation
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Circulation : The flow along a closed curve is called circulation.
2–12 A (ME-Sem-3) Types of Fluid Flow and Continuity Equation
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. Let us consider a closed curve in a two-dimensional flow field as shown
in Fig. 2.10.1, the curve being cut by the streamlines.
2. Let P be the point of intersection of the curve with one streamline, be
the angle which the streamline makes with the curve.
3. The component of velocity along the closed curve at the point of
intersection is v cos .
4. Circulation is defined mathematically as the line integral of the
tangential velocity about a closed path (contour).
Thus, = v cos ds
Where, v = Velocity in the flow field at the element ds, and
= Angle between v and tangent to the path (in the positive
anticlockwise direction along the path) at the point.
Streamlines
Tangent to ds
vc
os
P
v
si
n
v
Que 2.11. If the velocity field is given by u = (16y – 8x), v = (8y – 7x)
find the circulation around the closed curve defined by x = 2,
y = 1, x = 4, y = 4.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 2–13 A (ME-Sem-3)
Answer
D C
y=4
A B
y=1
X
Fig. 2.11.1.
PART-7
Stream Function.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Stream Function :
1. Stream function is the scalar function of space and time such that its
partial derivative with respect to any direction gives the velocity
component at right angle to that direction. It is denoted by and defined
only for two dimensional flow.
2. Mathematically, for steady clockwise flow,
= f (x, y) such that
= – v and =u ...(2.12.1)
x y
3. The continuity equation for two-dimensional flow is,
u v
=0 ...(2.12.2)
x y
4. On substituting the values of u and v from eq. (2.12.1) in eq. (2.12.2), we
have
=0
x y y x
2 2
=0
x y x y
The flow may be rotational or irrotational.
5. The rotational component is given by,
1 v u
z =
2 x y
6. Substituting the values of u and v from eq. (2.12.1) in the above rotational
component,
1 1 2 d 2
z =
2 x x y y 2 x 2 y 2
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 2–15 A (ME-Sem-3)
Answer
A. Equation of a Streamline for 2-D Flow :
1. For constant stream function, d = 0
i.e., dx dy = 0
x y
– vdx + udy = 0 v, u
x y
vdx = udy
dx dy
=
u v
2. Above equation represent the equation of a streamline in x-y plane.
B. Discharge between Two Streamlines :
1. Let (x, y) represent the streamline L. The adjacent streamline M has
stream function + d.
2. Let the velocity vector V perpendicular to the line AB has components
u and v in the direction of X and Y axes respectively.
3. From continuity equation,
Flow across AB = Flow across AO + Flow across OB
Vds = – vdx + udy
Negative sign shows that the v is acting in downward direction.
5. Putting v=– ,u= and Vds = dq, we get
x y
dq = d x dy
x y
dq = d
2–16 A (ME-Sem-3) Types of Fluid Flow and Continuity Equation
V
B (x + x , y + y )
v
u M
dy
udy Streamlines
dx
A O
L
(x , y )
–vdx
X
+ d
Fig. 2.13.1. Flow between two points and its relation to stream function.
Answer
1. For equipotential line, d = 0
dx dy = 0
x y
– udx + (–v)dy = 0 u and v
x y
dy u
= Slope of equipotential line
dx v
2. For constant stream function, d= 0
dx dy = 0
x y
– vdx + udy = 0 = v, u
x y
dy v
= Slope of streamline
dx u
3. Now, slope of streamline × slope of equipotential line
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 2–17 A (ME-Sem-3)
v u
= 1
u v
4. The product of the slope of the equipotential line and the slope of the
stream line at the point of intersection is equal to – 1. Thus the
equipotential lines are orthogonal to the streamlines at all points of
intersection.
Que 2.15. Sketch the streamlines represented by = x2 + y2. Also
find out the velocity and its direction at point (1, 2).
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
Given : = x2 + y2
To Find : i. Sketch of streamlines.
ii. Velocity and its direction at point (1, 2).
1. Streamlines given by, = x2 + y2
2. Let = 1, 2, 3 and so on.
Then, we have 1 = x2 + y2
2 = x2 + y2
3 = x2 + y2 and so on.
3. Each equation is an equation of a circle. Thus we shall get concentric
circles of different diameters shown in Fig. 2.15.1.
4. The velocity components u and v are,
u= (x2 + y2) = 2y
y y
v=– (x2 + y2) = – 2x
x x
5. At the point (1, 2), the velocity components are,
u = 2 × 2 = 4 units/s
v = – 2 × 1 = – 2 units/s
Y
3
=
2
y2
1
y2
+
=
x2
y2
+
x2
+
x2
2 units/s
4 units/s
Fig. 2.15.2.
=
20 = 4.47 units/s
v 2 1
7. We know that, tan =
u 4 2
= tan – 1 0.5 = 26° 34
Thus resultant velocity makes an angle of 26° 34 with x-axis in clockwise
direction.
Que 2.16. If for a 2-D potential flow, the velocity potential is given
by = x(2y – 1). Determine the velocity at the point P(4, 5). Determine
also the value of stream function at the point P.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
d = (1 2 y) dy
2 y2
= y – +K
2
= y – y2 + K ...(2.16.3)
The constant of integration K is not a function of y but it can be a
function of x.
6. Differentiating the eq. (2.16.3) w.r.t x,
K
=
x x
But from eq. (2.16.2)
= 2x
x
7. Equating the value of , we get
x
K
= 2x
x
Integrating this equation,
2x2
K= 2xdx = x2
2
8. Substituting this value of K in eq. (2.16.3), we get
= y – y2 + x2.
9. Stream function at P (4, 5) = 5 – 52 + 42 = 5 – 25 + 16 = – 4 units
PART-8
Velocity Potential.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Velocity Potential :
1. The velocity potential is defined as a scalar function of space and time
such that its negative derivative with respect to any direction gives the
fluid velocity in that direction. It is denoted by (phi).
2–20 A (ME-Sem-3) Types of Fluid Flow and Continuity Equation
Answer
1. From velocity potential function,
u=– and v = –
x y
2. Stream function gives, u = and v = –
y x
u=– = and v = – =–
x y x y
3. Hence, =– and
x y y x
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 2–21 A (ME-Sem-3)
Answer
d y3
11. Therefore, =– – 2x + x2y ...(2.19.6)
dx 3
x3
= – xy2 + 2y + ...(2.19.7)
y 3
12. Integrating eq. (2.19.6) w.r.t x, we get
y3 x x3 y
= – x2 C ...(2.19.8)
3 3
Where, C is a constant of integration which is independent of x but can
be function of y.
13. Differentiating eq. (2.19.8) wrt y, we get
x 3 C
= – y 2x + ...(2.19.9)
y 3 y
14. Comparing the values of from eq. (2.19.7) and eq. (2.19.9), we get
y
C
= 2y
y
C = y2
15. Substituting this value of C in eq. (2.19.8), we get
x3 y xy3
= x 2 y2
3 3
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 2–23 A (ME-Sem-3)
v = 10 x 2 y iˆ 15 xy jˆ (25t – 3 xy) kˆ
Find acceleration at (1, 2, – 1) m and t = 0.5 sec.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07
Answer
^ ^ ^
Given : v = 10x2y i + 15xy j + (25t – 3xy) k
To Find : Acceleration at (1, 2, – 1) m and t = 0.5 sec.
1. The velocity components u, v and w are,
u = 10x2y, v = 15xy, w = 25t – 3xy
2. Acceleration is given by,
u u u u
ax = u v w ...(2.20.1)
x y z t
v v v v
ay = u v w ...(2.20.2)
x y z t
w w w w
az = u v w ...(2.20.3)
x y z t
3. Now from velocity component, we get
u u u u
= 20xy, 10 x 2 , 0 and =0
x y z t
v v v v
= 15y, 15 x, 0 and =0
x y z t
w w w w
= – 3y, 3 x, 0 and = 25
x y z t
4. Substituting these values in eq. (2.20.1), eq. (2.20.2) and eq. (2.20.3), we
get
ax = 10x2y (20xy) + 15xy (10x2) + (25t – 3xy) (0) + 0
= 200x3y2 + 150x3y
ay = 10x2y (15y) + 15xy (15x) + (25t – 3xy) (0) + 0
= 150x2y2 + 225 x2y
az = 10x2y(– 3y) + 15xy (– 3x) + (25t – 3xy) (0) + 25
= – 30x2y2 – 45x2y + 25
5. Acceleration component at (1, 2, – 1) m and t = 0.5 sec,
ax = 200 (1)3 (2)2 + 150 (1)3 (2) = 800 + 300 = 1100
ay = 150 (1)2 (2)2 + 225 (1)2 (2) = 600 + 450 = 1050
az = – 30 (1)2 (2)2 – 45 (1)2 (2) + 25 = – 120 – 90 + 25 = – 185
2–24 A (ME-Sem-3) Types of Fluid Flow and Continuity Equation
PART-9
Buckingham’s-Pi Theorem.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Dimensional Analysis : It is a mathematical technique which makes
use of the study of dimensions for solving several engineering
problems.
-terms : The dimensionless terms used in Buckingham’s-pi theorem
are called -terms.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Buckingham-Pi Theorem :
1. This theorem states that if there are n variables (independent and
dependent variables) in a physical phenomenon and if these variables
contain m fundamental dimensions (M, L, T), then the variables are
arranged into (n – m) dimensionless terms.
B. Buckingham’s-PiMethod :
1. If there are n variables (both independent and dependent) in a physical
phenomenon and the variables contain m fundamental dimensions
(M, L, T), then the variables are arranged into (n – m) dimensionless
terms. Each term is called a -term.
2. Let Vd, V1, V2, V3 .... Vn are the variables involved in a physical problem.
3. Let Vd be the dependent variable and V1, V2 ... Vn are the independent
variables on which Vd depends. Then Vd is a function of V1, V2 ... Vn and
mathematically it is expressed as,
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 2–25 A (ME-Sem-3)
Answer
Answer
Q
1 =
H 5/ 2 g1/ 2
8. 2-term : 2 = Ha2 gb2 c2
Substituting the dimensions on both sides,
M0L0T0 = [L]a2 [LT – 2]b2 [ML– 3]c2 [M0L0T0]
M0L0T0 = Mc2L(a2 + b2 – 3c2) T – 2b2
Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides,
Power of M, 0 = c 2, c2 = 0
Power of T, 0 = – 2b2, b2 = 0
Power of L, 0 = a2+ b2 – 3c2, a2 = 0
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 2–29 A (ME-Sem-3)
3 =
H gH
10. 4-term : 4 = Ha4 gb4 c4
Substituting the dimensions on both sides,
M0L0T0 = [L]a4 [LT – 2]b4 [ML– 3]c4 [MT– 2]
M0L0T0 = M(c4 + 1)L(a4 + b4 – 3c4) T (– 2b4 – 2)
Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides,
Power of M, 0 = c4 + 1, c4 = – 1
Power of T, 0 = – 2b4 – 2, b4 = – 1
Power of L, 0 = a4+ b4 – 3c4, a4 = – 2
On substituting the values of a4, b4 and c4 in 4 term, we have
4 = H – 2g – 1 – 1
4 =
H 2 g
11. Substituting the values of 1, 2, 3 and 4 in eq. (2.23.1), we have
Q
f1 5/ 2 1/ 2 , , , 2 =0
H g H gH H g
Q = H 5/ 2 g1/ 2 f , ,
H gH H 2 g
2–30 A (ME-Sem-3) Types of Fluid Flow and Continuity Equation
Answer
Same as Q. 2.22, Page 2–25A, Unit-2.
Que 2.25. The pressure drop ‘p’ in a pipe of diameter ‘D’ and
length ‘L’ due to viscous flow depends on the velocity ‘v’, dynamic
vis cosity ‘ ’, average height ‘k’ and mass dens ity ‘’ using
Buckingham’s theorem obtain expression for ‘p’.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05
Answer
Same as Q. 2.23, Page 2–27A, Unit-2.
2 l k
Answer : p v , ,
D v D D
PART-10
Important Dimensional Numbers and their Significance.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Dimensionless Numbers : Dimensionless numbers are the ratio of
inertia force and a force, which may be a viscous force, gravity force,
pressure force, surface tension force or elastic force.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 2–31 A (ME-Sem-3)
Inertia force
Reynold’s number, (Re) =
Viscous force
2. Inertia force = Mass × Acceleration
Velocity
= Density × Volume ×
Time
= Av × v =Av2
{ Volume per time = Area × Velocity = Av}
Viscous force (Fv) = Shear stress × Area =× A
du v
= ×A= A
dy L
vL vd
Re = or (for pipe flow)
i. Significance :
1. Reynold’s number is used to determine whether the flow is laminar
or turbulent.
2. Reynold’s number signifies the relative predominance of the inertia
to the viscous forces occurring in the flow systems.
ii. Applications :
1. Motion of submarine completely under water.
2. Incompressible flow through pipes of smaller size.
3. Flow through low speed turbo machines.
b. Froude’s Number :
1. It is the square root of the ratio of inertia force to the gravity force of
a flowing fluid. It is denoted by Fe.
Fi
Mathematically, Fe =
Fg
Av2
Fe =
ALg
v
Fe =
Lg
i. Significance :
1. It signifies the dynamic similarity of the flow situation where
gravitational force (Fg) is most significant.
2. Froude number differentiates the super critical, subcritical and
critical flow.
ii. Applications :
1. Flow over notches and weir.
2. Flow over the spillway of a dam.
3. Flow through open channels.
4. Motion of ship in rough and turbulent sea.
c. Euler’s Number (Eu) :
1. It is the square root of the ratio of the inertia force to the pressure
force of a flowing fluid.
Fi
Mathematically, Eu =
Fp
Av 2 v
Eu =
pA p/
i. Significance :
1. It signifies those flow problems or situations in which pressure
gradient exists.
ii. Applications :
1. Discharge through orifice and mouth piece.
2. Pressure rise due to sudden closure of valves.
3. Flow through pipes.
4. Water hammer created in penstocks.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 2–33 A (ME-Sem-3)
Fi
Mathematically, We =
Fs
2. Inertia force (Fi) = Av 2
Surface tension force (F s) = Surface tension pe r unit length
× length = L
Av2
We = {A = L2}
L
L2 v 2 L v2 v2 v
=
L / L / (L)
i. Significance :
1. It signifies those flow problems in which surface tension force is
dominant.
ii. Applications : It is applicable in following situations :
1. Capillary movement.
2. Flow of blood in veins and arteries.
3. Liquid atomization.
e. Mach Number (M) :
1. It is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force to the elastic
force.
Fi
Mathematically, M=
Fe
2. Inertia force (Fi) = Av 2
Elastic force (Fe) = KA = KL2 ( Area = L2)
Av 2 v v
M= =
KL2 K / C
K
Where, = C (Velocity of sound in the fluid)
i. Significance :
1. Mach number is used to differentiate the flow as subsonic flow,
sonic flow and supersonic flow.
2–34 A (ME-Sem-3) Types of Fluid Flow and Continuity Equation
ii. Applications :
1. High velocity flow in pipes.
2. Motion of missiles or high speed projectiles.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–1 A (ME-Sem-3)
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Equation of Motion for Laminar .............. 3–3A to 3–9A
Flow through Pipes
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Characteristics of Laminar Flow :
1. Laminar flow obeys Newton’s law of viscosity.
2. The laminar flow is rotational.
3. No slip will occur at the boundary of laminar flow.
4. There will be no mixing of layers occur in laminar flow.
5. For laminar flow, Reynold’s number < 2000.
B. Derivation for Velocity and Shear Stress Distribution :
1. Let us consider a horizontal pipe having diameter d and radius R.
2. Direction of fluid is shown in Fig. 3.1.1.
3. Take a fluid element in between the radius r and r + dr and length of the
fluid element be x.
4. If p is the pressure on the face AB, then pressure on face CD will be
p
p x .
x
2 r x
Direction r D dr
R A
of flow r R
x
B C
x p 2
2 p+ x r
p r (a) x (b )
Fig. 3.1.1.
3–4 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
2 p 2 p
= pr p x r = xr 2
x x
6. The shear force acting on the surface AD and BC
= – 2rx (opposite to the direction of flow)
a. For Shear Stress Distribution :
1. w F = 0
p
xr 2 2rx = 0
x
p
r = –2
x
r p
Shear stress, = ...(3.1.1)
2 x
2. At r = R,
R p
Wall shear stress, w =
2 x
p
3. As = Constant, so r
x
du r p
=
dr 2 x
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–5 A (ME-Sem-3)
du 1 p
= r
dr 2 x
1 p p 1
du = rdr and are constants
2 x x 2
6. On integrating both the sides,
1 p 2
u= r
4 x
7. For r = R, u = 0 and r = r, u = u
0 1 p R
Now, uu = 4 x r 2 r
1 p 2
–u = [ R r2 ]
4 x
1 p 2
u= [ R r2 ]
4 x
Que 3.2. Prove that the maximum velocity in a circular pipe for
viscous flow is equal to two times the average velocity of flow.
Answer
1 p 2
1. We know that, umax. = R
4 x
2. Discharge through an elemental ring of radius r,
dQ = Velocity at a radius r × Area of ring element
= u × 2r dr
1 p 2
= [ R r 2 ] (2r dr)
4 x
R 1 p 2
3. Total discharge, Q= dQ [ R r 2 ] (2r dr)
0 4 x
3–6 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
R
2 p R 2 p 2 r 2 r 4
= r ( R2 r 2 ) dr = R
4 x 0 4 x 2 4 0
2 p R4
=
4 x 4
2 p R4
4 x 4 1 p 2
Q
4. Now, u= = = R
R2 R2 8 x
5. Ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity,
1 p 2
R
umax. 4 x
= =2
u 1 p 2
R
8 x
So, ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity will be equal to 2.
Que 3.3. Prove that for laminar flow through a circular pipe,
energy correction factor () = 2.
Answer
Velocity distribution
dr
Direction of R
flow r
u
2
dA = 2 rdr A = R
Fig. 3.3.1.
1. Kinetic energy per second of the fluid flowing through an elementary
ring of radius r and of width dr,
1
KE = × Mass per second × u2
2
1
= dQu2 [ Mass per second = dQ]
2
1
= (u 2r dr ) u2 [ dQ = u × 2rdr]
2
= ru3 dr
2. Total actual kinetic energy of flow per sec
R
= r u3 dr
0
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–7 A (ME-Sem-3)
1 p 2 2
3. On putting, u = ( R r ) , we have
4 x
Total KE per second,
3
R 1 p
= ( R2 r 2 ) r dr
0
4 x
3
1 p R
= [ R2 r 2 ]3 r dr
4 x 0
3
1 p R
= ( R6 r r 7 3 R4 r 3 3 R2r 5 ) dr
4 x 0
3 R
1 p r2 r8 r4 r6
= R6 3 R4 3 R2
4 x 2 8 4 6 0
3
p R8 R8 3 R8 3 R6
= –
64 3 x 2 8 4 6
3 3
p 8 12 3 18 12 p R8
= 3 R =
64 x 24 64 3 x 8
4. Kinetic energy of the flow for average velocity per second
1 Mass 2 1
u = 2 Au u
2
=
2 Sec
(Mass per second = Area × Density × Average velocity)
1
= Au 3
2
1 p 2
5. On putting, A = R2, and u = R , we have
8 x
KE of the flow per second for average velocity
3 3
1 1 p 1 p R8
= R2 R2 =
2 8 x 2 643 x 8
6. Energy correction factor,
KE of flow / s for actual velocity
=
KE of flow / s for average velocity
3
p R8
643 x 8
= 3
=2
1 p R8
2 643 x 8
3–8 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
Answer
Que 3.5. Find the loss of head due to friction and power required
to pump an oil of specific gravity 0.85 and absolute viscosity
1.5 poise through a 25 cm diameter and 10 km long pipe laid at a
slope of 1 in 200. The rate of flow of oil is 0.022 m3/s.
Answer
L
00
n2
1i
Q
P Fig. 3.5.1.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–9 A (ME-Sem-3)
Given : Specific gravity of oil = 0.85, o= 0.85 × 1000 = 850 kg/m3
1.5
o = 1.5 poise = = 0.15 N-s/m2, d = 25 cm = 0.25 m
10
1
L = 10 km = 10000 m, tan= ,Q = 0.022 m3/s
200
To Find : i. Loss of head due to friction.
ii. Power required to pump the oil.
Q 0.022 0.022 4
1. Velocity of flow, v= =
A 2
d (0.25)2
4
v = 0.448 m/s
o v d
2. Reynold’s number, Re =
0.25
Re = 850 × 0.448 × = 634.67
0.15
This value is less than 2000. Hence, flow is laminar.
1 1
3. From PQR, tan = sin
200 200
(As is very small so sin = tan )
RQ
sin =
PR
1
RQ = PR sin 10000 = 50 m
200
4. Loss of head due to friction in pipe is given as,
32 o uL
p1 – p2 = o gh (h = RQ and u = v)
d2
32 0.15 0.448 10000
= + (850 × 9.81 × 50)
(0.25)2
p1 – p2 = 344064 + 416925 = 760989 N/m2
p1 p2
5. Head loss =
o g
760989
hf = = 91.26 m
850 9.81
6. Weight of oil flowing per second,
w = o gQ
= 850 × 9.81 × 0.022 = 183.447 N/s
7. Power required to pump the oil = w hf
= 91.26 × 183.447 = 16741.37 W
3–10 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
PART-2
Turbulent Flow.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.6. What is turbulent flow ? Write down the various types
of turbulence.
Answer
A. Turbulent Flow :
1. In a pipe, turbulent flow occurs when Re > 4000.
2. In a turbulent flow, the fluid motion is irregular and there is complete
mixing of fluid due to collision of fluid masses with one another.
3. As the fluid masses in adjacent layers have different velocities,
interchange of fluid masses between the adjacent layers is accompanied
by a transfer of momentum which causes additional shear stresses of
high magnitude between adjacent layers.
4. The contribution of fluid viscosity to total shear is small and is usually
neglected.
B. Types of Turbulence : The turbulence can be classified as follows :
i. Wall Turbulence : It occurs in immediate vicinity of solid surfaces
and in the boundary layer flows, where the fluid has a negligible
mean acceleration.
ii. Free Turbulence : It occurs in jets, wakes, mixing layers etc.
iii. Convective Turbulence : It takes place where there is conversion
of PE into KE by the process of mixing.
PART-3
Isotropic, Homogeneous Turbulence.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Homogeneous Turbulence :
1. If the turbulence has the same structure quantitatively in all parts of
the flow field, the turbulence is said to be homogeneous.
2. The term homogeneous turbulence implies that the velocity fluctuations
in the system are random. The average turbulent characteristics are
independent of the position in the fluid, i.e., invariant to axis translation.
B. Isotropic Turbulence :
1. Turbulence is called isotropic if its statistical features have no directional
preference and perfect disorder persists. Its velocity fluctuations are
independent of the axis of reference, i.e. invariant to axis rotation and
reflection.
2. In isotropic turbulence, fluctuations are independent of the direction of
reference.
PART-4
Scale and Intensity of Turbulence.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Turbulence Length Scale :
1. The turbulence length scale, l is a physical quantity describing the size
of the large energy containing eddies in a turbulent flow.
2. The turbulent length scale is often used to estimate the turbulent
properties of the given problem.
3. The turbulent length scale should normally not be larger than the
dimension of the problem, since that would mean that the turbulent
eddies are larger than the problem size.
B. Turbulence Intensity :
1. Turbulence intensity is a scale characterizing turbulence expressed as a
percent.
3–12 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
PART-5
Measurement of Turbulence.
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. A hot-wire anemometer is an instrument which is commonly used for
measuring the velocity of flow of a compressible fluid such as gas.
2. The anemometer consists of a platinum, nickel or tungsten wire of
about 5 × 10–3 to 8 × 10–3 mm diameter and 16 mm length.
3. The wire is mounted on the ends of two pointed prongs.
4. In the arrangement shown in Fig. 3.9.1(a), constant current is passed
through wire by keeping the voltage across the bridge.
5. As the air or gas flows the hot-wire cools, its resistance changes and the
galvanometer deflects.
6. The galvanometer deflection is correlated with the velocity of flow of air
or gas by calibration. It is then termed as constant current hot-wire
anemometer.
7. Fig. 3.9.1(b) illustrates another arrangement for hot-wire anemometer
which is termed as constant temperature (or constant-resistance)
hot-wire anemometer.
8. Initially when there is no flow and hot-wire is in contact with air or gas
at rest, a small current is passed through hot-wire.
9. As the air or gas flows past hot-wire, its temperature and hence its
resistance will vary, which will cause the galvanometer needle to deflect
from zero reading.
10. Now by adjusting the variable resistance B the current passing through
hot-wire is suitably adjusted so that its temperature and hence the
resistance is maintained constant and the galvanometer reading is
brought back to zero.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–13 A (ME-Sem-3)
Flow Flow
Hot-wire Hot-wire
Voltmeter
R1 R1
D G D G C
C
R2 R3 R2 R3
B B
A A
(a) (b )
Fig. 3.9.1. (a ) Constant-current hot-wire anemometer,
(b) Constant-temperature hot-wire anemometer.
11. The reading of the voltmeter connected across hot-wire will change
which may be noted.
PART-6
Eddy Viscosity.
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. The viscosity which accounts for momentum transport by turbulence
eddies is known as eddy viscosity.
2. Similar to the expression for viscous shear, turbulent shear in
mathematical form is expressed as,
du
t =
dy
Where, t = Shear stress due to turbulence,
= Eddy viscosity, and
u = Average velocity at a distance y from boundary.
3. The ratio of (eddy viscosity) and (mass density) is known as kinematic
eddy viscosity and is denoted by (epsilon).
Mathematically, = /
3–14 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
PART-7
Resistance to Flow, Minor Losses.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Resistance to Flow :
1. When water flows in a pipe, it experiences some resistance to its motion,
due to which its velocity and ultimately the head of water available
reduced. This resistance is known as resistance to flow.
2. These resistance are due to :
i. Friction, ii. Sudden enlargement of pipe,
iii. Sudden contraction of pipe, iv. Bend of pipe,
v. An obstruction in pipe, and vi. Pipe fittings.
B. Major Losses or Loss of Energy or Head due to Friction :
a. Darcy - Weisbach Formula for Head Loss due to Friction :
4 fLv 2
1. The equation is, hf =
2g d
Where, hf = Loss of head due to friction,
f = Coefficient of friction and it is a function of
Reynold’s number
16
= for Re < 2000 (laminar flow)
Re
0.079
= for Re varying from 4000 to 106
Re1/ 4
L = Length of pipe,
v = Mean velocity of flow, and
d = Diameter of pipe.
b. Chezy’s Formula for Loss of Head due to Friction in Pipes :
f P
1. The equation is, hf = L v2
g A
Where, P = Wetted perimeter of pipe, and
A = Area of cross section of pipe.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–15 A (ME-Sem-3)
A Area of flow
2. The ratio of is called hydraulic mean
P Perimeter (wetted)
depth or hydraulic radius and is denoted by m.
C. Minor Energy or Head Losses :
1. The loss of energy due to change of velocity of the flowing fluid in
magnitude or direction is called minor loss of energy.
2. The minor loss of energy includes the following :
a. Loss of Head due to Sudden Enlargement :
(2)
(1)
v1 p1A1 p2A2
v2
(1)
(2)
Fig. 3.11.1.
(v1 v2 )2
he =
2g
b. Loss of Head due to Sudden Contraction :
2
v22 1 v 22 v2
hc = 1 K = 0.5 2
2 g Cc 2g 2g
2
1
Where, K = 1
C
c
1
c 2
p1A1 p2A2
c 2
1 Fig. 3.11.2.
c. Loss of Head at the Entrance of a Pipe :
1. This type of loss occurs when a liquid enters a pipe which is connected
to a large tank or reservoir.
2. Loss of head at the entrance (or inlet) of a pipe with sharp cornered
v2
entrance is taken as 0.5 .
2g
Where, v = Velocity of liquid in pipe.
3–16 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
1 2
Fig. 3.11.3.
2
v2 A
ho = 1
2 g Cc ( A a)
Where, a = Maximum area of obstruction,
A = Area of pipe, and
Cc = Coefficient of contraction.
f. Loss of Head in Pipe due to Bend :
Kv 2
hb =
2g
Where, hb= Loss of head due to bend,
v = Velocity of flow, and
K = Coefficient of bend.
Answer
Given : L1 = 0.3 m, d1 = 0.2 m, f1 = 0.018, d2 = 0.15 m, f2 = 0.02
To Find : Length of the pipe.
1. Here, hf1 = hf2
4 f1 L1 v12 4 f2 L2 v2 2
=
2 gd1 2 gd2
0.018 0.3 v12 0.02 L2 v 22
=
0.2 0.15
v1 0.02 L2 0.2
= = 4.94 L2 ...(3.12.1)
v2 0.018 0.3 0.15
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–17 A (ME-Sem-3)
4.94 L2 = 0.5625
L2 = 0.064 m
So, the length of the pipe to be provided = 0.064 m
PART-8
Pipes in Series and Parallel.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.13. Derive the head loss expressions for the pipes in series
and parallel.
Answer
A. Pipes in Series :
1. Let, L1, L2, L3 = Length of pipes 1, 2, and 3 respectively,
d1, d2, d3 = Diameter of pipes 1, 2, and 3 respectively,
A
H
L1,d 1
B
L 2,d 2
f1,v1
f2,v2 L 3,d 3
f3,v3
Fig. 3.13.1.
v1, v2, v3 = Velocity of flow through pipes 1, 2, and 3,
f1, f2, f3 = Coefficient of friction for pipes 1, 2, and 3,
H = Difference of water level in two tanks.
3–18 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
2. Pipes are in series, as shown in Fig. 3.13.1, hence the discharge passing
through each pipe is same.
Q = A 1 v1 = A 2 v2 = A 3 v3
3. The difference in liquid surface levels is equal to the sum of the total
head loss in the pipes.
2
0.5v12 4 f1 L1 v12 0.5v 22 4 f2 L2 v22 v2 v3 4 f L v 2 v2
H= 3 3 3 2
2g d1 2 g 2g d2 2 g 2g d3 2 g 2 g
...(3.13.1)
4. If minor losses are neglected, then the eq. (3.13.1) becomes,
4 f1 L1 v12 4 f2 L2 v 22 4 f3 L3 v32
H= ...(3.13.2)
d1 2 g d2 2 g d3 2 g
5. If the coefficient of friction is same for all pipes, i.e., f1 = f2 = f3 = f, then
eq. (3.13.2) becomes as,
4 f L1 v12 L2 v22 L3 v32
H= ...(3.13.3)
2 g d1 d2 d3
B. Pipes in Parallel :
1. The pipes are said to be in parallel (Fig. 3.13.2) when a main line divides
into two or more parallel pipes which again join together downstream
and continues as a main line.
2. It may be seen from Fig. 3.13.2, the rate of discharge in the main line is
equal to the sum of rate of flow through branch pipes.
Thus, Q = Q1 + Q2 ...(3.13.4)
Pipe 1
d1, L1, v1,
Q1
Main line
Direction Q Q
of flow
A B
Q2
d 2, L 2, v2,
Pipe 2
Fig. 3.13.2.
3. When the pipes are arranged in parallel, the loss of head in each pipe
(branch) is same.
Loss of head in pipe 1 = Loss of head in pipe 2
4 f1 L1 v12 4 f2 L2 v22
or hf =
d1 2 g d2 2 g
When, f1 = f2, then ...(3.13.5)
L1 v12 L v2
= 2 2 ...(3.13.6)
d1 d2
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–19 A (ME-Sem-3)
Answer
Given : L1 = 1800 m, d1 = 0.50 m, L2 = 1200 m, d2 = 0.40 m
L3 = 600 m, d3 = 0.30 m
To Find : a. Equivalent length of 0.40 m pipe.
b. Equivalent size pipe of 3600 m long.
1. From equivalent pipe size equation,
L1 L2 L3 L
= 5
d15 d25 d35 d
L 1800 1200 600
=
d5 0.505 0.405 0.305
L
= 421701.08 ...(3.14.1)
d5
2. Equivalent length of 0.40 m pipe,
Putting d = 0.40 m in eq. (3.14.1), we get
L = 4318.22 m
3. Equivalent size of 3600 m long pipe,
Putting L = 3600 m in eq. (3.14.1), we get
d = 0.3857 m
PART-9
Power Transmission through a Pipe.
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. Consider a tank and pipe connected system as shown in Fig. 3.15.1.
2. Let, H = Head of water at inlet of pipe,
L = Length of pipe,
d = Diameter of pipe,
v = Velocity of water in pipe,
f = Coefficient of friction, and
3–20 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
H
A B
v d
L
Fig. 3.15.1.
3. The head available at outlet of pipe
= Total head at inlet – Head loss due to friction in pipe
4 fLv 2 4 fLv 2
= H – hf = H – hf
d 2g 2 dg
4. Weight of water flowing through pipe per second,
W = g × Volume of water per sec
2
= g × Area × Velocity = g dv
4
5. Power transmitted at outlet of pipe
= Weight of water per sec × head at outlet
2 4 fLv 2
= g d v H Watts
4 d 2 g
Que 3.16. A pipe of diameter 300 mm and length 3500 m is used for
the transmission of power by water. The total head at the inlet of
the pipe is 500 m. Find the maximum power available at the outlet, if
the value of f = 0.006. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
3. Discharge, Q = vA = 3.42 ×× (0.3)2 = 0.242 m3/s
4
4. Maximum power transmitted = gQH2
1000
= 1000 × 9.81 × 0.242 × = 791.34 kW
3
PART-10
Syphon, Water Hammer.
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. Syphon is a long bent pipe employed for carrying water from a reservoir
at a higher elevation to another reservoir to a lower elevation when
the two reservoirs are separated by a hill or high level ground in
between as shown in Fig. 3.17.1
Summit
S
h e g
A t-l
nle
I
Ou
tle
Reservoir Syphon
t-le
g
Reservoir
Fig. 3.17.1.
Answer
A. Water Hammer :
1. In a long pipe, when flowing water is suddenly brought to rest by closing
the valve or by any similar cause, there will be a sudden rise in pressure
due to the momentum of water being destroyed. This phenomenon of
sudden rise in pressure is known as water hammer or hammer blow.
2. A sudden rise in pressure has the effect of hammering action on the
walls of the pipe.
H B
A Valve
v
Fig. 3.18.1.
B. Expression for the Rise of Pressure :
The following cases of water hammer in pipes will be considered :
a. Gradual Closure of Valve :
1. Let, A = Area of cross section of the pipe AB,
L = Length of pipe,
v = Velocity of flow of water through pipe,
t = Time (in second) required to close the valve, and
p = Intensity of pressure wave produced.
2. Mass of water in pipe AB = × Volume of water = AL
3. The valve is gradually closed in time ‘t’ seconds and hence the water is
brought from initial velocity v to zero velocity in time ‘t’ seconds.
4. Retardation of water
C hange of velocity v 0 v
=
T ime t t
v
5. Retarding force = Mass × Retardation = AL ...(3.18.1)
t
6. If p is the intensity of pressure wave produced due to closure of the
valve, the force due to pressure wave
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–23 A (ME-Sem-3)
PART-11
Pipe Networks and Three Reservoir Problems.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Pipe Network :
1. A pipe network is a system in which many pipes are interconnected and
they form several loops or circuits of pipes.
2. Example :
a. Water supply system in a city is the very commonly used pipe
network system.
b. Supply of steam from boiler to other machineries is done by pipe
network system, etc.
Flow A F E
in
Junction
(node) H
G
Fl
(Node) ow
B C D ou
t
Fig. 3.19.1. Pipe network.
Answer
re
/s L
d = 50
3
3= zB = 45 m
20 0 m G
zD 0
m
m
C
Datum line
zC
Fig. 3.20.1.
PART-12
Boundary Layer Thickness.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Boundary Layer Thickness : It is defined as the distance from the
boundary in which the velocity reaches 99 percent of the velocity of
free stream i.e., u = 0.99 U. It is denoted by .
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. When a real fluid flow over a solid wall, the fluid particles closed to the
boundary get adhered to the boundary and as a result of this condition
no slip occurs.
2. In other words the velocity of fluid close to the boundary will be the
same as that of the boundary.
3. As we move farther away from the boundary, the velocity will be higher
du
and as a result of this variation of velocity, the velocity gradient will
dy
exist.
4. Thus the velocity of fluid increases from zero velocity on the stationary
boundary to free-stream velocity (U) of the fluid in the direction normal
to the boundary.
5. The variation of velocity from zero to free stream velocity in the direction
normal to the boundary takes place in a narrow region in the vicinity of
solid boundary.
6. This narrow region of the fluid is called boundary layer.
u Boundary layer
Region 2
Region 1
U
Solid
body
Fig. 3.21.1.
7. Hence the flow of fluid in the neighbourhood of the solid boundary may
be divided into following two regions :
a. Region 1 :
1 A very thin layer of the fluid called the boundary layer, in the
immediate neighbourhood of the solid boundary, where the
variation of velocity from zero at the solid boundary to the free
stream velocity in the direction normal to the boundary takes place.
du
2. In this region, the velocity gradient exists and hence the fluid
dy
exerts a shear stress on the wall (wall shear) in the direction of
motion.
3. The value of shear stress is given by,
du
=
dy
3–28 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
b. Region 2 :
1. The remaining fluid, which is outside the boundary layer. The
velocity outside the boundary layer is constant and equal to free
stream velocity.
2. As there is no variation of velocity in this region the velocity
du
gradient becomes zero. As a result of this the shear stress is
dy
zero.
Answer
a. Displacement Thickness :
1. It can be defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary
by which the main/free stream is displaced on account of formation of
boundary layer. It is denoted by *.
Boundary layer U
dy u = 0.99U Velocity
distribution
U
y
Stationary plate
Fig. 3.22.1. Displacement thickness.
2. Let fluid of density flow past a stationary plate with velocity U as
shown in Fig. 3.22.1.
3. Consider an elementary strip of thickness dy at a distance y from the
plate.
4. Mass flow per second through the elementary strip = udy
5. Mass flow per second through elementary strip, if the plate was not
there = Udy
6. Reduction of mass flow rate through elementary strip
= (U – u) dy
7. Total reduction of mass flow rate due to introduction of plate
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–29 A (ME-Sem-3)
= (U u) dy ...(3.22.1)
0
8. Let the plate is displaced by a distance * and velocity of flow for the
distance * is equal to the main/free stream velocity. Then, loss of mass
of fluid/sec flowing through the distance *
= U* ...(3.22.2)
9. On equating eq. (3.22.1) and eq. (3.22.2), we get
U* = (U u) dy
0
u
* = 1 U dy
0
b. Momentum Thickness :
1. It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of
the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate
for the reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on account of
boundary layer formation. It is denoted by .
2. Mass of flow per second through elementary strip = udy
3. Momentum/sec of this fluid inside the boundary layer
= udy × u = u2dy
4. Momentum/sec of the same mass of fluid before entering the boundary
layer = uUdy
5. Loss of momentum/sec = uUdy – u2dy = u(U – u) dy
6. Total loss of momentum/sec = u(U u)dy ...(3.22.3)
0
7. Let be the distance by which plate is displaced when fluid is flowing
with a constant velocity U. Then, loss of momentum/sec of fluid flowing
through distance with a velocity U
= U 2 ...(3.22.4)
8. On equating eq. (3.22.3) and eq. (3.22.4), we get
U2 = u(U u)dy
0
u u
= U 1 U dy
0
c. Energy Thickness :
1. It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of
the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate
for the reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid on account of
boundary layer formation. It is denoted by e. or **
2. Mass of flow per second through elementary strip = udy
3–30 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
Answer
2
u y y
Given : 2
U
To Find : Energy thickness **
1. Energy thickness ** is given as,
2
u u2 2y y2 2 y y2
** = 1 2 dy 2 1 2 dy
0 U U 0
2 y y2
4 y2 y4 4 y3
= 2 1 2 4 3 dy
0
2 2 4
2y y 4y y 4 y3
= 2 1 2 4 3 dy
0
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–31 A (ME-Sem-3)
2 y 8 y3 2 y5 8 y4 y2 4 y 4 y6 4 y5
= 3 5 4 2 4 6 5 dy
0
2 y y2 8 y3 12 y4 6 y5 y6
= 0 2 3 4 5 6 dy
2 3 4 5 6 7
= 2 y y 2 8 y3 12 y4 6 y5 y 6
2 3 4 5 6 7 0
2 3 2 4 12 5 6 7 12
= 2 3 4
5 6 2
3 5 7 3 5 7
12 210 35 252 15 22
= 2 =
3 5 7 105 105
Answer
u y
Given : = sin
U 2
To Find : i. Displacement thickness.
ii. Momentum thickness.
1. Displacement thickness, * :
u
* = 1 U dy
0
y
* = 1 sin 2 dy
0
y
cos
2
* = y
1
2 0
2
* =
2
* =
3–32 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
2. Momentum thickness, :
u u
= 1 U dy
0
U
y y
= sin 2 1 sin 2 dy
0
y 2 y
= sin 2 sin 2 dy
0
=
0
y
1 cos { ( y / )}
sin 2 2
2
dy
y y
cos 2 1 sin
= y
2 2
2 0
cos 2 1 sin () cos (0) sin (0)
= 0
2 2 2
2
2
2 2 2 1
= = =
2 2 2
Que 3.25. Find the displacement thickness for velocity distribution
Answer
2
u
Given : = 2 y – y
U
To Find : Displacement thickness.
1. Displacement thickness * is given by,
u
* = 1 – dy
0
U
2
y y
* = 1 – 2 – dy
0
2
y y 2 y2 y3
= 1 – 2 dy = y – 2
0
2 3 0
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–33 A (ME-Sem-3)
2 3
= – 2 = –
3 3 3
PART-13
Boundary Layer over a Flat Plate, Laminar Boundary Layer,
Application of Momentum Equation, Turbulent Boundary Layer,
Laminar Sub-Layer.
Questions-Answers
Answer
6. The fluid with a uniform free stream velocity (U) is retarded in the
vicinity of the solid surface of the plate and the boundary layer region
begins at the sharp leading edge.
7. At subsequent points downstream the leading edge, the boundary layer
region increases because the retarded fluid is further retarded. This is
also referred as the growth of boundary layer.
8. Near the leading edge of the surface of the plate, where the thickness is
small, the flow in the boundary layer is laminar though the main flow is
turbulent.
9. This layer of the fluid is said to be laminar boundary layer shown by AE
in Fig. 3.26.1. The length of the plate from the leading edge, up to which
laminar boundary layer exists is called laminar zone shown by distance
AB.
10. The distance of B from leading edge is obtained from Reynolds number
equal to 5 × 105 for a plate.
B. Turbulent Boundary Layer :
1. If the length of the plate is further increased, the thickness of boundary
layer goes on increasing in the downstream direction.
2. Then the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and motion of fluid
within it, is disturbed and irregular which leads to a transition from
laminar to turbulent boundary layer.
3. This short length over which the boundary layer flow changes from
laminar to turbulent is called transition zone which is shown by distance
BC.
4. Further downstream the transition zone, the boundary layer is turbulent
and continues to grow in thickness.
5. This layer of boundary is called turbulent boundary layer, which is
shown by the portion FG in Fig. 3.26.1.
C. Laminar Sub-Layer :
1. This is the region in the turbulent boundary layer zone, adjacent to the
solid surface of the plate.
2. In this zone, the velocity variation is influenced only by viscous effects.
3. Though the velocity distribution would be a parabolic curve in the laminar
sub-layer zone, but in view of the very small thickness one can reasonably
assume that the velocity variation is linear and thus the velocity gradient
can also be taken as constant.
4. Hence, the shear stress in the laminar sub-layer would be constant and
equal to the boundary shear stress o.
u U
So, shear stress in the sub-layer is o = = (As linear
y y 0 y
variation occurs).
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–35 A (ME-Sem-3)
Answer
1. Let us consider a thin smooth flat plate with boundary layer as shown in
Fig. 3.27.1.
2. Let the free stream velocity of flow be U over the plate.
3. Consider a small strip of dx at a distance x from one end of plate.
4. Now take the element ABCD, o is the wall shear stress acting on the
plate and velocity variation in strip ABCD is also shown in the
Fig. 3.27.1.
Boundary
layer D C C
D
U
dy u
A B y o
x A B
dx
Thin smooth flat plate dx
Fig. 3.27.1.
d
8. Mass rate of fluid leaving through BC = udy dx
udy
dx o 0
9. Mass rate of fluid entering the control volume ABCD, through the
surface CD = Mass rate of fluid through BC – Mass rate of fluid
through AD
d d
udy udy dx udy = udy dx
dx 0
= 0 0
dx 0
10. The entering fluid through DC has uniform velocity U.
11. Momentum rate o f fluid ente ring in ABCD thro ugh AD
(in x-direction)
PAD = u2 dy
0
d 2
PBC = u dy dx
u2 dy
dx 0 0
13. Mo me ntum rate of fluid e ntering the ABCD thro ugh CD
(in x-direction)
PCD = Mass × Velocity
d
= udy dxU
dx 0
d
uUdy dx
PCD =
dx 0
14. Rate of change of momentum = Momentum rate of fluid through BC.
– Momentum rate of fluid through AD – Momentum rate of fluid
through DC.
= PBC – PAD – PDC
d 2 d
= u2 dy u dy dx u2 dy uUdy dx
0 dx 0 0 dx 0
d 2
= u dy uUdy dx
dx 0 0
15. Rate of change of momentum
d 2
= u u U dy dx
...(3.27.1)
dx 0
16. According to momentum principle,
Force = Rate of change of momentum
17. In control volume ABCD only a shear force is acting on the side AB in
the direction B to A.
18. So, drag force, FD = o dx, which is opposite to the direction of motion
of fluid.
19. Thus, the total external force in the direction of rate of change of
momentum = – o × dx (Negative sign indicates opposite direction)
...(3.27.2)
20. Now equating eq. (3.27.1) and eq. (3.27.2), we have
d 2
(u uU ) dy dx = –o × dx
dx 0
d 2
o = (u uU ) dy
dx 0
2
d 2 u u
U dy
dx 0
o =
U U
2 d
u u
o = U 1 dy
dx 0 U
Hence,
U
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–37 A (ME-Sem-3)
u u
Here, 1 dy = Momentum thickness ().
o U U
d
o = U 2
dx
o d
=
U 2 dx
The above equation is known as Von-Karman momentum equation for
boundary layer flow.
Que 3.28. Oil with density 900 kg/m 3 and kinematic viscosity
10 –5 m2/sec is flowing over a plate of 3 m long and 2 m wide with a
velocity of 3 m/sec parallel to 3 m side. Find the boundary layer
thickness at the point of transition and at the end of plate.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Given : = 900 kg/m3, U = 3 m/s, = 10–5 m2/s, L = 3 m, b = 2 m,
To Find : Boundary layer thickness at the point of transition and at
the end of the plate.
UL 3 3
1. Reynolds Number, Re = 5 = 9 × 105 > 5 × 105
10
Hence, upto a certain distance flow will be laminar then changes to
turbulent flow.
2. Let, x be the distance up to which flow is laminar. Hence,
Ux
Re =
3x
5 × 105 =
105
5
x = m = 1.67 m
3
3. Boundary layer thickness at x = 1.67 or at transition equals to,
4.91 x 4.91 1.67
= = = 0.0116 m
Re 5 10
4. Now, boundary layer thickness at the end of plate (i.e., at x = 3 m)
4.91 3
= = 0.0155 m
9 10
PART-14
Separation and its Control.
3–38 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Boundary Layer Separation :
1. When a solid body is kept or immersed in a flowing fluid, boundary layer
is formed adjacent to the solid body.
2. Within this thin layer of fluid, the velocity varies from zero to free
stream velocity in the direction normal to the solid body.
3. Along the length of the solid body, the thickness of the boundary layer
increases.
4. The fluid layer adjacent to the solid surface has to do work against
surface friction at the expense of its kinetic energy.
5. This loss of the kinetic energy is recovered from the immediate fluid
layer in contact with the layer adjacent to solid surface through
momentum exchange process. Thus the velocity of layer goes on
decreasing.
Boundary
layer
C
B D
Separating E
A Stream line
dp dp
<0 pmin >0
dx dx
Fig. 3.29.1.
6. Along the length of the solid body, at a certain point a stage may come
when the boundary layer may not be able to keep sticking to the solid
body if it cannot provide kinetic energy to overcome the resistance
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–39 A (ME-Sem-3)
offered by the solid body. Thus, in other words, the boundary layer will
get separated from the surface. This phenomenon is called the boundary
layer separation.
7. The point on the body at which the boundary layer is on the verge of
separation from the surface is called point of separation.
B. Necessary Conditions for Boundary Layer Separation : For
boundary layer separation, pressure gradient should be positive in the
p
direction of flow 0 i.e., the pressure should be in increasing
x
manner in the direction of flow (Fig. 3.29.1).
C. Methods to Control Boundary Layer Separation :
i. Streamlined Body Shape :
1. Using streamlined body shape, the transition point of boundary
layer (from laminar to turbulent) can be moved downstream which
results in the reduction of the skin friction drag. Hence, separation
of layers may be eliminated.
ii. Acceleration of Fluid in the Boundary Layer :
1. In this method, we supply additional energy to the particles of fluid
which are being retarded in the boundary layer.
2. Energy can be transferred by :
a. Injecting the fluid into the region of boundary layer with the
help of some device.
b. Diverting a portion of fluid from high pressure region to the
retarded region of boundary layer through a slot provided in
the body.
iii. By sucking the retarded flow.
iv. By providing slots near the leading edge.
v. Energising the flow by introducing optimum amount of swirl in the
incoming flow.
vi. Remove the retarded or slow moving fluid particles in the boundary
layer by suction through a porous surface.
Answer
p
The effect of pressure gradient on boundary layer separation can
x
be explained by considering the flow over a curved surface ABCDE as
shown in Fig. 3.29.1.
3–40 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
PART-15
Drag and Lift.
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. As shown in Fig. 3.31.1, consider a body held stationary in a real fluid,
which is flowing at a uniform velocity U.
2. The fluid exerts a force on the stationary body.
3. The total force (FR) exerted by the fluid on the body is perpendicular to
the surface of the body. Thus the total force is inclined to the direction of
motion.
4. The component of total force (FR) in the direction of flow is called drag
and is given as,
A v 2
FD = CD
2
Where, CD = Coefficient of drag.
5. The component of total force (FR) in the direction perpendicular to the
direction of flow is known as lift and is given as,
A v2
FL = CL
2
Where, CL = Coefficient of lift.
FL FR
U
FD
Stationary body
Fig. 3.31.1.
Answer
A. Coefficient of Lift : It is defined as the ratio of the total lift force to the
1
quantity AU2.
2
FL
Mathematically, CL =
1
AU 2
2
B. Coefficient of Drag : Average coefficient of drag is defined as the ratio
1
of the total drag force to the quantity AU2. It is also called coefficient
2
of drag and is denoted by CD.
3–42 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
FD
CD =
1
AU 2
2
Que 3.33. A square plate of side 2 m is moved in a stationary air of
density 1.2 kg/m3 with a velocity of 50 km/hr. If the coefficient of drag
and lift are 0.2 and 0.8 respectively, determine the drag force, lift
force and resultant force. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07
Answer
2 1.2 (13.892 )
1. Drag force, FD = CDA v = 0.2 × 4 × = 92.6 N
2 2
v2 1.2 (13.892 )
2. Lift force, FL = CLA = 0.8 × 4 × = 370.43 N
2 2
Answer
U2
2. Lift force, FL = CL A
2
2 FL 2 20.68
CL = = 0.4085
A U 2 0.36 1.25 152
U = 15 m/s FL
10° FD
X X
25 cos 45° 45° Kite
P W =3N
25 sin 45°
Y
Fig. 3.34.1.
U2
3. Drag force, FD = CD A
2
2 FD 2 17.68
CD = = 0.349
A U 2 0.36 1.25 152
PART-16
Drag on Sphere, Two Dimensional Cylinder.
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. Consider a flow of real fluid passing with velocity U over a sphere
having diameter d, density and .
2. Stokes developed a mathematical equation to determine the total drag
acting on a sphere which is immersed in a fluid having Reynold’s number
less than 0.2.
3. According to stokes for Reynold’s number less than 0.2, all the inertia
forces acting on the fluid are assumed to be negligible; only viscous
forces are to be considered.
3–44 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
4. According to Stokes,
Total drag acting on sphere, FD = 3dU
5. In this total drag, two-third portion is contributed by skin-friction and
the rest portion is contributed by pressure drag.
1
6. Hence, pressure drag, FDP = FD dU
3
2
And skin friction drag, FDF = FD 2dU
3
Answer
1
Drag force FD Velocity (U) and CD
Re
PART-17
Aerofoil.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Coefficient of Lift : Refer Q. 3.32, Page 3–41A, Unit-3.
B. Coefficient of Drag : Refer Q. 3.32, Page 3–41A, Unit-3.
C. Aerofoil :
1. An aerofoil or airfoil is a streamlined body which may be either
symmetrical or unsymmetrical.
2. Following are the necessary and important definitions related to aerofoil :
a. Chord Line : It is the line joining the leading and trailing edges of the
aerofoil. The length of the line is known as chord of aerofoil. It is denoted
by C.
b. Profile Centre Line : It is the line joining the midpoints of the profile.
Leading edge
Profile centre line
(Chord line)
Trailing
edge
(a) Symmetrical
Profile centre line
Chord line
Angle of
attack
(b ) Unsymmetrical
Fig. 3.37.1. Airfoil.
3–46 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
c. Angle of Attack : The angle between the chord line and direction of the
fluid stream is known as angle of attack. It is denoted by .
d. Camber : It is the curvature of an airfoil.
e. Stall :
1. This is the condition when angle of attack () is greater than the
angle of attack at maximum lift.
2. At stall the air separates from the airfoil or wing and eddies are
formed as a consequence of which there is a considerable increase
in the drag coefficient.
f. Aspect Ratio (AR) : The ratio of span of the wing to its mean chord is
called the aspect ratio of a wing.
L
AR =
C
Where, L = Span of the wing, and
C = Mean chord.
Answer
1. Airfoils are streamline bodies, it may or may not be symmetrical in
shapes.
2. There is negative pressure created on the upper part of airfoil due to
which there is a lift force act on the airfoil.
3. The drag force acting on airfoil is very small due to the design of the
shape of the body (because shape of airfoil is streamlined).
4. Circulation developed on the airfoil so that the streamline at the
trailing edge of the airfoil is tangential to the airfoil is given as,
= CU sin
5. Lift force acting on airfoil, FL =UL
= UL ( CU sin )
= CU2 L sin ...(3.38.1)
6. Lift force acting on airfoil in terms of coefficient of lift is given by,
1
FL = CL AU 2 ...(3.38.2)
2
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 3–47 A (ME-Sem-3)
Chord
line
7. On equating the eq. (3.38.1) and eq. (3.38.2), we get coefficient of lift, CL
as,
CL = 2 sin ...(3.38.3)
8. Eq. (3.38.3) shows that coefficient of lift depends upon the angle of
attack.
PART-18
Magnus Effect.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Magnus Effect :
1. When a cylinder is rotated in a uniform flow, a lift force is produced on
a cylinder.
2. This phenomenon of the lift force produced by a rotating cylinder in a
uniform flow is known as Magnus effect.
B. Example :
1. This effect has been successfully employed in the propulsion of ships.
2. The Magnus effect may also be used with advantage in the games like
table tennis, golf, cricket etc.
3–48 A (ME-Sem-3) Flow Through Pipes, Boundary Layer Thickness
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–1 A (ME-Sem-3)
4 Impact of Jet,
Impulse Turbine and
Reaction Turbines
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction to Hydrodynamic ............... 4–2A to 4–16A
Thrust of Jet on a Fixed and
Moving Surface
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Impact of Jet : If a plate, which may be fixed or moving is placed in
the path of jet, a force is exerted by the jet on the plate. This force is
obtained from Newton’s second law of motion and known as impact
of jet.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.1. Derive the formula for dynamic force exerted by fluid jet
on stationary plate for the following cases :
i. When plate is normal to jet.
ii. Flat plate inclined to jet.
iii. When plate is curved and jet impinges at the center of plate.
iv. When plate is unsymmetrical and curved and jet impinges at
one end.
Answer
Following notation are used in driving the formula for dynamic force for
given cases :
v = Velocity of jet,
d = Diameter of jet,
a = Area of cross-section of jet,
= Angle between the jet and plate,
= Density of water, and
Q = Discharge of water (m3/s).
i. When the Plate is Normal to Jet :
v
Pipe
Nozzle
v
Plate
Jet of water
v
Fig. 4.1.1. Force exerted by jet on vertical plate.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–3 A (ME-Sem-3)
1. Consider a jet of water coming out from the nozzle, striking a flat vertical
plate as shown in Fig. 4.1.1.
2. Plate is at 90° to the jet and jet after striking will move along the plate.
So, velocity component of water after strike, in direction of jet will be
zero.
3. Dynamic force exerted by the jet on the plate in direction of jet is
calculated as,
Fx = Rate of change of momentum in the direction of force
= Mass striking the plate/sec × Change in velocity in direction of jet
Mass
= [Initial velocity – Final velocity]
Time
m
= [v – 0]
t
m
= Q [v – 0] Q
t
= av × v ( Q = av)
Fx = av 2
ii. Flat Plate Inclined to Jet :
v Q1
Pipe Nozzle v
si
n
Q
Fx
v
(9
0
–
Jet )
Fn
Q2
Plate
Fig. 4.1.2. Jet striking stationary inclined plate.
1. If plate is smooth and there is no loss of energy, then jet will move over
the plate with a velocity (v) as shown in Fig. 4.1.2.
2. Now, normal force is calculated as,
Fn = Mass of jet striking the plate/sec
× Change in velocity in normal direction to the plate
Mass
= [Initial velocity in normal direction to plate – Final velocity
Time
in normal direction to plate]
m
= [v sin – 0] = Q [v sin ]
t
= av [v sin ] ( Q = av)
Fn = av2 sin
4–4 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
v v sin
v cos
Pipe
Nozzle
v v sin
v cos
Curved plate
Fy
Fx
v sin
v
Jet
v cos
Mass
= × [Initial velocity – Final velocity]
Time
m
= [v sin – v sin ] = av [v sin – v sin ]
t
= av2 (sin – sin )
6. When the plate is symmetrical, then =
So, Fx = 2 av2 cos , and Fy = 0
Que 4.2. Derive the formula for dynamic force exerted by fluid jet
on moving plate for the following cases :
i. When plate is normal to jet.
ii. Flat plate inclined to jet.
iii. When plate is curved and jet impinges at the center of plate.
iv. When plate is curved and jet impinges at one end.
OR
Derive an expression for force exerted by a jet on a fixed inclined
plate. Also give an expression for a force exerted by jet on flat moving
plate in the direction of jet. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
A. Expression for Force Exerted by Jet on a Fixed Inclined Plate :
Refer Q. 4.1, Page 4–2A, Unit-4.
B. Expression for Force Exerted by Fluid Jet on Moving Plate : The
notations used are same as used in case of fixed plate. The one extra
notation is of ‘u’ representing velocity of plate.
i. When the Plate is Normal to Jet :
(v – u)
v
u
(v – u)
Fig. 4.2.1. Jet striking a flat vertical moving plate.
1. Relative velocity of jet with respect to plate = (v – u)
2. Mass of water striking the plate/sec
= × Area of jet × Relative velocity
= a(v – u) ...(4.2.1)
3. Force exerted by the jet on the moving plate in direction of the jet,
Fx = Mass of water striking per sec
× Change in velocity of jet
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–7 A (ME-Sem-3)
Mass
= × [Initial velocity with which water strikes
Time
– Final velocity]
= a(v – u) [(v – u) – 0] = a(v – u)2
ii. Flat Plate Inclined to the Jet :
(v – u)
v u
(v – u)
Fig. 4.2.2. Jet striking an inclined moving plate.
iii. When the Plate is Curved and Jet Impinges at the Center of
Plate :
(v – u) (v – u) sin
(v – u) cos
v u
Jet of water
u2 vw 2
G F H
v2 vf 2
v r2
E
B
v1
vr1 vf 1
A D
u1 C
v w1
Fig. 4.2.4. Jet striking a moving curved vane at one of the tips.
2. ABD and EGH are the velocity triangles at inlet and outlet.
3. Mass of water strike the plate /sec
= × Area of jet × Relative velocity
= avr1
4. Relative velocity at inlet in X-direction by which jet of water striking
= (vw1 – u1)
And, relative velocity at outlet in X-direction by which jet leaving
= – (vw2 + u2)
5. Force exerted by the jet in the direction of motion,
Fx = Mass of water striking/sec ×
Change in velocity in X-direction
Fx = Mass of water striking/sec ×
[Relative velocity at inlet
– Relative velocity at outlet]
= avr1[(vw1 – u1) – {– (u2 + vw2)}]
= avr1[(vw1 – u1 + vw2 + u2)]
Fx = a vr1 (vw1 + vw2) [ u1 = u2]
4–10 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
Answer
Given : d = 7.5 cm = 0.075 m, v = 30 m/s, = 90° – 45° = 45°,
u = 15 m/s.
To Find : 1. Normal pressure on the plate :
i. When plate is stationary, and
ii. When plate is moving with a velocity of 15 m/s.
2. Power and efficiency of jet when the plate is moving.
1. Area, a= (0.075)2 = 0.004417 m2
4
2. When the plate is stationary, the normal force on the plate is given as,
Fn = av2 sin
= 1000 × 0.004417 × 302 × sin 45° = 2810.96 N
3. When the plate is moving with a velocity 15 m/s and away from the jet,
the normal force on the plate is given as,
Fn = a(v – u)2 sin
= 1000 × 0.004417 × (30 – 15)2 × sin 45° = 702.74 N
4. Force in the direction of jet is given as,
Fx = Fn sin = 702.74 × sin 45° = 496.9 N
5. Work done per second by the jet
= Force in the direction of jet × Distance moved
by the plate in the direction of jet/sec
= Fx u
= 496.9 × 15 = 7453.5 Nm/s
Work done per second 7453.5
6. Power (in kW) = = = 7.453 kW
1000 1000
Output Work done per second
7. Efficiency of the jet = =
Input Kinetic energy of the jet
7453.5 7453.5
=
1 2 1
(a v) v a v 3
2 2
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–11 A (ME-Sem-3)
7453.5
=
1
1000 0.004417 303
2
= 0.1249 0.125 = 12.5 %
Answer
Given : v1 = 20 m/s, d = 50 mm = 0.05 m, u1 = 10 m/s, = 60°
To Find : i. Force exerted by the jet.
ii. Work done per second.
1. As jet and vane are moving in the same direction,
=0
2. Angle made by the leaving jet, with the direction of motion = 60°
= 180° – 60° = 120°
3. For this problem, we have
u1 = u2 = u = 10 m/s
vr = vr
1 2
4. From Fig. 4.4.1, we have
vr = AB – AC = v1 – u1
1
= 20 – 10 = 10 m/s
vw = v1 = 20 m/s
1
vr = vr = 10 m/s
2 1
5. Now in EFG, EG = vr = 10 m/s
2
GF = u2 = 10 m/s
GEF = 180° – (60° + ) = (120° – )
6. From sine rule, we have
EG FG 10 10
= or
sin 60 sin (120 ) sin 60 sin (120 )
or sin 60° = sin (120° – )
60° = 120° – or = 120° – 60° = 60°
7. Now, vw = HF = GF – GH
2
= u2 – vr cos = 10 – 10 × cos 60°
2
= 10 – 5 = 5 m/s
4–12 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
u2
H v w2 F
G
60°
vf 2
v r2 v
60°
E
v1 = vw 1
u1 v r1
A C B
Fig. 4.4.1.
8. The force exerted by the jet on the vane in the direction of motion is
given as,
Fx = avr [vw – vw ]
1 1 2
(–ve sign is taken as is an obtuse angle)
= 1000 × 0.001963 × 10 [20 – 5] N = 294.45 N
9. Work done per second by the jet
= Fxu = 294.45 × 10 = 2944.5 N m/s
= 2944.5 W
Answer
120°
Direction of motion
of vane
( – )
B
Inlet velocity
Inlet tip
triangle v1
v f1
v r1
A D
u1 C
vw 1
Fig. 4.5.1.
v f2 3.71
8. Now, tan = = 2.613
v w2 1.42
Angle of jet at outlet, = tan – 1 2.613 = 69.06°
9. Hence, angle made by v2 at outlet with direction of motion of vane is
= 180° – = 180° – 69.06° = 110.94°
10. Absolute velocity of jet at exit,
v2 = v 2w2 v 2f
2
Answer
1. As shown in Fig. 4.6.1, a large number of plates are mounted on the
circumference of a wheel at a fixed distance.
2. The jet strikes on the plate and due to the force exerted by jet on the
plate, the wheel starts moving at a constant speed.
3. Let, u = Velocity of vane.
4. Mass of water per second striking the series of plate = av
and, jet of water strikes the plate with a velocity = (v – u)
5. After striking, the jet moves tangential to plate and hence velocity
component in the direction of motion of plate is equal to zero.
6. Force exerted by the jet in the direction of motion of plate,
Fx = Mass per sec [Initial velocity – Final velocity]
= av[(v – u) – 0]
= av(v – u)
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–15 A (ME-Sem-3)
Plates
Wheel
v u
Jet of water
Fig. 4.6.1.
Que 4.7. What is the difference between the force of jet when it
impinges on a single moving flat plate and the force of jet when it
strikes on a series of moving plates ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
4–16 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
Answer
1. The force of jet when it impinges on a single moving flat plate is given
by,
F1 = a(v – u)2
2. The force when jet impinges on a series of moving plate is given by,
F2 = a(v – u)v
3. The difference between the two forces is given as,
= F1 – F2
= a(v – u) [v – u – v]
= – a(v – u)u
PART-2
L
m
rn
ai CONCEPT OUTLINE
Classification of Turbines.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Turbines : These are defined as the hydraulic machines which convert
hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
Questions-Answers
Answer
Hydraulic turbines are classified as follows :
a. According to the Type of Energy Available at Inlet :
i. Impulse Turbine : In an impulse turbine, all the available energy of
water is converted into kinetic energy or velocity head.
Example : Pelton wheel turbine.
ii. Reaction Turbine : In a reaction turbine, at the entrance to the runner,
only a part of the available energy of water is converted into kinetic energy
and a substantial part remains in the form of pressure energy.
Example : Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–17 A (ME-Sem-3)
Answer
A. Different Heads used in Hydroelectric Power Plant :
i. Gross Head :
1. The difference between the head race level and tail race level when
no water is flowing is known as gross head.
4–18 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
2. It is denoted by Hg.
ii. Net Head or Effective Head :
1. It is the head available at the entrance to the turbine.
2. It is obtained by subtracting all the losses of head from gross head.
3. Net head is given by,
H = Hg – hf
Where, Hg = Gross head, and
hf = Total loss of head between the head race and
the entrance of the turbine.
B. Layout of a Hydroelectric Power Plant :
Head race
hf
Dam
Penstock
Turbine
Net head Vanes
Gross head Nozzle
( H g)
Tail race
Answer
The following are the important efficiencies of a turbine :
i. Hydraulic Efficiency : It is defined as the ratio of power given by
water to the runner of a turbine to power supplied by the water at the
inlet of the turbine.
Power delivered to runner
h =
Power supplied at inlet
RP(Runner power)
=
WP(Water power or hydraulic power)
ii. Mechanical Efficiency :
1. The ratio of the power available at the shaft of the turbine to the power
delivered to the runner is defined as mechanical efficiency.
Power at the shaft of the turbine SP
m = =
Power delivered by water to the turbine RP
2. The power delivered by water to the runner of a turbine is transmitted
to the shaft of the turbine. Due to mechanical losses, power available at
the shaft of the turbine is less than the power delivered to the runner of
a turbine.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–19 A (ME-Sem-3)
iii. Volumetric Efficiency : The ratio of the volume of the water actually
striking the runner to the volume of water supplied to the turbine is
defined as volumetric efficiency.
Volume of water actually striking the runner
v =
Volume of water supplied to the turbine
iv. Overall Efficiency : It is defined as the ratio of power available at the
shaft of the turbine to the power supplied by the water at the inlet of the
turbine.
Power available at the shaft of the turbine SP SP RP
o = = = ×
Power available at the inlet of the turbine WP RP WP
o = mh
PART-3
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Impulse Turbines, Constructional Details, Velocity
Triangles, Power and Efficiency Calculations.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Impulse Turbine : If at the inlet of the turbine, the energy available
is only kinetic energy, the turbine is known as impulse turbine.
Pelton Wheel : It is a tangential flow impulse turbine. The pressure at
the inlet and outlet of the turbine is atmospheric. This turbine is used
for high heads.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Construction of Pelton Wheel Turbine :
i. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement :
1. The amount of water striking the buckets of runner is controlled
by providing a spear in the nozzle.
2. Spear has the streamlined head which is fixed to end of the rod.
4–20 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
3. The spear is push forward in the nozzle to reduce the water flow
and is push backward to increase the water flow.
ii. Runner Reduce Gap with Buckets :
1. Runner consists of a circular disc with a number of buckets evenly
spaced around its periphery.
2. Each bucket is divided into two symmetrical parts by a dividing wall
which is known as splitter.
3. The jet of water impinges on the splitter which divides the jet into
two equal portions.
iii. Casing :
1. Fig. 4.11.1 shows the casing of a Pelton wheel turbine.
2. The function of the casing is to prevent the splashing of the water
and to discharge water to tail race.
3. The casing of the Pelton wheel does not perform any hydraulic
function.
Casing
Vanes
Penstock
Runner
Nozzle
Jet of water
Spear
5. The generator is attached to the shaft of the runner which converts the
mechanical energy of the runner into electrical energy.
Que 4.12. Prove that the work done per second per unit weight of
1
water in Pelton turbine is given as (v w1 vw2 ) u .
g
OR
Draw inlet and outlet velocity triangles for a Pelton wheel and
indicate the direction of velocities. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05
Answer
1. Fig. 4.12.1 shows the inlet and outlet velocity triangles.
u2 vw 2
v vf2
2
v r2
C
v1
B
A v r1
u1
vw 1
Fig. 4.12.1.
2. Let, v1 and v2 = Absolute velocity at inlet and velocity of jet at
outlet respectively,
vr and vr = Relative velocity of jet at inlet and outlet
1 2
respectively,
vf and vf = Velocity of flow at inlet and outlet respectively,
1 2
and
vw and vw = Velocity of whirl at inlet and outlet respectively.
1 2
3. Velocity triangle at inlet will be straight line where,
vr1 = v1 – u1 = v1 – u
vw1 = v1
= 0°, = 0°
4. Velocity triangle at outlet,
vr2 = vr1
vw2 = vr2 cos – u2
5. Force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of motion,
Fx = av1[vw1 + vw2]
6. Work done by the jet on runner per second = Fxu
= av1[vw1 + vw2]u
4–22 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
Que 4.13. Prove that hydraulic efficiency for Pelton wheel turbine
is given by,
2(v1 u) (1 cos )u
h =
v12
Also find out the condition for maximum efficiency for Pelton wheel
turbine.
Answer
1. Work done per second = av1[vw1 + vw2]u
1 1
2. KE of jet per second = mv12 = (av1) v12
2 2
3. For Pelton wheel turbine, hydraulic efficiency is given by,
Work done per second
h =
KE of jet per second
a v1[vw1 vw2 ]u
h = ...(4.13.1)
1
(a v1 ) v12
2
4. For a Pelton wheel, we have
vw1 = v1, vr1 = v1 – u1 = v1 – u
vr2 = v1 – u
vw2 = vr2 cos – u2 = vr2 cos – u = (v1 – u) cos – u
5. Substituting the value of vw1 and vw2 in eq. (4.13.1), we get
2[v1 (v1 u) cos u]u
h =
v12
2[v1 u (v1 u) cos ]u
=
v12
2(v1 u) (1 cos ) u
=
v12
6. For maximum efficiency,
d
( h ) = 0
du
d 2(v1 u) (1 cos )u
=0
du v12
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–23 A (ME-Sem-3)
(1 cos ) d
[2(v1 u)u] = 0
v12 du
d
[2 v1 u 2u2 ] = 0
du
2v1 – 4u = 0
v1
u=
2
7. So, hydraulic efficiency of a Pelton wheel turbine will be maximum
when the velocity of wheel is half the velocity of jet of water at inlet.
Answer
The following points should be considered while designing a Pelton
wheel :
i. Velocity of Jet at Inlet :
Where, v1 = Cv 2 gH
Cv = Coefficient of velocity, and
= 0.98 or 0.99
H = Net head available.
ii. Velocity of Wheel : It is given by,
u = 2 gH
Where, = Speed ratio (varies from 0.43 to 0.48)
iii. Angle of Deflection : It is taken as 165°, if no angle is given.
iv. Mean Diameter of Wheel : It is given by,
DN 60u
u= or D
60 N
v. Jet Ratio (m) : It is defined as the ratio of the pitch diameter of the
Pelton wheel to the diameter of the jet. It is usually taken between 11
and 15.
Diameter of pitch circle ( D)
m=
Diameter of jet ( d)
vi. Number of Bucket on Runner (Z) : It is given by, Z = 15 + m/2.
It is usually taken 20 to 25.
vii. Number of Jets : It is obtained by dividing the total rate of flow through
the turbine by the rate of flow of water through a single jet.
Total flow
Number of jet =
Flow through one jet
Number of jet practically should not be greater than 6.
Que 4.15. A Pelton wheel has a mean bucket speed of 10 m/s with a
jet of water flowing at a rate of 700 lit/s under a head of 30 m. The
4–24 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
Answer
v1
u1 vr 1
vw 1
Fig. 4.15.1.
Que 4.16. Determine the power given by the jet of water to the
runner of a Pelton wheel which is having tangential velocity as
20 m/s. The net head on the turbine is 50 m and discharge through
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–25 A (ME-Sem-3)
the jet water is 0.03 m3/s. The side clearance angle is 15° and take
Cv = 0.975. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
v1
u1 vr 1
vw 1
Fig. 4.16.1.
vw = u2 – vr cos = 20 – 10.18 = 9.82 m/s
2 2
5. Also as is an obtuse angle, the work done per second on the runner,
= av1 [vw – vw ]u = Q [vw – vw ]u
1 2 1 2
= 1000 × 0.03 × [30.54 – 9.82] × 20 = 12432 Nm/s
6. Power given to the runner in kW
Work done per second 12432
= = = 12.432 kW
1000 1000
Que 4.17. A Pelton wheel turbine has following specifications :
Shaft power = 12000 kW
Head = 400 meters
Speed = 750 rpm
Overall efficiency = 0.85
and the ratio of jet diameter to the wheel diameter is 1/6. Determine :
i. The wheel diameter.
ii. Diameter of the jet and number of jets required.
Take Cv = 0.98 and = 0.45.
4–26 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
Answer
Given : P = 12000 kW, H = 400 m, N = 750 rpm, o = 0.85,
d/D = 1/6, Cv = 0.98, = 0.45
To Find : i. Wheel diameter.
ii. Jet diameter.
iii. Number of jets required.
PART-4
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Governing of Pelton Wheel.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–27 A (ME-Sem-3)
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Construction and Working of Pelton Wheel Turbine :
Refer Q. 4.11, Page 4–19A, Unit-4.
B. Governing of Turbines :
1. It is defined as the operation by which the speed of the turbine is kept
constant under all conditions.
2. It is done automatically by means of a governor, which regulates the
rate of flow through the turbines according to the changing load conditions
on the turbine.
C. Governing Mechanism of Pelton Turbine :
Centrifugal
Governor
Fly-ball
Piston Rod of
Lever
Control valve
Sleeve
Fulcrum Relay or Control valve
To Turbine
Main Shaft V1
PART-5
Francis and Kaplan Turbines, Constructional Details,
Velocity Triangles, Power and Efficiency.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Reaction Turbine : If at the inlet of the turbine, the water possesses
kinetic energy as well as pressure energy, the turbine is known as
reaction turbine.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–29 A (ME-Sem-3)
Questions-Answers
Answer
S. No. Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
1. The available fluid energy is The energy of the fluid is partly
conve rted into KE by a transformed into KE before it
nozzle. enters the runner of the turbine.
2. The pressure remains same After entering the runner with an
throughout the action of excess pressure, water undergoes
water on the runner. change s both in velocity and
pressure while passing through the
runner.
3. Water may be allowed to Water is admitted o ve r the
enter a part or whole of the circumference of the wheel.
wheel circumference.
4. Wate r tight casing is Water tight casing is not necessary.
required.
5. The wheel/turbine does not Water completely fills all the
run full and air has a free passages between the blades while
access to the buckets. flo wing betwe en inlet o utle t
sections does work on the blades.
6. Always installed above the Unit may be installed above or
tail race. No draft tube is below the tail race. Use of a draft
used. tube is made.
4–30 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
Que 4.20. State the differences between inward and outward radial
flow reaction turbine.
Answer
Answer
The main parts of a radial flow reaction turbine are as follows :
i. Scroll Casing : The spiral casing around the runner of the turbine is
known as the volute casing or scroll casing.
ii. Draft Tube :
1. The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is
generally less than atmospheric pressure.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–31 A (ME-Sem-3)
Guide
wheel
Que 4.22. Show that the work done per second per unit weight of
water in reaction turbine is given as
1
= (v u )
g w1 1
Where, vw = Velocity of whirl at inlet, and
1
u1 = Tangential velocity of wheel at inlet.
Answer
1. Consider a series of radial curved vanes mounted on a wheel as shown
in Fig. 4.22.1. Jet of water strikes the vanes and wheel starts rotating at
constant angular speed.
4–32 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
R2
u2
F vw2
G
H
vr2 v2
vf2 R1
E
Tangent
at E
Wheel
B
v1 Tangent at B
vf1
vr1
A
D
u1 C
vw1
Q[v w1 u1 v w2 u2 ]
=
Qg
1
= [v u + vw u2]
g w1 1 2
Answer
u2
vf = v 2 = vf
vr 2 1
2
v1
vf
vr 1
1
u1
vw
1
Fig. 4.23.1.
v f1
1. Flow ratio, 0.17 =
2 gH
vf = 0.17 × 2 9.81 60
1
= 5.83 m/s
Since velocity of flow is constant, so
vf = vf = 5.83 m/s
1 2
2. Discharge at outlet is radial, so
vw = 0, and vf = v2
2 2
3. Now, overall efficiency,
SP
o =
WP
275
0.85 =
WP
WP = 323.53 kW
4. Water power is also given as,
gQH
WP =
1000
1000 9.81 Q 60
323.53 =
1000
Q = 0.550 m3/s
5. Discharge, Q = Actual area of flow × vf
1
Q = D1B1vf
1
0.550 = × D1 × 0.1 × D1 × 5.83
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–35 A (ME-Sem-3)
D12 = 0.30029
D1 = 0.548 m
B1
6. It is given that, = 0.1
D1
B1 = 0.548 × 0.1 0.055 m
7. Tangential speed of turbine at inlet,
D1 N 0.548 650
u1 = = = 18.65 m/s
60 60
8. Hydraulic efficiency is given as,
v w1 u1
h =
gH
vw1 18.65
0.95 =
9.81 60
vw = 30 m/s
1
9. From inlet velocity triangle,
v f1 5.83
tan = =
v w1 30
= 11°
10. Again from inlet velocity triangle,
vf1 5.83
tan = =
vw1 u1 30 18.65
= 27.18º
11. Diameter of runner at outlet,
D2 = D1/2
= 0.548/2 = 0.274
D2 N 0.274 650
12. We know, u2 =
60 60
= 9.325 m/s
13. From outlet velocity triangle,
vf 2 vf 1 5.83
tan =
u2 u2 9.325
= 32.013º
Answer
1. Governing of Francis turbines is usually done by altering the position of
the guide vanes and thus controlling the flow rate by changing the gate
openings to the runner.
2. The guide blades of a reaction turbine as shown in Fig. 4.24.1 are pivoted
and connected by levers and links to the regulating ring.
3. Two long regulating rods connects the regulating ring and regulating
lever.
4. The regulating lever is attached to a regulating shaft which is controlled
by a servomotor piston of the oil pressure governor.
5. The penstock feeding the turbine inlet has a relief valve.
6. When the guide vanes have to be closed, the relief valve opens and
diverts the water to the tail race.
7. Thus the double regulation, which is the simultaneous operation of two
elements, is accomplished by moving the guide vanes and relief valve in
Francis turbine by the governor.
Connected to oil pressure governor piping
Servomotor
Spiral casing
Regulating
shaft Regulating
rod
Regulating Regulating
lever ring
Turbine inlet
Answer
1. The Kaplan turbine is a propeller type water turbine which has adjustable
blades that can be rotated about pivots fixed to the boss of the runner.
2. The blades are adjusted automatically by servo mechanism so that at all
loads the flow enters them without shock. Thus, a high efficiency is
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–37 A (ME-Sem-3)
Shaft
Vanes
Hub
Answer
Answer
v1
vf
vr 1
1
u1
vw
1
Fig. 4.27.1.
vf 2 vf 1
2. From outlet velocity triangle, tan = =
u2 u2
9.2
tan 15° =
u2
u2 = 34.33 m/s
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–39 A (ME-Sem-3)
PART-6
s
Principles of Similarity.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.28. What are the different types of similarities that exist
between model and prototype ?
Answer
Following are the three types of similarities that exist between model
and prototype :
i. Geometric Similarity :
1. The geometric similarity is said to exist between the model and the
prototype if the ratio of all corresponding linear dimension in the model
and prototype are equal.
ii. Kinematic Similarity :
1. It means the similarity of motion between model and prototype.
2. If at the corresponding points in the model and in the prototype, the
velocity or acceleration ratios are same (both in magnitude and direction),
the two flows are said to be kinematically similar.
iii. Dynamic Similarity :
1. Dynamic similarity means the similarity of force (both in magnitude and
in direction) in model and in prototype.
4–40 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
2. Dynamic similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype
if the ratios of the corresponding forces acting at the corresponding
points are equal.
PART-7
Unit and Specific Speed.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.29. Define the term unit power, unit speed and unit discharge
with reference to a hydraulic turbine.
OR
Show that in a given turbine :
u H , Q H and P H3/2
where u is peripheral speed, Q is discharge rate, P is power and H is
the available head.
Answer
A. Unit Speed :
1. It is defined as the speed of a turbine working under a unit head (i.e.,
under a head of 1 m). It is denoted by Nu.
2. Let, N = Speed of turbine under a head H,
H = Head under which a turbine is working, and
u = Tangential velocity.
3. The tangential velocity, absolute velocity of water and head on the
turbine are related as,
uv
but, v H
u H ...(4.29.1)
4. Tangential velocity is also given as,
DN
u= [D = Diameter of turbine]
60
5. For a given turbine, diameter (D) is constant,
uN
Nu
So, N H [From eq. (4.29.1)]
N = K1 H ...(4.29.2)
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–41 A (ME-Sem-3)
Velocity H ...(4.29.4)
5. So from eq. (4.29.3) and eq. (4.29.4)
Q H
Q = K2 H ...(4.29.5)
Where, K2 = Constant of proportionality.
6. For unit head, H = 1, Q = Qu
So, Qu = K2 1
Qu = K2
7. Putting the value of K2 in eq. (4.29.5), we get
Q = Qu H
Q
Qu =
H
C. Unit Power :
1. It is defined as the power developed by a turbine, working under a unit
head. It is represented by symbol Pu.
2. Let, P = Power developed by the turbine under head H.
3. Overall efficiency is given as,
Power developed P
o = = ...(4.29.6)
Water power gQH
1000
P QH
4–42 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
H ×H ( Q H)
H3/2
P = K3H3/2 ...(4.29.7)
Where, K3 = Constant of proportionality.
4. For unit head, H = 1, P = Pu
So, Pu = K3(1)3/2
Pu = K3
5. Putting the value of K3 in eq. (4.29.7), we get
P = PuH3/2
P
Pu =
H 3/ 2
Answer
A. Specific Speed :
1. It is defined as the speed of a turbine which is identical in shape,
geometrical dimensions, blade angles, gate openings, etc., with the actual
turbine but of such a size that it will develop unit power when working
under unit head. It is denoted by symbol Ns.
B. Derivation of the Specific Speed :
1. Let, D = Diameter of actual turbine,
N = Speed of actual turbine,
u = Tangential velocity of turbine,
Ns = Specific speed of the turbine, and
v = Absolute velocity of water.
2. The overall efficiency of any turbine is given as,
Shaft power P
o = ...(4.30.1)
Water power gQH
1000
gQH
P = o
1000
P Q H [as o and , g are constants] ...(4.30.2)
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–43 A (ME-Sem-3)
H DN
H
D ...(4.30.5)
N
6. Discharge through turbine is given by
Q = Area × Velocity
Area BD [Where, B = Width, B D]
D2
Velocity H
2
H
Q D2 H H [From eq. (4.30.5)]
N
H 3/ 2
Q ...(4.30.6)
N2
7. Substitute the value of eq. (4.30.6) in eq. (4.30.2),
H 3/2 H 5/2
P 2
H
N N2
5/ 2
H
P= K ...(4.30.7)
N2
Where, K = Constant of proportionality
8. If P = 1, H = 1, the speed N = Ns,
(1)5 / 2
So, 1=K
N s2
K = Ns2
9. Putting the value of K in eq. (4.30.7), we get
H 5/ 2
P = Ns2
N2
N2P
Ns2 =
H 5/2
N P
Ns =
H 5/4
4–44 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
Answer
N P 80 18000 10733.126
4. Specific speed, Ns =
H 5/ 4 (10)5/ 4 17.783
Ns = 603.56 rpm
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–45 A (ME-Sem-3)
u1
vw1 B D
C
v1 vr1
A
Fig. 4.31.1. Inlet velocity triangle.
h gH 0.85 9.81 10
v w1 =
u1 28.06
vw1 = 2.97 m/s
vf 1 8.36
7. From ABC, tan =
v w1 2.97
= 70.44°
8. Also from ABD,
vf 1 8.36
tan (180° – ) =
u1 v w1 28.06 2.97
So, = 161.57°
9. Degree of reaction,
cot
R= 1
2(cot cot )
cot 70.44
= 1 = 0.947
2 (cot 70.44 cot 161.57)
Answer
1 2
= 1 Do 7.13
4 9
4 192.61 9
Do = = 6.22 m
8 7.13
Do N
5. The speed of turbine is given by, u1 =
60
60u1 60 21.90
N= = 67.24 rpm
Do 6.22
N P 67.24 9100
6. Specific speed, Ns = = 745 rpm
H 5/ 4 (5.6)5/ 4
Que 4.33. A Kaplan turbine develops 9000 kW under a net head of
7.5 m. Overall efficiency of the turbine is 86 %. The speed ratio based
on the outer diameter is 2.2 and the flow ratio is 0.66. Diameter of the
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–47 A (ME-Sem-3)
boss is 0.35 times the external diameter of the wheel. Determine the
diameter of runner and the specific speed of the runner.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Same as Q. 4.32, Page 4–45A, Unit-4 .
(Answer : Diameter of runner = 5.08 m and specific speed = 764 rpm)
Answer
Dm2 H p
Np2 = Nm2
Dp 2 Hm
Speed of second turbine,
1/ 2
Dm H p
Np = Nm
Dp Hm
1/ 2
0.38 15
= 1500 × = 421.46 rpm
1.9 7.6
2. Using relation,
P P Pm Pp
3 5 = 3 5 3 5
N D m N D p N m Dm N p3 D p5
Power produced by turbine,
5 3
D N
Pp = Pm p p
Dm N m
5 3
1.9 421.46
= 9× = 623.86 kW
0.38 1500
4–48 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
Answer
Given : N1 = 200 rpm, P1 = 5886 kW, H1 = 200 m, 0 = 80 % = 0.8,
H2 = 150 m, = Speed ratio = 0.48
To Find : i. Unit speed.
ii. Unit discharge.
iii. Unit power.
iv. Speed, discharge, power when turbine is
working under a head of 150 m.
N1 200
1. Unit speed, Nu = = 14.142 rpm
H1 200
2. Overall efficiency is given by,
P1 1000
0 =
gQ1 H1
5886 1000
0.8 =
1000 9.81 Q1 200
3
0.8 = or Q1 = 3.75 m3/s
Q1
Q1 3.75
3. Unit discharge, Qu = = 0.265 m3/s
H1 200
P1 5886
4. Unit power, Pu = = 2.08 kW
H13/ 2 (200)3/ 2
5. When head = 150 m,
N1 N2
i. For speed, =
H1 H2
N1 H2 200 150
N2 = = 173.2 rpm
H1 200
Q1 Q2
ii. For discharge, =
H1 H2
Q1 H2 3.75 150
Q2 = = 3.25 m3/s
H1 200
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–49 A (ME-Sem-3)
P1 P2
iii. For power, =
H13/ 2 H23/ 2
P1 H23/ 2 5886 (150)3/ 2
P2 = = 3823 kW
H13/ 2 (200)3/ 2
PART-8
Performance Characteristics.
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. Characteristic curves are defined as the curves, with the help of which
the exact behaviours and performance of the turbine under different
working conditions can be known.
2. Following are the important characteristic curves for the turbine :
i. Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves :
1. These are obtained by maintaining a constant head and a constant
gate opening (GO) on the turbine.
2. Main characteristics curve for Pelton wheel and various reaction
turbines are shown in Fig. 4.36.1 and Fig. 4.36.2 respectively.
H = Constant
Full Gate Opening H = Constant
Unit Discharge (Qu)
3/4 GO
Unit Power (Pu)
Full GO
1/2 GO 3/4 GO
1/2 GO
1/4 GO 1/4 GO
H = Constant
Full GO
3/4 GO
1/2 GO
1/4 GO
H = Constant H = Constant
Unit Discharge (Qu )
H = Constant
Full GO
Full GO
3/4 GO 3/4 GO
1/2 GO 1/2 GO
1/4 GO
1/4 GO
Unit Speed (Nu ) Unit Speed (Nu )
( c) (d)
Fig. 4.36.2. Main characteristic curves for reaction turbine.
H = Constant
Efficiency ( o)
N = Constant
P
Power (P)
o
Discharge (Q)
Discharge for overcoming friction
Fig. 4.36.3. Operating characteristic curves.
iii. Constant Efficiency Curves or Muschel Curves or Iso-Efficiency
Curves :
1. These curves are obtained from the speed v/s efficiency and speed
v/s discharge curves for different gate openings.
2. A constant efficiency curve is shown in Fig. 4.36.4.
H = Constant A Full GO
4 2
8 8 6
6 B
2 4 3/4 GO
C 1/2 GO
Q 1/4 GO
D
Iso-efficiency curves
Speed (N)
Full GO
3/4 GO
1/2 GO
Constant efficiency
1/4 GO
line
0.2 D CB A
Speed (N)
Fig. 4.36.4. Constant efficiency curves.
PART-9
Selection of Water Turbines.
4–52 A (ME-Sem-3) Impact of Jet, Impulse & Reaction Turbine
Questions-Answers
Answer
The following points should be considered while selection of hydraulic
turbines :
a. Specific Speed :
1. High specific speed is essential where head is low and output is large,
otherwise the rotational speed will be low which may leads to high cost
of turbo generator and power house.
b. Rotational Speed :
1. Rotational speed depends on specific speed.
2. Also the rotational speed of an electrical generator with which the turbine
is to be directly coupled, depends on the frequency and number of pair of
poles.
c. Efficiency :
1. The turbine selected should be such that it gives the highest overall
efficiency for various operating conditions.
d. Partload Operation :
1. In general, the efficiency at partloads and overloads is less than normal.
For the sake of economy the turbine should always run with maximum
possible efficiency to get more revenue.
e. Cavitation :
1. The installation of water turbines of reaction type over the tail race is
affected by cavitation.
2. The critical value of cavitation factor must be obtained to see that the
turbine works in safe zone. Such a value of cavitation factor also affects
the design of turbine, especially of Kaplan, propeller and bulb types.
f. Disposition of Turbine Shaft :
1. Vertical shaft arrangement is better for large sized reaction turbines.
2. In case of large size impulse turbines, horizontal shaft arrangement is
mostly employed.
g. Head :
i. Very High Heads : For heads greater than 350 m, Pelton turbine is
generally employed.
ii. High Heads : In this range (150 m to 350 m), either Pelton or Francis
turbine may be employed.
iii. Medium Heads : A Francis turbine is usually employed in this range
(60 m to 150 m).
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 4–53 A (ME-Sem-3)
iv. Low Heads : Between 30 m and 60 m heads, both Francis and Kaplan
turbine may be used.
v. Very Low Heads : For very low heads (2 m to 15 m), bulb turbines are
employed.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–1 A (ME-Sem-3)
5 Centrifugal and
Reciprocating Pumps
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Classifications of ......................................... 5–2A to 5–3A
Centrifugal Pumps
PART-1
Classifications of Centrifugal Pumps.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
Pumps : The hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy
into hydraulic energy are called pumps.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Centrifugal Pump :
1. If the mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy by means of
centrifugal force acting on the fluid, then the hydraulic machine is
called centrifugal pump.
2. It is a radial outward flow machine. It acts as the reverse of an inward
radial flow reaction turbine.
3. It works on the principle of forced vortex flow.
B. Classification of Centrifugal Pump : On the basis of characteristic
features, the centrifugal pumps are classified as follows :
i. Type of Casing :
1. Volute pumps.
2. Turbine pump or diffusion pump.
ii. Working Head :
1. Low lift centrifugal pumps.
2. Medium lift centrifugal pumps.
3. High lift centrifugal pumps.
iii. Liquid Handled :
1. Closed impeller pump.
2. Semi-open impeller pump.
3. Open impeller pump.
iv. Number of Impellers per Shaft :
1. Single stage centrifugal pump.
2. Multi-stage centrifugal pump.
v. Number of Entrances to the Impeller :
1. Single entry or single suction pump.
2. Double entry or double suction pump.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–3 A (ME-Sem-3)
PART-2
Vector Diagram, Work Done by Impeller, Efficiencies of
Centrifugal Pumps.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Construction : Main parts of a centrifugal pump are :
a. Impeller :
1. An impeller is a wheel (or rotor) with a series of backward curved vanes
(or blades).
2. It is mounted on a shaft which is coupled to an electric motor.
3. The impellers are of following three types :
i. Shrouded or closed impeller.
ii. Semi-open impeller.
iii. Open impeller.
b. Casing :
1. The casing is an air tight chamber surrounding the pump impeller.
2. The following three types of casing are commonly employed :
i. Volute Casing :
1. In this type of casing the area of flow gradually increases from the
impeller outlet to the delivery pipe so as to reduce the velocity of
flow.
2. Thus the increase in pressure occurs in volute casing.
ii. Vortex Casing :
1. If a circular chamber is provided between the impeller and the
volute chamber, the casing is known as vortex casing.
2. The circular chamber is known as vortex or whirlpool chamber and
such a pump is known as volute pump with vortex chamber.
5–4 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
Discharge level
Overhead tank
Delivery pipe
hd
vd
Pressure gauge Delivery valve
vs
Sump
Foot valve
Strainer
Answer
a. Suction Head (hs) : It is the vertical height of the centre line of the
centrifugal pump above the water surface in sump from which water is
to be lifted.
b. Delivery Head (hd) : It is the vertical height between the centre line of
the pump and the water surface in the tank to which water is delivered.
c. Static Head (Hs) : It is total vertical height through which water has to
be lifted. It is given as,
Hs = hs + hd
d. Manometric Head (Hm) : It is defined as the head against which a
centrifugal pump has to work.
Answer
1. The absolute velocity of water at inlet makes an angle 90° with the
direction of motion of the impeller at inlet. Hence angle = 90° and
vw = 0.
1
2. Fig. 5.4.1 shows the velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet.
5–6 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
Tangent to
impeller at
R2
outlet
Tangent to
v1
impeller at
inlet R1
vr
1 u1
Answer
a. Manometric Efficiency (mano) : It is defined as the ratio of the
manometric head developed by the pump to the head imparted by the
impeller to the liquid.
Manometric head
mano =
Head imparted by impeller to liquid
Hm gHm
= =
v w2 u2 vw2 u2
g
b. Mechanical Efficiency (m) :
1. It is defined as the ratio of the power delivered by the impeller to the
power input to the pump shaft.
Power delivered at impeller
m =
Power input to the shaft
2. Power delivered at impeller in kW
Work done by impeller per second
=
1000
W vw2 u2
=
g 1000
W vw2 u2
g 1000
m =
SP
c. Overall Efficiency (o) :
1. The overall efficiency of the pump is defined as the ratio of the power
output from the pump to the power input from the prime mover driving
the pump.
Power output
o =
Power input
Weight of water lifted H m
2. Power output =
1000
Power input = Shaft power
WHm / 1000
o =
SP
or o = mano × m
Neglect all frictional losses and assume that the blades of the
impeller are curved back through angle at outlet. Notations used
have usual meaning.
Answer
1. Apply Bernoulli’s equation at inlet and outlet of the impeller and
neglecting losses from inlet to outlet.
Total energy at inlet = Total energy at outlet – Work done by impeller
on water
p1 v12 p v2 v u
z1 = 2 2 z2 w2 2 ...(5.6.1)
g 2 g g 2 g g
2. If inlet and outlet of the impeller at the same height
p1 v12 p v2 v u
g 2 g = 2 2 w 2 2 ( z1 = z2)
g 2 g g
p2 p1 v12 v 22 v w2 u2
= ...(5.6.2)
g g 2g 2g g
p2 p1
Where, g g = Pressure rise in impeller
u2
v w2
vf 2
v2 vr
2
vr
1
v1
u1
Fig. 5.6.1.
3. From inlet velocity triangle,
v1 = vf ...(5.6.3)
1
4. From outlet velocity triangle,
vf 2
tan =
u2 vw2
vf 2
u2 – vw =
2 tan
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–9 A (ME-Sem-3)
vf 2
vw = u2 – = u2 – vf cot ...(5.6.4)
2 tan 2
Que 5.7. A centrifugal pump having outer dia. equal to two times
of inner dia. and running at 1000 rpm works against a total head of
40 m. The velocity of flow through the impeller is constant and
equal to 2.5 m/s, the vanes are set back at an angle 40° at outlet. If the
outer dia. of the impeller is 500 mm and width at outlet is 50 mm.
Determine :
i. Vane angle at inlet
ii. Work done by the impeller on water per sec
iii. Manometric efficiency AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
Given : N = 1000 rpm, Hm = 40 m, vf1 = vf2 = 2.5 m/s, = 40°,
D2 = 500 mm = 0.50 m, D1 = D2 / 2 = 0.50/2 = 0.25 m,
B2 = 50 mm = 0.05 m
To Find : i. Vane angle at inlet.
ii. Work done by impeller on water per second.
iii. Manometric efficiency.
1. Tangential velocity of impeller at inlet and outlet are,
D1 N 0.25 1000
u1 = = 13.09 m/s
60 60
D2 N 0.50 1000
and u2 = = 26.18 m/s
60 60
5–10 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
vf2
v2 vr2
vr1
v f1
u1
Fig. 5.7.1.
4. Work done by impeller on water per second is given by
W gQ
= v w2 u2 v w 2 u2
g g
1000 9.81 0.1963
= v w2 26.18 ...(5.7.1)
9.81
5. But from outlet velocity triangle, we have
vf 2 2.5
tan =
u2 v w2 (26.18 v w 2 )
2.5 2.5
26.18 – vw2 = = 2.979
tan tan 40
vw2 = 26.18 – 2.979 = 23.2 m/s
6. Substituting this value of vw2 in eq. (5.7.1), we get the work done by
impeller as
1000 9.81 0.1963
= × 23.2 × 26.18
9.81
= 119227.9 Nm/s
7. Now, manometric efficiency,
gHm 9.81 40
mano = = 0.646 = 64.6 %
v w2 u2 23.2 26.18
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–11 A (ME-Sem-3)
Que 5.8. A centrifugal pump runs at 950 rpm, its outer and inner
diameters are 500 mm and 250 mm. The vanes are set back at 35° to
the wheel rim. If the radial velocity of water through the impeller is
constant at 4 m/s, find (a) The angle of vane at the inlet. (b) The
velocity of water at exit. (c) The direction of water at the outlet. (d)
The work done by the impeller per kg of water. Assume entry of
water at inlet is radial. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
Vane
vr
1 v1 = vf 1 ; vw 1 = 0
v1 = 90°
Inlet
u1
Fig. 5.8.1.
3. Velocity of water at outlet,
D2 N 0.5 950
u2 = = 24.87 m/s
60 60
4. From velocity triangle at outlet, we have
5–12 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
vf 2
vw2 = u2 –
tan
4
= 24.87 – = 19.157 m/s
tan 35
vf 2 4
5. Now, tan = = = 0.208
vw2 19.157
= tan–1 0.208 = 11.75°
6. Work done by impeller per kg of water,
v w2 u2 19.157 24.87
Work done = = 48.56 J/kg
g 9.81
Answer
u2
vw 2
vf 2
v2 v r2
vr1
v1
u1
Fig. 5.9.1.
5. From outlet velocity triangle we have,
v f2
tan =
u2 vw2
1.516
tan =
21.99 19.63
1.516
= tan–1
21.99 19.63
= 32.72°
Answer
Given : Q = 9 m3/min = 0.15 m3/s, N = 700 rpm, Hm = 19.6 m,
vf1 = vf2 = 1.8 m/s, = 180° – 135° = 45°
To Find : i. Diameter of impeller.
ii. Width of the impeller at exit.
v w2 u2
1. We know that, Hm =
g
v w2 u2
19.6 =
9.81
5–14 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
v r1 vf 1 = v1
u1
Fig. 5.10.1.
vf 2
2. Now, tan =
u2 v w2
1.8
tan 45° =
u2 v w2
u2 – vw2 = 1.8 ...(5.10.2)
3. From eq. (5.10.1) and eq. (5.10.2), we have
192.27
u2 – = 1.8
u2
2
u2 – 1.8 u2 – 192.27 = 0
u2 = 14.79 m/s
D2 N
4. We know that, u2 =
60
D2 700
14.79 =
60
D2 = 0.40 m
5. Discharge, Q = D2B2vf2
0.15 = × 0.40 × B2 × 1.8
B2 = 0.066 m = 6.6 cm
Answer
u22 u12
1. Head due to pressure rise in impeller =
2g 2g
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–15 A (ME-Sem-3)
2. The flow of water will commence only if head due to pressure rise in
impeller Hm
u22 u12
Hm
2g 2g
u22 u12
3. For minimum speed, we must have = Hm ...(5.11.1)
2g 2g
4. Manometric efficiency is given as,
gH m
mano =
v w2 u2
v w2 u2
Hm = mano
g
5. Substituting this value of Hm in eq. (5.11.1), we have
u22 u12 v w2 u2
= mano
2g 2g g
2 2
1 D2 N 1 D1 N v D2 N
= mano w2 ...(5.11.2)
2 g 60 2 g 60 60 g
D2 N D1 N
u2 and u1
60 60
N
6. Dividing eq. (5.11.2) by , we get
60 g
ND22 ND12
= mano v w2 D2
120 120
N
or [D22 – D12] = mano v w2 D2
120
120mano vw2 D2
N= ...(5.11.3)
[ D22 D12 ]
Eq. (5.11.3) gives the minimum starting speed of the centrifugal pump.
Que 5.12. A centrifugal pump with 1.2 m diameter runs at 200 rpm
and discharges 1900 liters water per second, the average lift being
6 m. The angle which the vanes make at exit with the tangent to the
impeller is 26° and the radial velocity of flow is 2.5 m/s. The inner
diameter of the impeller is 0.6 m. Determine :
The power required to drive the pump, the manometric efficiency
and the minimum rpm to start pumping against a head of 6 m.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
5–16 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
Answer
PART-3
Specific Speed.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Specific Speed :
1. It is defined as the speed of a geometrically similar pump which would
deliver one cubic meter of liquid per second against a head of one meter.
2. It is denoted by Ns.
B. Expression for Specific Speed :
1. Discharge Q for a centrifugal pump is given as,
Q = Area × Velocity of flow
= DBv f ...(5.13.1)
2. We know that, B D, then from eq. (5.13.1),
Q D2v f ...(5.13.2)
3. Tangential velocity is given as,
DN
u= or u DN ...(5.13.3)
60
4. Tangential velocity (u) and velocity of flow (vf) are related to the
manometric head (Hm) as,
u vf Hm ...(5.13.4)
5. From eq. (5.13.3) and eq. (5.13.4), we get
Hm DN
Hm
D
N
6. Putting the value of D in eq. (5.13.2), we get
Hm Hm
Q
N2
v f
N2
Hm v f Hm
Hm3/ 2
Q 2
N
Hm3/ 2
Q=K ...(5.13.5)
N2
Where, K = Constant of proportionality.
7. If Hm = 1 m, Q = 1 m3/s, so N = Ns, then from eq. (5.13.5), we get
(1)3/2
1=K
N s2
Ns2 = K
8. Putting the value of K in eq. (5.13.5), we get
Hm3/ 2
Q = Ns2
N2
5–18 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
N Q
Ns = 3/4
Hm
This expression is showing the specific speed of pump.
Answer
1. We know,
N1 Q1 N 2 Q2
3/ 4
=
H m1 Hm3/24
1000 0.02 1000 0.01
=
153/ 4 H m3/24
1000 0.01 153/ 4 0.01
H m3/24 = × 7.622 = 5.389
1000 0.02 0.02
Hm2 = (5.389)4/3 = 9.45 m
Hm Hm
2. Now, =
DN DN
1 2
H m1 Hm2
=
D1 N1 D2 N2
15 9.45
=
0.3 1000 D2 1000
9.45 0.3
D2 = = 0.238 m = 238 mm
15
PART-4
Cavitation and Separation.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–19 A (ME-Sem-3)
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Priming and its Necessity :
1. It is an operation in which suction pipe, casing of the pump and a portion
of delivery pipe is completely filled with water by an outside source
before starting the pump to remove air, gas or vapour from these parts.
2. The work done by impeller per unit weight of liquid per second is known
as head generated by the pump. This means that when pump is running
in air, the head generated is in terms of meter of air.
3. If pump is primed with water, then head will generate in term of meter
of water.
4. But as density of air is low, so head generated by pump is also low even
negligible and hence water may not be sucked by the pump.
5. To avoid this difficulty priming of centrifugal pump is necessary.
B. Self-priming Pump :
1. The internal construction of some pumps is such that special
arrangements containing a supply of liquid are provided in the suction
pipe due to which automatic priming of the pump occurs, such pumps
are known as ‘self-priming pumps’.
2. Self-priming pumps are designed with a large reservoir surrounding
the pump casing.
3. The advantage associated with self-priming pump is being portable in
nature.
4. These are commonly used in sewage lift stations, where raw sewage is
pumped into a treatment facility.
Answer
1. Net positive suction head (NPSH) is defined as the absolute pressure
head at the inlet to the pump minus the vapour pressure head (in
absolute units) plus the velocity head.
5–20 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
Answer
1. Cavitation begins to appear in centrifugal pumps when the pressure at
the suction falls below the vapour pressure of the liquid.
2. The intensity of cavitation increases with the decrease in value of NPSH.
3. As in the case of turbines, for pumps also, Thoma’s cavitation factor is
used to indicate the onset of cavitation. For pumps Thoma’s cavitation
factor is defined as :
H a Hs Hv Hsv
=
Hm Hm
Where, Ha = Atmospheric pressure head,
Hv = Vapour pressure head,
v 2
Hs = Total suction head hs hfs s , and
2g
Hsv = Net positive suction head (NPSH).
4. The cavitation will occur if the value of is less than the critical value, c
at which the cavitation just begins. The cavitation parameter is a
function of specific speed, efficiency of the pump, and number of vanes.
5. The harmful effects of cavitation are :
i. Pitting and erosion of surface (due to continuous hammering action
of collapsing bubbles).
ii. Sudden drop in head, efficiency and the power delivered to the
fluid.
iii. Noise and vibration (produced by the collapse of bubbles).
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–21 A (ME-Sem-3)
Answer
PART-5
Performance Characteristics.
5–22 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. Characteristics curves of a centrifugal pump are defined as those curves
which are plotted from the results of a number of tests on the centrifugal
pump.
2. These curves are necessary to predict the behaviour and performance
of the pump when the pump is working under different flow rates,
heads and speeds.
3. Followings are the important characteristic curve for pumps :
a. Main Characteristics Curves :
1. The main characteristic curve of a centrifugal pump consists of
variation of manometric head, (Hm), power and discharge with
respect to speed.
2. Fig. 5.19.1 shows main characteristic curves of a pump.
P (Q and H constants)
Discharge, Q
2
HN
Head, Hm
Power, P
3
P N H(Q = Constant)
QN
Q
( Hm = Constant)
Speed (N)
Fig. 5.19.1.
Speed = Constant
Head, H
Efficiency,
Power, P
Head, H
Efficiency,
Output power
Input Power, P
Discharge, Q
Fig. 5.19.2.
c. Constant Efficiency Curves or Muschel Curves :
1. For obtaining constant efficiency curves for a pump, the head versus
discharge curves and efficiency versus discharge curves for different
speed are used.
2. Fig. 5.19.3(a) shows the head versus discharge curves for different
speeds.
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8 Hm v/s Q
Head, Hm
0.8 Constant
0.6 efficiency
0.5
D curves
C N4
B
A
N3
N2
N1
(a) Q
Efficiency
Constant
efficiency
line
A B C D
N
N1 N 2 N3 4
(b ) Discharge, Q
Fig. 5.19.3.
5–24 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
PART-6
Reciprocating Pump Theory.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Reciprocating Pump :
1. If mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy by means of
reciprocating motion of a piston into a cylinder, then pump is known as
reciprocating pump.
2. It is a positive displacement pump as it sucks and raises the liquid by
actually displacing it with a piston that executes a reciprocating motion
in a closely fitted cylinder.
3. The amount of liquid pumped is equal to the volume displaced by the
piston.
B. Classification of Reciprocating Pump :
a. According to the Water being in Contact with Piston :
1. Single acting pump.
2. Double acting pump.
b. According to Number of Cylinders Provided :
1. Single cylinder pump.
2. Double cylinder pump.
3. Triple cylinder pump.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–25 A (ME-Sem-3)
Que 5.21. With the help of a neat sketch explain the construction
and working principle of reciprocating pump.
OR
With the help of a neat sketch explain the working principle of
reciprocating pump. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
A. Construction of Reciprocating Pump :
1. A reciprocating pump consists of a piston or a plunger inside a cylinder
as shown in Fig. 5.21.1.
2. Piston is connected to the crankshaft through piston rod and connecting
rod. The crankshaft is rotated by means of electric motor.
3. Suction and delivery pipes are connected to the cylinder with non-return
suction and delivery valves.
4. Non-return valves are one way valves which allow the liquid to flow in
one direction only.
5. Here, suction valve allows liquid to flow from the suction pipe to the
cylinder, while delivery valve allows liquid to flow from the cylinder to
the delivery pipe.
B. Working of Reciprocating Pump :
1. A reciprocating pump consists of a piston or a plunger executing
reciprocating motion inside a cylinder as shown in Fig. 5.21.1.
5–26 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
Delivery pipe
Delivery valve
hd Cylinder Connecting
Piston B Crank
rod (r )
A C
Suction valve Piston rod
hs D
Suction pipe L=2 r
Sump level
2. As the crank moves outwards (from A to C), the piston moves towards
right in the cylinder causing a vacuum in the cylinder.
3. Due to the pressure difference between the sump and the cylinder,
liquid is drawn into the cylinder through the non-return suction valve.
4. During this outward stroke, the delivery valve remains closed.
5. During the return stroke of the crank (from C to A), the piston moves
towards the left causing an increase in pressure in the cylinder which
opens the delivery valve and closes the inlet valve.
6. The liquid is forced into the delivery pipe and is raised to a required
height.
Que 5.22. Derive the expression for discharge, work done and
power of single acting reciprocating pump.
Answer
1. Let, D = Diameter of cylinder,
A = Cross-sectional area of the piston,
r = Radius of crank,
L = Length of stroke,
hs = Suction head,
hd = Delivery head, and
N = Speed of crank.
2. Discharge of water in one revolution of crank = Area × Stroke length
= AL
3. Discharge of pump per second,
Q = Discharge in one revolution ×
Number of revolutions per second
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–27 A (ME-Sem-3)
N ALN
= AL
60 60
4. Weight of water delivered per second,
w = gQ
gALN
w=
60
5. Work done per second = Weight of water lifted per second ×
Total height through which liquid is lifted
= w(hs + hg)
gALN
= (hs + hg)
60
6. Power required to drive the pump,
Work done per second
P=
1000
gALN (hs hd )
P= kW
60000
Que 5.23. Derive an expression for discharge, work done and power
for double acting pump.
Answer
1. Let, D = Diameter of piston, and
d = Diameter of piston rod.
2. Area on one side of piston,
2
A= D
4
3. Area on other side where piston rod is connected,
2
A1 = D – d2 = (D2 – d2)
4 4 4
4. Volume of water discharge in one revolution of crank
= A × Stroke length + A1 × Stroke length
= AL + A1L
= (A + A1)L
= D2 ( D2 d 2 ) L
4 4
5. Discharge of pump per second = Volume of water discharge × Number
of revolutions per second
2 2 2 N
Q = D ( D d ) L
4 4 60
6. If d << D, then d can be neglected.
5–28 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
2 LN 2 ALN 2
Q=2× D A D
4 60 60 4
7. Weight of water delivered per second,
w = gQ
2g ALN
=
60
8. Work done per second = Weight of water delivered per second
× Total height
= w (hs + hd)
2g ALN
= (hs + hd)
60
9. Power required to drive the pump,
Work done per second
P=
1000
2gALN (hs hd )
P= kW
60000
Que 5.24. Give the curve showing the variation of discharge with
crank angle for double acting reciprocating pump.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
1. When the crank rotates from = 0° to = 180°, Fig. 5.24.1, the piston or
plunger which is initially at its extreme left position move to its extreme
right position.
2. During the outward movement of the piston or plunger a partial vacuum
is created in the cylinder, which enables the atmospheric pressure acting
on the liquid surface in the well or sump below, to force the liquid up the
suction pipe and fill the cylinder by forcing open the suction valve.
3. At the end of the suction stroke the piston or plunger is at its extreme
right position, the crank is, at = 180°, the cylinder is full of liquid, the
suction valve is closed and the delivery valve is just at the point of
opening.
4. When the crank rotates from = 180° to = 360° the piston or plunger
moves inward from its extreme right position towards left. The inward
movement of the piston or plunger causes the pressure of the liquid in
the cylinder to rise above atmospheric pressure, due to which the suction
valve closes and the delivery valve opens.
5. At the end of the delivery stroke the piston or plunger is at extreme left
position, the crank is at = 0° or 360° so that it has completed one full
revolution, and both the suction and the delivery valves are closed.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–29 A (ME-Sem-3)
Double acting
Suction Delivery
Qd
PART-7
Slip.
Questions-Answers
i. Coefficient of discharge,
ii. Slip of pump, and
iii. Negative slip.
Answer
i. Coefficient of Discharge (Cd) :
1. It is defined as the ratio of actual discharge to the theoretical discharge.
It is given as,
Qact
Cd =
Qth
Actual velocity × Actual area
=
Theoretical velocity × Theoretical area
= CvCc
ii. Slip of a Pump :
1. It is defined as the difference between the theoretical discharge and
actual discharge.
Slip = Qth – Qact
2. The slip is mostly expressed as percentage slip which is given by,
5–30 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
Qth Qact
Percentage slip = × 100
Qth
Q
= 1 act × 100 = (1 – Cd) × 100
Qth
3. For most of the reciprocating pumps the actual discharge Qact is less
than the theoretical discharge Qth, Cd is less than one and the slip of the
pump is positive.
iii. Negative Slip :
1. If actual discharge of the pump is more than the theoretical discharge,
the slip will be negative, which is known as negative slip.
2. Negative slip occurs when delivery pipe is short, suction pipe is long and
pump is running at high speed.
Answer
2
1. Area of cylinder, A = D (0.2)2 = 0.0314 m2
4 4
2. Theoretical discharge,
ALN 0.0314 0.3 50
Qth = = 0.00785 m3/s
60 60
3. Coefficient of discharge,
Qact 0.00736
Cd = = 0.937
Qth 0.00785
Qth Qact
4. Percentage slip of the pump = × 100
Qth
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–31 A (ME-Sem-3)
0.00785 0.00736
= × 100 = 6.24 %
0.00785
5. Power required to run the pump,
ALN ( hs hd )
P = g
60 1000
1000 9.81 0.0314 3.5 11.5
= 0.3 50
60 1000
= 1.155 kW
Answer
Same as Q. 5.26, Page 5–30A, Unit-5.
[Answer :
i. Theoretical discharge = 0.01046 m3/s
ii. Coefficient of discharge = 0.9560
iii. Slip = Qth – Qact = 4.6 × 10– 4 m3/s
iv. Percentage slip = 4.4 %]
PART-8
Indicator Diagram.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Indicator Diagram :
1. It is defined as the graph between the pressure head in the cylinder
and distance travelled by piston from inner dead center for one complete
revolution of crank.
5–32 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
hd
Pressure head
E F
hs
A = 90° B
10.3 m
Hatm = 0° Suction stroke = 180°
Stroke length (L)
S T
Stroke length
Fig. 5.28.1. Ideal indicator diagram.
2. As shown in Fig. 5.28.1, different notations are taken as
Hatm = Atmospheric pressure head,
= 10.3 m of water
L = Length of stroke,
hs = Suction head, and
hd = Delivery head.
3. During suction stroke, the pressure head in the cylinder is constant
and equal to suction head (hs) which is below the atmospheric pressure
head (Hatm) by a height of hs.
4. This pressure head during suction stroke is represented by a horizontal
line AB which is below the line EF by the height hs (suction head).
5. During the delivery stroke, pressure head in cylinder is constant and
equal to delivery head (hd) this is represented by line CD. This line CD
is above the line EF (atmospheric pressure) by a height of hd.
Answer
A. Proof :
1. From the indicator diagram (Refer Fig. 5.28.1), area of diagram is given
as,
Area = AB × BC = AB × (BF + FC)
= L × (hs + hd)
2. Work done by the reciprocating pump per second is given as,
gALN
W= (hs + hd)
60
= KL(hs + hd)
gAN
W L(hs + hd) K 60 (constant)
Work done by pump Area of indicator diagram
B. Slip : Refer Q. 5.25, Page 5–29A, Unit-5.
PART-9
Effect of Acceleration.
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. Let, = Angular speed of the crank (rad/s),
A = Area of the cylinder,
a = Area of the pipe,
l = Length of pipe (suction or delivery),
r = Radius of crank, and
= Angle turned by crank in radian in time t.
= t
2. Let x is the distance travelled by the piston as shown in Fig. 5.30.1.
x = Distance AF = AO – FO = r – r cos
[ AO = r, FO = r cos ]
x = r – r cos t ...(5.30.1) [ = t]
3. Differentiate eq. (5.30.1) with respect to t, which gives the velocity of
piston. So,
5–34 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
dx d
V= [r – r cos t]
dt dt
= 0 – r [– sin t] = r sin t ...(5.30.2)
B
E
r
A
x F O C
x
D
Fig. 5.30.1. Velocity and acceleration of piston.
4. As per continuity equation, the volume of water flowing into cylinder
per second is equal to the volume of water flowing from the pipe per
second. So,
Velocity of water in cylinder × Area of cylinder
= Velocity of water in pipe × Area of pipe
VA = va
[ Velocity of water in cylinder = Velocity of piston = V]
v = Velocity of water in pipe.
VA A
v= V
a a
A
v= r sin t ...(5.30.3)
a
5. Acceleration of water in pipe is obtained by differentiating eq. (5.30.3)
with respect to t. So acceleration of water in pipe
dv d A
= r sin t
dt dt a
A
= r2 cos t ...(5.30.4)
a
6. Mass of water in pipe = × Volume of water in pipe
= × [Area of pipe × Length of pipe] =[al] = al
7. Force required to accelerate the water in pipe
= Mass of water in pipe × Acceleration of water in pipe
A
= al r2 cos t
a
8. Now, intensity of pressure due to acceleration,
Force required to accelerate the water
=
Area of pipe
A 2
al r cos t
a A
= = l r 2 cos [t = ]
a a
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–35 A (ME-Sem-3)
Answer
A. Effect of Acceleration in the Suction Pipe : Let ls and as are length
and cross-sectional area of the suction pipe respectively.
i. At the Beginning of the Suction Stroke :
C'
ry
ve
D eli h ad
h ad D H C
hd
D'
Pressure head
E F
hs 0 ° B'
= 0° G =9 has
B
Hatm
h as A = 180°
n
A' Suct io
S T
Stroke length
Fig. 5.31.1. Effect of acceleration on indicator diagram.
5–36 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
ls A 2
The accelerating head, has = r
g as
ls A 2
Negative pressure (vacuum) head, hs + has = hs + r
g as
l A 2
Absolute pressure head = Hatm – hs s r
g as
ii. At the Middle of the Suction Stroke :
The acceleration head, has = 0
Negative pressure (vacuum) head = hs
Absolute pressure head = Hatm – hs
iii. At the End of the Suction Stroke :
ls A 2
The acceleration head, has = – r
g as
ls A 2
Negative pressure (vacuum) head = hs + has = hs – r
g as
l A 2
Absolute pressure head = Hatm – hs s r
g as
B. Effect of Acceleration in the Delivery Pipe :
1. In the beginning of delivery stroke the liquid in the delivery pipe is
accelerated, while at the end of delivery stroke the liquid is retarded.
2. Let ld and ad are the length and cross-sectional area of the delivery pipe
respectively.
i. At the Beginning of the Delivery Stroke :
ld A 2
Pressure (gauge) head, hd + had = hd + r
g ad
ii. At the Middle of the Delivery Stroke :
Pressure (gauge) head = hd ( had = 0)
iii. At the End of the Delivery Stroke :
ld A 2
Pressure (gauge) head = hd – r
g ad
ld A 2
Absolute pressure head = Hatm + hd – r
g ad
Que 5.32. Find the expression for the head lost due to friction in
suction and delivery pipes. Also discuss its effect on indicator
diagram.
Answer
A. Expression for Head Lost due to Friction :
1. Velocity of water in suction and delivery pipes is given as,
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–37 A (ME-Sem-3)
A
v=
r sin ...(5.32.1)
a
Where, A = Area of the piston in the cylinder,
a = Area of the pipe (delivery or suction), and
r = Crank radius.
2. Loss of head due to friction in pipe is given as,
4 fl v 2
hf = ...(5.32.2)
2 gd
3. Substituting the value of v from eq. (5.32.1) into eq. (5.32.2), we get
2
4 fl A
hf =
r sin
2 gd a
4. Loss of head due to friction in suction pipe is given as,
2
4 f ls A
hfs =
r sin ...(5.32.3)
2 gds as
5. Loss of head due to friction in delivery pipe is given as,
2
4 f ld A
hfd =
r sin ...(5.32.4)
2 gdd ad
B. Effect of Friction in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator
Diagram :
1. From the eq. (5.32.3) and eq. (5.32.4), it is evident that the variation of
hfs or hfd with is parabolic :
i. At the beginning of suction or delivery stroke : = 0°, sin = 0 and
therefore hfs = 0, hfd = 0 i.e., there is no loss of head due to friction.
H
hfd
D H' C
Pressure head
hd
E F
hs
= 0° = 90° = 180°
Hatm A G' B
G hfs
Stroke length
Fig. 5.32.1. Effect of friction on indicator diagram.
ii. At the middle of the suction or delivery stroke : = 90°, and
sin = 1.
2
4 fls A
hfs = r
2 gds as
5–38 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
2
4 fld A
and hfd = r
2 gdd ad
Answer
A. Effect of Acceleration and Friction Head in Suction and Delivery
Pipes on Indicator Diagram : The acceleration head (ha) and friction
head (hf) at any instant of flow in the suction and delivery pipes of a
reciprocating pump are given as :
2
ha = l A 2 r cos ; hf 4 fl A r sin
g a 2 gd a
a. During Suction Stroke : The pressure head on the piston during
suction stroke for any angle of the crank = (hs + has + hfs)
i. At the beginning of the suction stroke, = 0° and we have
ls A 2
has = r and hfs 0
g aa
Pressure head in the cylinder = (hs + has) below atmospheric
head
= Hatm – (hs + has) absolute
ii. At middle of suction stroke, = 90° and we have
2
4 fls A
has = 0, hfs = r
2 gds as
Pressure head in the cylinder = (hs + hfs) below atmospheric
head
= Hatm – (hs + hfs) absolute
iii. At the end of suction stroke, = 180° and we have
ls A 2
has = – r and hfs = 0
g as
Pressure head in the cylinder = (hs – has) below atmospheric
head
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–39 A (ME-Sem-3)
D J C
hd
D
E F
hs B hs
A H
Hatm B
has
A hfs GK
L
Fig. 5.33.1.
2
= (AB × HK)
3
2 2
= (AB × GH) = Lhfs
3 3
4. Similarly, area of parabola CID
2 2
= CD × JM = (CD × JM)
3 3
2 2
= (CD × JI) = Lhfd
3 3
5. Area of indicator diagram
AGBCID = Area AHBCJD + Area of parabola AGB
+ Area of parabola CID
2 2
= (hs + hd) L + Lhfs + Lhfd
3 3
2 2
= hs hd hfs hfd L
3 3
6. As the area of the indicator diagram is proportional to work done by the
pump, therefore,
2 2
Work done by pump per second hs hd hfs hfd L
3 3
2 2
= K hs hd hfs hfd L
3 3
Where, K = Constant of proportionality.
7. Hence, the work done per second by a single-acting pump
wALN 2 2 wAN
= hs hd hfs hfd K
60 3 3 60
Answer
a. Maximum Speed during Suction Stroke :
1. Absolute pressure head during suction stroke is minimum at the
beginning of stroke and will be equal to separation pressure head (hsep).
So, hsep = Hatm – (hs + has)
has = Hatm – hs – hsep ...(5.34.1)
2. The value of has is also given as,
ls A
has = r2 ...(5.34.2)
g as
3. From eq. (5.34.1) and eq. (5.34.2), we get
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–41 A (ME-Sem-3)
ls A
r2 = Hatm – hs – hsep
g as
This equation will give maximum value of during suction stroke without
separation.
b. Maximum Speed during Delivery Stroke :
1. During delivery stroke, the probability of separation is only at the end of
delivery stroke. The pressure head in the cylinder at the end of delivery
stroke
= (Hatm + hd) – had
2. If separation is to be avoided, the pressure head should be more than
separation pressure. In limiting case,
hsep = (Hatm + hd) – had
had = (Hatm + hd) – hsep ...(5.34.3)
3. But pressure head due to acceleration at the end of delivery stroke is
given as,
ld A
had = r2 ...(5.34.4)
g ad
4. From eq. (5.34.3) and eq. (5.34.4), we get
ld A
r2 = (Hatm + hd) – hsep
g ad
From this equation we can get maximum value of during delivery
stroke without separation.
Que 5.35. A single acting reciprocating pump of 12 cm diameter
and 24 cm stroke is delivering water to the tank which is 10 m above
the center of pump. The pump is located 5 m above the center of
sump. The diameter and the length of the suction pipe are 5 cm and
5 m respectively, and diameter and length of delivery pipe are 4 cm
and 20 m respectively. Find the maximum speed of the pump to
avoid separation either in suction pipe or delivery pipe. Take
atmospheric pressure head 10.33 m of water and separation occurs
at 80 kN/m2 below atmospheric pressure.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Given : D = 12 cm = 0.12 m, L = 24 cm = 0.24 m, h s = 5 m,
hd = 10 m, ds = 5 cm = 0.05 m, ls = 5 m, dd = 4 cm = 0.04 m, ld = 20 m,
Hatm = 10.33 m, psep = 80 × 103 N/m2
To Find : Maximum speed of the pump.
1. Separation pressure head,
5–42 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
psep
hsep =
g
80 103
= (Assuming, g = 10 m/s2)
1000 10
= 8 m below atmosphere
= (Hatm – 8) absolute
= (10.33 – 8) = 2.33 m (absolute)
2. The maximum speed during suction stroke is given by,
l A 2
Hatm – hs – hsep = s r
g as
2
D
5 4
10.33 – 5 – 2.33 = × 2 × 0.12 [ r = L/2 = 0.12]
9.81 2
d
4 s
2
5 0.12
3= × 2 × 0.12 = 0.35232
9.81 0.05
3
= = 2.92 rad/s
0.3523
2N 2N
= 2.92
60 60
N = 27.88 rpm
3. The maximum speed during delivery stroke is given by,
l A 2
Hatm + hd – hsep = d r
g ad
2
20 D
10.33 + 10 – 2.33 = 4 2 r
9.81 d 2
4 d
2
20 0.12
18 = × 2 × 0.12 = 2.22
9.81 0.04
18
= = 2.86 rad/s
2.2
2N 2N
60
= 2.86
60
N = 27.31 rpm
4. Thus, the maximum speed of the pump without separation during suction
and delivery stroke is the minimum of these two speeds, i.e., minimum
of 27.88 and 27.31 rpm
Maximum speed = 27.31 rpm
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–43 A (ME-Sem-3)
Answer
So, pressure head = 3 + 2.4 cos 90° + 0.22 sin2 90° = 3 + 0 + 0.22
= 3.22 m
6. At the end of suction stroke, = 180°
So, pressure head = 3 + 2.4 cos 180° + 0.22 sin2 180° = 3 – 2.4 + 0
= 0.6 m
7. Since, initial pressure head is less than length of suction pipe so cavitation
can takes place.
PART-10
Air Vessels.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.37. What is air vessel ? Describe the function of air vessel
Answer
A. Air Vessel :
1. It is a closed chamber containing compressed air in the top portion and
liquid at bottom of chamber.
2. One air vessel is fixed on the suction pipe just near the suction valve and
one is fixed on the delivery pipe near the delivery valve.
3. When the liquid enters the air vessel, the air gets compressed further
and when the liquid flows out the vessel, the air will expand in the
chamber.
B. Function of Air Vessel :
1. A single acting reciprocating pump is shown in Fig. 5.37.1 with air vessels
on suction side and delivery side. Air vessel works like an intermediate
reservoir.
2. During first half of suction stroke, discharge of water entering the
cylinder is more than the mean discharge, this excess quantity of
discharge is supplied by the air vessel.
3. And during second half, the discharge entering the cylinder is less than
the mean discharge. This excess quantity of water is stored in air vessel.
4. In case of delivery stroke, the function of air vessel get reversed i.e., it
stores water during first half of stroke and delivers water during second
half.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–45 A (ME-Sem-3)
Air-vessel
ld
hd
Connecting
rod
ld'
ls
Piston rod
hsAir-vessel
ls
Fig. 5.37.1
Que 5.38. Show that the work saved in overcoming friction in the
pipelines by fitting air vessels is 84.8 % for a single acting
reciprocating pump. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
1. Work done against friction without air vessels :
i. Loss of head due to friction is given as,
2
4f l A
hf = r sin
2 gd a
ii. Variation of hf with is parabolic so indicator diagram for loss of
head due to friction in pipe will be a parabola.
iii. The work done by pump against friction per stroke is equal to the
area of indicator diagram due to friction.
iv. Work done by the pump per stroke against friction,
W1 = Area of parabola
2
= × Base × Height
3
5–46 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
2 2
2 4 fl A 4 fl A
= L r Height, h f at 90 r
3 2 gd a 2 gd a
2. Work done against friction with air vessels :
i. When air vessel is fitted, mean velocity of flow is given as,
v = A r
a
ii. Loss of head due to friction is given as,
2
4 fl 2 4 fl A r
= v
2 gd 2 gd a
iii. This is independent of , so indicator diagram will be rectangle.
iv. Work done by pump per stroke against friction,
W2 =Area of rectangle = Base × Height
2
4 fl A r
=L
2 gd a
2
1 4 fl A
= L r
2 2 gd a
3. Ratio of W2 and W1 is given as,
2
4 fl A
L r
W2 2 2 gd a 3
= = = 0.15198
W1 2 4 fl A
2
22
L r
3 2 gd a
4. Work saved is given as,
= W1 – W2
2
4 fl A 2 1
=L r 2
2 gd a 3
5. Percentage of work saved per stroke,
W1 W2 W
= 1 2
W1 W1
= 1 – 0.15198 = 0.848
= 84.8 %
Que 5.39. Show that work saved against friction in the delivery
pipe of a double acting reciprocating pump by fitting an air vessel is
39.20 %.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–47 A (ME-Sem-3)
Answer
1. Work lost in friction per stroke for double acting reciprocating pump is
same as single acting pump, so
2
2 4 fl A
W1 = L r
3 2 gd a
2. When the air vessel is fitted to pipe, mean velocity of flow, for
double-acting pump is
Discharge Q
v = =
Area of pipe a
2 ALN 2 ALN
= Q
60 a 60
2 A 2r 60 60
= N and L 2r
60 a 2 2
2A r
=
a
3. Loss of head due to friction for double acting pump,
2
4 fl 2 4 fl 2 A r
hf = v =
2 gd 2 gd a
4. Work lost against friction per stroke,
W2 = Area of rectangle
= Base × Height
2
4 fl 2 A r
= L×
2 gd a
4 fl A 2
=
4
L
2 r
2 gd a
5. Work saved per stroke is given as,
W1 – W2
=
W1
2 4 fl A 2
2 4 fl A 4
L r – 2 L r
3 2 gd a 2 gd a
=
2
2 4 fl A
L r
3 2 gd a
2 4
– 2
3
= = 0.392 = 39.20 %
2
3
5–48 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
PART-11
Comparison of Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps.
Questions-Answers
Answer
A. Difference between Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pump :
PART-12
Performance Characteristics.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines 5–49 A (ME-Sem-3)
Questions-Answers
Answer
1. The operating characteristic curves indicating the performance of a
reciprocating pump are shown in Fig. 5.41.1.
Speed N = Constant
Discharge (ideal)
Discharge (ac
tual)
Input power
er
Discharge
Efficiency
pow
ut
Inp nccy
y
iieen
ffiicc
EEff
Head
Fig. 5.41.1. Operating characteristic curves of a reciprocating pump.
2. These curves are obtained by plotting discharge, power input and overall
efficiency against the head developed by the pump when it is operating
at a constant speed.
3. As shown in Fig. 5.41.1, under ideal conditions the discharge of a
reciprocating pump operating at constant speed is independent of the
head developed by the pump.
4. However, in actual practice it is observed that the discharge of a
reciprocating pump slightly decreases as the head developed by the
pump increases.
5. Further the input power for a reciprocating pump increases almost
linearly beyond a certain minimum value with the increase in the head
developed by the pump.
6. The overall efficiency of a reciprocating pump also increases with the
increase in the head developed by the pump as shown in Fig. 5.41.1.
5–50 A (ME-Sem-3) Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines SQ–1 A (ME-Sem-3)
du
Velocity gradient
dy
Fig. 1.7.1.
SQ–4 A (ME-Sem-3) 2 Marks Questions
=–u
y
= – (a2 – y2) dy = (y2 – a2) dy
y3
On integration, = ya2 c
3
2.8. Discuss velocity potential function.
Ans. Velocity potential function is defined as a scalar function of space
and time such that its negative derivative with respect to any
direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction. It is denoted by .
u=– ,v = – ,w=–
x y z
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines SQ–7 A (ME-Sem-3)
3 Boundary Layer
Thickness
(2 Marks Questions)
SQ–10 A (ME-Sem-3) 2 Marks Questions
Impact of Jet,
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines SQ–13 A (ME-Sem-3)
5 Centrifugal and
Reciprocating Pumps
(2 Marks Questions)
2. Hs = hs + hd pd v d 2 ps v d 2
Hm = Zd – Zs
g 2 g g 2 g
SQ–14 A (ME-Sem-3) 2 Marks Questions
5.18. What will be the total % work saved by fitting the air vessel ?
Explain. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Work saved in single acting reciprocating pump is 84.8 % while in
double acting reciprocating pump the work saved is 39.2 %.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines SP–1 A (ME-Sem-3)
B.Tech.
(SEM. III) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2019-20
FLUID MECHANICS AND FLUID MACHINES
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 70
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
Section-A
Section-B
Section-C
SP–4 A (ME-Sem-3) Solved Paper (2019-20)
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
Section-A
W 14
1. Specific weight, w= = 7000 N/m3
V 2 10 3
m w 7000
2. Mass density, = = 713.5576 kg/m3
V g 9.81
1 1
3. Specific volume, v= = 1.401 × 10– 3 m3/kg
713.5576
Density of petrol 713.5576
4. Specific gravity, S= = = 0.714
Density of water 1000
8
1. For soap bubble, p =
d
pd 2.5 40 10 3
2. Surface tension, = = 0.0125 N/m
8 8
Ans.
1. It is the square root of the ratio of the inertia force to the pressure
force of a flowing fluid.
Fi
Mathematically, Eu =
Fp
2. Pressure force (FP) = Pressure × Area
= p×A
Inertia force (Fi) = Av 2
Av2 v
Eu =
pA p/
i. Significance :
1. It signifies those flow problems or situations in which pressure
gradient exists.
ii. Applications :
1. Discharge through orifice and mouth piece.
2. Pressure rise due to sudden closure of valves.
3. Flow through pipes.
4. Water hammer created in penstocks.
Ans.
Given : Area of plate, A = 1.5 × 1.5 = 2.25 m2, v = 50 km/hr =
13.89 m/s, Density of air, = 1.15 kg/m3, Coefficient of drag,
CD = 0.15, Coefficient of lift, CL = 0.75.
To Find : i. Lift force, and
ii. Drag force.
1. Lift force,
v2
FL = CL A
2
1.15 13.892
= 0.75 2.25 = 187.2 N
2
v2
2. Drag force, FD = CD A
2
1.15 13.892
= 0.15 2.25 = 37.44 N
2
2
1. Area, a= d (0.075)2 = 0.004417 m2
4 4
2. The forced exerted by the jet of water on a stationary vertical plate
is given by,
F = av 2
= 1000 × 0.004417 × 202 ( = 1000 kg/m3)
= 1766.8 N
Ans.
i. Capillary Rise when Two Concentric Glass Tubes :
1. T cos = (r20 – ri2) hg ...(1)
But T = (r0 + ri)
2. Substituting value of T in eq. (1), we get
(r0 + ri) cos = (r20 – ri2) hg
(r0 + ri) cos = (r0 + ri) (r0 – ri) hg
cos
3. Capillary rise, h =
(r0 ri ) g
T T T T
ri r0
Fig. 1.
B. Capillary Rise when Two Vertical Glass Plates Set Parallel :
1. Let, = Surface tension,
= Contact angle.
h = Height of liquid between plates above general
liquid surface.
2. The weight of liquid of height h is balanced by the force between
the plates = Volume of liquid of height h between the plates × w
= t×L×h×w ...(2)
Where, L = Length of plate, and
w = Weight density of the liquid.
3. Vertical component of surface tensile force
= ( × circumference) × cos
= × 2L × cos ...(3)
4. For equilibrium, eq. (2) and eq. (3) must balance.
t × L × h × w = × 2L × cos
2 cos
or h=
tw
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines SP–9 A (ME-Sem-3)
Liquid
Fig. 2.
d = (1 2 y) dy
2 y2
= y – +K
2
= y – y2 + K ...(3)
The constant of integration K is not a function of y but it can be a
function of x.
SP–10 A (ME-Sem-3) Solved Paper (2019-20)
1/7
u y
Given : =
U0
To Find : i. Displacement thickness.
ii. Momentum thickness.
iii. Shape factor.
iv. Energy thickness.
1. The displacement thickness * is given by,
u
* = 1 U
0 0
dy
1/ 7 1/ 7
y u y
= 1 dy
0
U0
y1/7
= 1
0
1/ 7
dy
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines SP–11 A (ME-Sem-3)
y1/ 7 1
= y
8 1/7
7 0
7 8 /7 7
= = 8
8 1/7 8
2. The momentum thickness is given by,
u u
= U 1 U dy
0 0 0
1/7 1/ 7 1/ 7
y y u y
= 1 dy
0 U0
y1/7 y 2/7
= dy
0
1/7
2/ 7
y1/ 7 1 y 2/7 1 7 8 /7 7 9 /7
= =
8 9 2/ 7 8 1/ 7 9 2/7
1/7
7 7 0
7 7 63 56 7
= = =
8 9 72 72
7 8 7
3. Shape factor = = =
* 72 9
4. Energy thickness δe is given by,
u u2
e = 0 U0 1 U 2 dy
0
1/ 7 2/ 7
y y
= 0
1 dy
y1/ 7 y3/ 7
= dy
0
1/7 3/ 7
y1/ 7 1 y3/ 7 1
=
8 1/7 10 3/7
7 7 0
7 8/ 7 7 10/ 7
= 1/7
8 10 3/ 7
7 7
=
8 10
7
=
40
SP–12 A (ME-Sem-3) Solved Paper (2019-20)
W vw2 u2
=
g 1000
W v w2 u2
g 1000
m =
SP
SP–14 A (ME-Sem-3) Solved Paper (2019-20)
Power output
o =
Power input
Section-C
ec
2 m /s
= 2 0 cm
v2
=2
d2
v1 = 2.5 m/sec
3
d1 = 30 cm
v3 =
?
d3 =
1 15 c
m
Fig. 4.
1. Area of pipe (1),
2
A1 = d1 (0.3)2 = 0.07068 m2
4 4
v1 = 2.5 m/s
2. Area of pipe (2),
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines SP–15 A (ME-Sem-3)
A2 = (0.2)2 = 0.0314 m2
4
v2 = 2 m/s
3. Area of pipe (3),
A3 = (0.15) 2 = 0.01767 m2
4
4. Let Q1, Q2 and Q3 are discharge in pipe 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
Then according to continuity equation,
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 ...(1)
5. The discharge Q1 in pipe 1 is given by,
Q1 = A1v1 = 0.07068 × 2.5 = 0.1767 m3/s
6. The discharge Q2 in pipe 2 is given by,
Q2 = A2v2 = .0314 × 2.0 = 0.0628 m3/s
7. Substituting the values of Q1 and Q2 in eq. (1),
0.1767 = 0.0628 + Q3
Q3 = 0.1767 – 0.0628 = 0.1139 m3/s
8. We know that, Q3 = A3v3 = 0.01767 × v3
0.1139 = 0.01767 × v3
0.1139
v3 = = 6.446 m/s
0.01767
H
1 2
Fig. 5. Pitot-tube.
1. Let p1 = Intensity of pressure at point (1),
v1 = Velocity of flow at (1),
p2 = Pressure at point (2),
v2 = Velocity at point (2),
H= Depth of tube in the liquid, and
SP–16 A (ME-Sem-3) Solved Paper (2019-20)
D C
x=0 x=1
A y=0 B X
Fig. 6.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines SP–17 A (ME-Sem-3)
1. Circulation,
ABCD = ABCD (udx vdy)
= AB (udx vdy) + BC (udx vdy)
+ CD (udx vdy) DA (udx vdy)
1 1 3 1 1
= 0 (x y)dx 0 ( x y)dy ( x y)dx ( x3 y)dy
0 0
1 1 0 0
x2 y2 x2 3 y2
= xy x3 y xy x y
2 0 2 0 2 1 2 1
2 2 2 2
= 1 1 0 0 0 0 13 1 1 13 0 0
2 2 2 2
02 12 3 02 3 12
+ 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
2 2 2 2
=0
Circulation per unit area = 0
p
1 = D0 v 2 1 p
v2
8. 2-term : 2 = Da2 vb2 c2 l
Substituting the dimensions on both sides,
M0L0T0 = [L]a2 [LT – 1]b2 [ML– 3]c2 L
Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides,
Power of M, 0 = c 2, c2 = 0
Power of L, 0 = a2 – b2 – 3c2 + 1, a2 = b2 + 3c2 – 1 = – 1
Power of T, 0 = – b2, b2 = 0
On substituting the values of a2, b2 and c2 in 2 term, we have
l
2 = D 1 v0 0 l
D
9. 3-term : 3 = Da3 vb3 c3
Substituting the dimensions on both sides,
M0L0T0 = [L]a3 [LT – 1]b3 [ML– 3]c3 [ML– 1T– 1]
Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides,
Power of M, 0 = c3+1, c3 = – 1
Power of L, 0 = a3+ b3 – 3c3 – 1, a3 = – b3 + 3c3 + 1
=1–3+1=–1
Power of T, 0 = – b3–1, b3 = – 1
On substituting the values of a3, b3 and c3 in 3 term, we have
3 = D – 1 v – 1 – 1 = / Dv
10. 4-term : 4 = Da4 vb4 c4 k
Substituting the dimensions on both sides,
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines SP–19 A (ME-Sem-3)
k
4 = D – 1 v 0 0 k =
D
11. Substituting the values of 1, 2, 3 and 4 in eq. (1), we have
p l k
f1 2 , , , =0
v D D v D
p l k
or = , ,
v2 D v D D
1 p 2
= r
8 x
1
= (7848) (0.05)2
8 0.7
r
d 1
0.05
2 2
= 3.50 m/s
4. Reynolds number,
ud
Re =
3.50 0.1
= 1300 = 650
0.7
Solid
body
Fig. 7.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines SP–21 A (ME-Sem-3)
vr = vr = 13.77 m/s
2 1
vw = vr cos – u2
2 2
= 13.77 cos 20° – 10 = 2.94 m/s
3. Work done by the jet per second on the runner is given as
= av1 [vw + vw ]u
1 2
= 1000 × 0.7 × [23.77 + 2.94] × 10
( av1 = Q = 0.7 m3/s)
= 186970 Nm/s
186970
4. Power given to turbine = = 186.97 kW
1000
5. The hydraulic efficiency of the turbine is given as,
2[vw1 v w2 ]u
2[23.77 2.94] 10
h =
v12 23.77 23.77
= 0.9454 or 94.54 %
u2 vw 2
v vf2
2
vr 2
v1
u1 vr 1
vw 1
Fig. 8.
X X
Fig. 9.
Hm Hm
Q
N2
v f
N2
Hm v f Hm
3/ 2
Hm
Q
N2
Hm3/ 2
Q=K ...(5)
N2
Where, K = Constant of proportionality.
7. If Hm = 1 m, Q = 1 m3/s, so N = Ns, then from eq. (5), we get
(1)3/2
1=K
N s2
Ns2 = K
8. Putting the value of K in eq. (5), we get
Hm3/ 2
Q = Ns2
N2
N Q
3/4
Ns =
Hm
This expression is showing the specific speed of pump.
h ad D H C
hd
D'
Pressure head
E F
hs 0 ° B'
= 0° G =9 h as
B
Hatm
h as A = 180°
n
A' S uctio
S T
Stroke length
Fig. 10. Effect of acceleration on indicator diagram.
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines SP–25 A (ME-Sem-3)
ls A 2
The accelerating head, has = r
g as
ls A 2
Negative pressure (vacuum) head, hs + has = hs + r
g as
l A 2
Absolute pressure head = Hatm – hs s r
g as
ii. At the Middle of the Suction Stroke :
The acceleration head, has = 0
Negative pressure (vacuum) head = hs
Absolute pressure head = Hatm – hs
iii. At the End of the Suction Stroke :
ls A 2
The acceleration head, has = – r
g as
ls A 2
Negative pressure (vacuum) head = hs + has = hs – r
g as
l A 2
Absolute pressure head = Hatm – hs s r
g as
B. Effect of Acceleration in the Delivery Pipe :
1. In the beginning of delivery stroke the liquid in the delivery pipe is
accelerated, while at the end of delivery stroke the liquid is retarded.
2. Let ld and ad are the length and cross-sectional area of the delivery
pipe respectively.
i. At the Beginning of the Delivery Stroke :
ld A 2
Pressure (gauge) head, hd + had = hd + r
g ad
ii. At the Middle of the Delivery Stroke :
Pressure (gauge) head = hd ( had = 0)
iii. At the End of the Delivery Stroke :
ld A 2
Pressure (gauge) head = hd – r
g ad
ld A 2
Absolute pressure head = Hatm + hd – r
g ad
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