7 max , 1 presents; 

Test, oral exam

1/
TRANSLATION THEORY: MAPS AND “TURNS’
4 periods of the theory, practice and history of translation (George Steiner):
1) from Cicero’s statement up to the publication of A. Tytler’s “Essay on the Principles of Translation” (1791) –
immediate empirical focus; (Statement on Translation first recorded: sense for sense, not word for word. ….-long
period. essay research exclusively devoted to translation - empirical focus(based on an immediate experience on
translation) can be subdivided:roman concept (sense for sense translation, in ancient rome, translation was special
art of making poem.  post colonial translation(canibalistic approach, former colonyzed. you dont get separated, u
adept everything and process but in your own way to become a country).     MEDIeval (latin, greek, hebrew -
prestigious languages) their approach is word for word. horizontal-wondering plot(блукаючий сюжет) extremely
free.     REFormation.      john dryden translated from Ovid…..paraphrase (with some latitude) was a supoter of
paraphrase. 17 c.           Tytler

2) to the 40s of the 20th c. – hermeneutic enquiry with the development of the vocabulary and methodology of
approaching translation; (enlightenment:opposition is described in “on different methods of translating”....Goethe -
first used the phrase : the world literature . ігор костейбкий використ барокову мову, важка для розуміння.

3) from the 40s to 60s – the introduction of structural linguistics and communication theory; 4) from the 60s –
interdisciplinarity.

 Roman concept of translation: the art of translation consisted in sense for sense translation
 Medieval translation: vertical (translation into the vernacular from a SL that has a special value) and horizontal
(SL and TL have similar value).
 Reformation: national translations of the Bible
 Classicism: John Dryden (1680): metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation; metaphor – translator / portrait painter.
A. Tytler “Essay on the Principles of Translating” (1791): 1) translator should give a complete transcript of the idea
of the original; 2) the style and manner should have the same character as the original; 3) translation should have the
same ease(простота) as the original.

 Enlightenment:
Gottshed - translation should correspond to the rule of normative poetics and the translator is to correct imperfections.
Breitinger - the mentality of the nation is reflected in its language, therefore all elements of the original should be
preserved.

 The Romantic concept

F. Schleiermacher. “On different methods of translating” (1813) – 2 methods of translation: “Alienation”
(foreignizing) and “Naturalization” (domestication). (the translator’s sublanguage).
Goethe – the concept of the world literature; three phases of translation: 1) acquaints us with a foreign world in our
own terms; 2) the translator absorbs the sense of the foreign texts but reproduces it in his own terms; 3) perfect
identity between the TT and ST.

The linguistic turn in translation begins in the 1950s. The viewpoint of translation has shifted from empiricism
(direction in the theory of knowledge, recognizing sensory experience as a source of knowledge and asserting that all
knowledge is based on experience.) to scientism(the view that science is the best or only objective means by which
society should determine normative and epistemological values).
Theories and approaches within the linguistic turn are generally text-based, source oriented, prescriptive and
absolutely linguistic.

Eugene Nida’s Science of Translation (1964)

1) Techniques for determining referential and emotive meanings: Hierarchical structuring (hyponyms-
hyperonyms), componential analysis and semantic structure analysis (the analysis of various contextual meanings
of a word).
2) deep and surface structure (back-transformation)
3) formal vs dynamic equivalence

EUGENE NIDA’S SCIENCE OF TRANSLATION.

Two major works in the 1960s: Toward a Science of Translating (1964) and the co-authored The Theory and Practice
of Translation (Nida and Taber, 1989). Nida borrows theoretical concepts and terminology both from semantics and
pragmatics and from N.Chomsky’s work on syntactic structure which formed the theory of generative-
transformational grammar.

Nida develops functional definition of meaning in which a word “acquires” meaning through its context and can
produce varying responses according to culture.
Techniques for determining referential and emotive meanings: Hierarchical structuring (hyponyms-hyperonyms),
componential analysis and semantic structure analysis (the analysis of various contextual meanings of a word).

Chomsky’s generative-transformational model:

 Base component composed of lexical rules and phrase-structure rules that generate an underlying or deep
structure which is
 transformed by transformational rules to produce
 a final surface structure, which itself is subject to phonological and morphemic rules. The most basic of such
structures are kernel sentences, which are simple, active, declarative sentences that require the minimum of
transformation.
 
Nida’s back-transformation model
ST surface structure → ST deep structure → TT deep structure → TT surface structure
The level of deep structure involves:

 events (often but not always performed by verbs);

 objects (often but not always performed by nouns);
 abstracts (quantities and qualities, including adjectives);
 relationals (including gender, prepositions and conjunctions).

 Formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content
 Dynamic equivalence is based on what Nida calls the principle of equivalent effect, where the relationship
between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original
receptors and the message.
 
Lecture 1. The history of Translation Studies: pre-theoretical stage. 
As an academic discipline translation theory was elaborated comparatively recently, in the second half of the 20 th
century. Yet seminal ideas on the nature of translation and methods of translating had been repeatedly expressed in the
previous epochs, at least since the 1st century BC.    
George Steiner in his monograph with the symbolic title After Babel outlines 4 periods of the theory, practice and
history of translation: 1) from Cicero’s principle “sense for sense versus verse for verse translation” up to the
publication of Alexander Tytler’s Essay on the Principles of Translation (1791) – pre-theoretical stage when ideas on
translation were shaped by translators themselves in prefaces, commentaries, sometimes even in the poetic form (e.g.
Horace); 2) to the 40s of the 20 th c. – first tentative attempts to elaborate the metalanguage of translation theory and
apply hermeneutic methodology to understanding the nature of translation; 3) from the 40s to 60s of the 20s c. – the
introduction of structural linguistics and communication theory into the study of translation; 4) from the 60s of the 20 th
c.  – translation at the interface with other philological and scientific disciplines. As Steiner’s periods do not cover the
21st c. it is possible to add a new tendency: to view translation within the framework of philosophical, in particular,
phenomenological trends. 
The preliminary stage of the development of translation theory had its key hallmarks in the following cultural epochs: 
1. Ancient Rome.  As translations were done from Greek, the language understood by educated Romans, the task of
translators was more aesthetic than pragmatic: to develop Roman literature and show that borrowed ideas can be
better expressed in Latin. The governing tendency was to reshape Greek texts according to Roman literary norms
and cultural principles. As S. Bassnett aptly said: Translation then was an exercise in comparative stylistics. 
2. Middle Ages. Translations were scarce as prestigious languages (Greek and Latin) prevailed in church and
education. If religious and philosophical texts contained commentaries in a vernacular tongue, they were as literal
as possible to avoid accusations in violating sacred words. Mistranslations resulting from the tendency to render
the first meaning of a word reverberated in the cultural images up to the 20 th c.; e.g. horns (instead of halo) of
Michelangelo’s Moses borrowed by Ivan Franko in his poem Moses. Unlike religious text, medieval secular
literature often freely used foreign topics, so calls wandering plots, and transplanted them onto the new ground.    
3. Reformation that was not only the religious but also translation movement encouraged the development of
national languages and decline of Latin. The idea of “dominion by grace” implied free access to the
communication with God, i.e. the possibility to read the Bible in the believer’s tongue. Bible translators of the 16th
century (Martin Luther in Germany, John Wicliffe in England) tried to correct errors resulting from the literal
approach in the previous versions and produce a comprehensible and aesthetically satisfying text.  Martin Luther
in the preface to his Bible (1534) indicated that “to translate” for him meant “to Germanize” (to domesticate, in
general terms). An emblematic figure of the time was Etienne Dolet, who expressed the demand of the new epoch
in a separate article (1540 “How to translate well from one language into another”) and was executed for
implementing his principles of digressing from word-for-word approach into practice (alleged mistranslation of a
Plato’s dialogue evoking  doubts in the immaculate conception). 
4. Classicism established the free mode of translation as the borrowing of ancient models and motifs and changing
realia. This tendency was openly formulated by the British author and translator John Dryden (1680) who on
describing metaphrase as a literal translation and imitation as an unduly free one, spoke in favour of paraphrase as
translation with some latitude.
5.  The didactic undercurrent of Enlightenment can be traced in the clash of opinions of German / Swiss scholars
(mid 18th c): Johann Gottsched and his Leipzig circle and his Swiss antagonists Johann Bodmer and Johann
Breitinger. Gottshed supported the idea that translators are obliged to correct imperfections of the original as a
good translation should correspond to the rule of normative poetics. Breitinger preceded Humboldt in his claim
that the mentality of the nation is reflected in its language, therefore there are no superfluous words in the original
that can be left out in translation. The concise summery of 19 centuries of developing ideas on translation and
translating is provided in Tytler’s essay: 1) the translator should give a complete transcript of the idea of the
original; 2) the style and manner should have the same character as the original; 3) translation should have the
same ease as the original. 
6. The Romantic concept of translation was stipulated by hermeneutic methodology and the keen interest of the
epoch to other cultures and languages in all their strangeness and specificity. The conflicting views of
Romanticists on translation were expressed by August Wilgelm Schlegel (1810) who translated 13 plays of
Shakespeare: The original is a living organism, all the details of which should be preserved in the translation.
 However, the translation should be read with ease and naturalness as if it had been written in the target language.
Most important work on translation at that period is the article by Friedrich Schleiermacher On different
methods of translating (1813) where two methods of translation were differentiated: “alienation” (foreignizing)
and “naturalization” (domestication). The chosen method depends on the genre of the text: texts with factual
language (business-related texts) are easily translatable because of terminological constraints; poetic and
philosophical texts with the flow of time accumulate culture-bound concepts, feelings, attitudes that are language
specific and can be rendered only be alienating method that implies: 1) literal translating ; 2) artificial language
somewhere between the two languages involved where the special feeling of the original is rendered through
strangeness (sublanguage).
The concept of the world literature was introduced be Goethe who discriminated three phases of translation: 1)
acquaints us with foreign countries in our own terms (Luther’s Bible), domesticated and simplified prose translation;
2) the assimilation of foreign ideas and feelings, appropriation through substitution and reproduction (French
classicism); 3) perfect identity between the original and translation that combines the uniqueness of the original with a
new form and structure.
In the Victorian England seemingly impossible blending of foreignizing and domestication approaches resulted in the
archaizing principle, conveying the remoteness of time and language through the use of a mock antique tongue . 
Mathew Arnold in his article On translating Homer (1860) claimed:  since Homer is classic the translation should use
the language of the British undoubted classical text King James Bible. Contrary to this, Edward Fitzerald who was the
first to acquaint the British reader with Persian poetry in the preface defends his right for extreme freedom of
translation treating original authors as “not poets enough”. 
 These random views on translation defined either as “the art”, “the craft” or as “principles” had been paving the way
for approaching translation theory that was to establish itself in the 20 th century. 

Recommended literature:
1. Бабенко В. М. Художній переклад: історія, теорія, практика. Українська перекладацька школа / В. М.
Бабенко. – Кіровоград : Вид-во Кіровоградського держ. педуніверситету ім. Володимира Винниченка,
2007. – 326 с.
2. Кальниченко О.А., Подміногін В.О. Історія перекладу та думок про переклад у текстах та коментарях. –
Харків: НУА, 2005. 
3. Лановик М. Теорія відносності художнього перекладу. Літературознавчі проекції. – Тернопіль, 2006.
4. Семенец О.Е., Панасьєв А.Н. История перевода (Средневековая Азия, Восточная Европа Х -XIII вв.). - К.:
Лыбидь, 1991. - 365 с. 
5. Bassnet-McGuire S. Translation Studies / New Accents. – London and New York: Methuen, 1980. – V. XII. –
159 p.
6. Kelly L. G. The true interpreter. A history of translation and practice in  the West. - Oxford: Basil Blackwell,
1979. - 257 pp. 
7. Nida Е.A. Toward a science of translation, with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible
translating. - Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1964. - 331 pp.
8. Steiner G. After Babel. Aspects of language and translation. -Oxford & New York: Oxford Univ. press, 1992. -
538 pp.  
9. Theories of Translation. An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida. – Chicago and London: The University
of Chicago Press, 1992.
L2
Lecture 2. Translation theory as a discipline, its history, object and typology.
The third period in Steiner’s stratification marks both the introduction of linguistic approach to analyzing translation
and  the birth of translation theory. In the 20th c. the synchronic approach to language replaced the diachronic one (F.
de Saussure, Ch. Ballie), semiotics researched the bilateral nature of a linguistic sign, semantic and communicative
study of language units developed. 
The first monograph on linguistic aspects of translation was authored by the Soviet scholar Andriey Fiodorov. His
book Introduction to Translation Theory (Введение в теорию перевода (1953)), reedited in 1958 with the subtitle
Linguistic problems and in 1968 and 1983 as Fundamentals of General Translation Theory (Основы общей теории
перевода), views translation theory from three angles: history of the subject; general tasks and demands set by the
language of translation; general tasks and conditions of translation connected with a) the genre of the text; b)
individual style of the author. In 1964 I. Rievzin and V. Rozenzveig in their book Fundamentals of General and
Machine Translation (Основы общего и машинного перевода) attempted at establishing links between structural
linguistics, theory of machine translation and linguistic translation theory. 
In the USA linguistic approach to translation resulted in the term “science of translation” introduced by Eugene Nida,
who in 1964 entitled his theoretical handbook Towards a Science of Translating. The new coinage implied modern
scientific methods introduced to the analysis of translation: 1) generative transformational grammar (relying on
Chomsky’s Syntactic structures (1957), Nida viewed translation as a back-transformation from the ST surface
structure (actual sentence in a given language) to the deep structure (all syntactic and semantic information that
determines the meaning; common to all languages) then to the TT surface structure; 2)componential analysis; 3) the
principle of dynamic equivalence – the effect produced on the reader of the translation should be the same as the effect
produced on the reader of the original. This was to support Nida’s idea that the translator should naturalize the Bible
according to the new cultural context (e.g. translate “our father” as “our mother” for those tribes where the main deity
is woman). His main principle lied in communicating across cultures the spirit of the original message.  Nida’s theory
was further developed in Germany as Ubersetzungswissenschaft (science of translation). Wolfram Wilss in his work
Ubersetzungswissenschaft. Probleme und Methoden (1977) (The Science of Tr.: Problems and Methods (1982))
elaborated the map of the science of translation as divided into three related but separate branches of research: 1)
general science of translation which is text-linguistics oriented; 2) descriptive studies of translation focusing on the
phenomenon of translation equivalence; 3) applied research pointing out particular translation difficulties and ways of
solving specific problems.
Most widely used designation for translation theory is Translation Studies whose launch coincides
with Steiner’s fourth interdisciplinary period. The subject of Translation Studies is translation/interpreting as a
creative activity related both to language and literature implying language contact, rendering of the original text (ST)
in source language (SL) by means of the target language (TL) to create a target text (TT).
Translation studies (a term promoted by the Dutch-based US scholar James S. Holmes in his article The Name and
Nature of Translation Studies (1972)) is a collective and inclusive designation for all research activities of the
phenomena of translating and translation. Objectives:
1. to describe the phenomena of translating and translation(s) as they manifest themselves in the world of our
experience 
2. to establish general principles by means of which these phenomena can be explained and predicted.
Holmes elaborates an overall map describing what Translation Studies covers. It is divided into pure
and applied Translation Studies. The two branches of pure Translation Studies are descriptive (DTS)(translation
description) and theoretical (TTS) (translation theory).
DTS is further divided into product-oriented, function-oriented and process-oriented. 
Product-oriented DTS describes existing translations (individual and comparative), can be both synchronic and
diachronic.
Function-oriented DTS describes how translations function in the recipient socio-cultural situation; which texts were
(or were not) translated at a certain time in a certain place, what influences were observed.
Process-oriented DTS concerns itself with the process of translation itself, i.e. the problem of what exactly takes place
in the translator’s mind. Psychologists have developed and are developing highly sophisticated methods for analyzing
and describing other complex mental processes.
TTS uses the results of DTS combines with the information available from related fields to develop principles,
theories, and models which will serve to explain and predict what translating/interpreting and translations are and will
be. TTS can be general and partial. General TTS account for description of any type of translation and making
generalizations that will be relevant for translation as a whole. Partial TTS are restricted to a certain sphere: medium-
restricted theories (machine and humans, how a translation is done), area-restricted theories (specific languages or
groups of languages/cultures), rank-restricted (level of the word or sentence), text-type restricted theories (discourse
types or genres), time-restricted theories, problem-restricted theories.
The applied branch of Holmes’s framework concerns:
Translator training: teaching methods, testing techniques, curriculum design
Translation aids: dictionaries, grammars and information technology
Translation criticism: the evaluation of translations, including the marking of student translations and the reviews of
published translations.
Translation policy: the place of translation, translating and translator in society, including what place, if any, it
should occupy in the language teaching and learning curriculum. “Translation policy” would nowadays far more likely
be related to the ideology that determines translation. 
In each of the three branches of Translation Studies there are two further dimensions: historical and methodological or
meta-theoretical. Historical aspect implies the history of translation theory as well as the history of translation
description and of applied translation studies. The other aspect concerns itself with problems of what methods and
models can best be used to achieve the most objective and meaningful descriptive results, as well as with what the
discipline itself comprises.
Gideon Toury, a representative of the Israeli polysystem school, in his monograph Descriptive Translation Studies –
and Beyond introduces some changes into Holmes’ map. Instead of the term “applied branch” he uses “applied
extensions”, thus, emphasizing the secondary status of translators’ training, translation aids and translation criticism.
Besides, Holmes stresses that the relationship between the theoretical, descriptive and applied branches is dialectical,
each branch providing insights for and using insights from the other two. Toury treats this relationship as strictly
unidirectional.
A bit different scheme of Translation Studies is elaborated by the representative of the school of manipulation Susan
Bassnett-McGuire in the book Translation Studies (1980). She subdivides the field into four general areas of interest
that partly overlap: two are product-oriented and two are process-oriented:
1. History of Translation as a component of literary history: investigates theories o translation at different
times, critical response to translation, commissioning and publishing translations, the role and function of
translation in a given period, methodology of translation and analysis of works of individual translators.
2. Translation in the TL culture: analyses the influence of a text, author or genre, assimilation of the norms of
the translated text into the TL system, principles of selection within that system.
3. Translation and Linguistics: compares the arrangement of linguistic elements between the SL and the TL
text with regard to phonemic, morphemic, lexical and syntactic levels; studies linguistic equivalence and the
problems of non-literary texts.
4. Translation and Poetics: studies literary translation in theory and practice (general or genre-specific). It
analyses the poetics of individual translators and the interrelation between SL and TL texts and author-
translator-reader.
In the 1980s an integrated approach was introduced by a Vienna-based scholar Mary Snell-Hornby (Translation
Studies: An Integrated Approach, 1988, revised ed. - 1995). She sees translators and theorists working in the field as
being “concerned with a world between disciplines, languages and cultures”. Thus, modern Translation Studies is
viewed within the broader framework with other arts and sciences: general linguistics and its branches (lexicology,
grammar, stylistics, phonetics); special linguistics (historical linguistics, contrastive grammar, contrastive semantics,
sociolinguistics, dialectology, pragmalinguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive linguistics); anthropology;
hermeneutics; cultural and literary studies; sociocultural and area studies; philosophy; cybernetics; study of special
subject.
         Ukrainian scholars since 20s of the 20 th century have been working out theoretical principles of translation. We
may take pride in the fact that the first monograph on theory and practice of translation appeared in Ukraine. Olexandr
Finkel’ in his Theory and Practice of Translation (1929) shows three directions of research in the field of translation:
translation criticism (evaluation of quality of translations); translation didactics and translation history. While
elaborating the university course “Methodology of Translation” in 1932/1933, Mykhailo Kalynovych and Mykola
Zerov also were among the first in Ukraine to distinguish in Translation Studies the theoretical aspect (methodology of
translation, history of translation and history of Translation Studies) and the practical one (partial methodology of
translation – from native language into the foreign one and vice versa). 
         In the fundamental article Translation Studies as a Separate Branch of Philology  (Перекладознавство як
окрема галузь філології) Viktor Koptilov  outlines the following branches: 
1) General theory of translation studies the main stages of translation process, substantiates the analysis of
translation, provides argumentation to the philosophical basis of translation and elaborates universal techniques for
artistic translation. 
2) Partial theory of translation primarily concerns two languages that come into contact in translation. The
expressive potential of these languages, their stylistic differentiation, the level of development of each language come
into light. The main aim of this theory is to draw recommendations about the most effective ways of translating texts.
3) Typological theory of translation generalizes the experience of translated works of a certain genre in literatures in
the binary opposition to find functional typological and imagery analogies that can be used in the process of
translation. 
4) Translation Criticism  analyses translations from the viewpoint of postulates formulated by the general theory. V.
Koptilov distinguishes between (a) the literary translation criticism that evaluates the choice of works for translation,
reviews the interrelation of creative individualities of the author and translator, etc., and (b) linguistic translation
criticism that estimates translations from the viewpoint of the language culture, i.e. whether the target language
corresponds to the norms of the contemporary literate language. 
5) History of Translation is the study of multiple translations as the history of evolution of the art of translation.
Koptilov outlines (1) the literary study of the history of translation which provides the analysis of the influence of the
translated works on the national literature and social life and (2) linguistic study of the history of translation which
analyzes the history of the development of the language means for expressing the content and the style of the original. 
         
Recommended literature:
1. Коптілов В. Актуальні питання українського художнього перекладу / В. В. Коптілов ; [ред. :
Л. Л. Щербатенко, В. Д. Лелеко, Т. І. Хохановська]. – К. : вид-во Київського університету, 1971. – 130
с.
2. Коптілов В.В. Теорія і практика перекладу:Навч. посіб. – К.: Юніверс, 2002. – 280 с.
3. Ревзин И.И., Розенцвейг В.Ю. Основы общего и машинного перевода. - М.: Высш. шк., 1964. - 243
с. 
4. Рецкер Я. И. Теория перевода и переводческая практика. – М.: Междунар. отнош., 1974. – 216 с.
5. Федоров А.В. Основы общей теории перевода (Лингвистические проблемы). - М.: Высш. шк., 1983. -
303 с. 
 6. Черноватий Л.М., Карабан В.І., Подміногін В.О., Кальниченко О.А., Радчук В.Д. О.М. Фінкель –
забутий теоретик українського перекладознавства: Збірка вибраних праць. – Вінниця: Нова Книга,
2007. – 438 с.
7. Шмігер Т. Історія українського перекладознавства ХХ сторіччя. – Л.: Смолоскип, 2009. –343 с.
8. Bassnet- McGuire S. Translation Studies. - London & New York: Methuen,  1980. - 172 pp.
9. Catford J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics. – London: Oxford Univ.
Press, 1965. – viii, 103 pю
10. Genztler Е. Contemporary translation theories. - London & New York: Routledge, 1993. - 220 pp.
11. Holmes J. Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. – Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988. –
117 p.
12. The nature of translation. Essays of the theory and practice of literary translation / Ed. by J.S. Holmes. -
Mouton, the Hague, Paris: Publ. House of Slovak Acad. of Sciences, 1970.
13. Nida Е.A. Toward a science of translation, with special reference to principles and procedures involved in
Bible translating. - Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1964. - 331 pp.
14. Snell-Hornby М. Translation Studies. An integrated approach. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: J. Benjamins
publ. Co. -  1988. - 164 pp. 
15. Toury G. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond. – Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins
Publishing Company, 1995. – 311 p.
16. Toury G. In search of a theory of translation. - Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics, 1980.
- 246 pp.  

Pragmatics as a modern branch of linguistic inquiry has its origin in the philosophy of language. Its
philosophical roots can be traced back to the work of the philosophers Charles Morris, Rudolf Carnap, and Charles
Peirce in the 1930s. Influenced by Peirce, Morris (1938: 6-7), for example, presented a threefold division into syntax,
semantics, and pragmatics within semlotics a general science of signs. According to this typology, syntax is the study
of the formal relation of one sign with another, semantics deals with the relation of signs to what they denote, and
pragmatics addresses the relation of signs to their users and interpreters'.

Pragmatics is the study of LANGUAGE from the point of view of the users, especially of the choices they
make, the constraints they encounter in using language in social interaction, and the effects their use of language has
on the other participants in an act of communication“

One of the most important notions which have emerged in text studies in recent years is that of implicature -
the question of how it is that we come to understand more than is actually said. Grice (1975) uses the term implicature
to refer to what the speaker means or implies rather than what s/he literally says. Implicature is not to be confused
with non-literal meaning, for instance with idiomatic meaning. Idiomatic meaning is conventional and its
interpretation depends on a good mastery of the linguistic system in question rather than on a successful interpretation
of a particular speaker's intended or implied meaning in a given context. For instance, in the following exchange A:
Shall we go for a walk? B: Could I take a rain check on that? the successful interpretation of B's response depends on
knowing the conventional meaning of take a rain check in American English ('to ecline to accept an offer or invitation
immediately but indicate willingness to accept it at a later date'). No conversational implica- ture is involved here.
Compare this with a similar exchange which does not involve the use of an idiom: A: Shall we go for a walk? B: It's
raining. How does A, or anyone observing the scene, know how to relate the utterance 'It's raining'- a mere comment
on the weather to the question of going for a walk? Why do we assume that 'It's raining' is meant as an answer to the
above question? One answer which has already been suggested is that we do it in order to maintain the assumption of
coherence. If we do accept it as an answer, how do we know how to interpret it? Does it mean 'No, we'd better not
because it's raining', 'OK, but we'd better take an umbrella', or perhaps 'Yes - we both like walking in the rain'? Note
also that the same utterance It's raining can mean something totally different in a different context.
 The “pragmatic turn” in linguistics during the 1970s is seen as a clear swing from the rigid dogmas of the then
dominant transformational generative to the more practical and flexible approach viewing language as action in
relation to the world around and especially to the situation concerned. One of the major forces of this new paradigm
was the then revolutionary speech act theory. The process continued with the inclusion of social and communicative
aspects of language and the emergence of text linguistics.

The speech act theory was introduced by Oxford philosopher J.L. Austin in How to Do Things With
Words and further developed by American philosopher J.R. Searle. This widely cited work starts with the observation
that certain sorts of sentences, e.g. I now pronounce you man and wife, and the like, seem designed to do something,
here to wed, rather than merely to say something. Such sentences Austin dubbed performatives, in contrast to what he
called constatives, to be employed mainly for saying something rather than doing something. The point of Austin’s
lectures was, in fact, that every normal utterance has both a descriptive and an effective aspect: that saying something
is also doing something. In place of the initial distinction between constatives and performatives, Austin substituted a
three-way contrast among the kinds of acts that are performed when language is put to use, namely the distinction
between locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts, all of which are characteristic of most utterances,
including standard examples of both performatives and constatives.

Locutionary acts, according to Austin, are acts of speaking, acts involved in the construction of speech, such as
uttering certain sounds or making certain marks, using particular words and using them in conformity with the
grammatical rules of a particular language and with certain senses and certain references as determined by the rules of
the language from which they are drawn.

Illocutionary acts, Austin’s central innovation, are acts done in speaking, including and especially that sort of act that
is the apparent purpose for using a performative sentence: christening, marrying, and so forth. The conclusion was
drawn that the locutionary aspect of speaking is what we attend to most in the case of constatives, while in the case of
the standard examples of performative sentences, we attend as much as possible to the illocution.

The third of Austin’s categories of acts is the perlocutionary act, which is a consequence or by-product of speaking,
whether intended or not. As the name is designed to suggest, perlocutions are acts performed by speaking. According
to Austin, perlocutionary acts consist in the production of effects upon the thoughts, feelings, or actions of the
addressee(s), speaker, or other parties.

From Searle's view, there are only five illocutionary points that speakers can achieve on propositions in an utterance,
namely: the assertive, commissive, directive, declaratory and expressive illocutionary points. Speakers achieve
the assertive point when they represent how things are in the world ("There is no better cook than me."),
the commissive point when they commit themselves to doing something, "I will not let you do that." the directive
point when they make an attempt to get hearers to do something,( "Would you be so kind as to pass me the salt?)
the declaratory point when they do things in the world at the moment of the utterance solely by virtue of saying that
they do ("I now pronounce you husband and wife".) and the expressive point when they express their attitudes about
objects and facts of the world ("Really, I'm sorry I said that.")

In the 1970s, based on the equivalence theory, Katharina Reiss put forward text typology in accordance with
the categorization of the three functions of language by German linguist Karl Bühler. In Karl‟s work, he divides the
language functions into three categories: informative function; expressive function and appellative function.
Borrowing from Karl’s method of classification, Reiss links the three functions to their corresponding language
„dimensions‟ and to the text types or communicative situations in which they are used. So she divides texts into three
main types and a supplementary one, namely informative texts, expressive texts, operative texts and audio-medial
texts.
1. Informative text type: „Plain communication of facts‟: information, knowledge, opinions, etc. The language
dimension used to transmit the information is logical or referential, the content or „topic‟ is the main focus of the
communication.
2. Expressive text type: „Creative composition‟: the author uses the aesthetic dimension of language. The author or
„sender‟ is foregrounded, as well as the form of the message.
3. Operative text type: „Inducing behavioural responses‟: the aim of the appellative function is to appeal to or
persuade the reader or „receiver‟ of the text to act in a certain way, for example to buy a product (if an advert), or to
agree to an argument (if a political speech or a barrister‟s concluding statement). The form of language is dialogic and
the focus is appellative.
4. Audio-medial texts, such as films and visual and spoken advertisements which supplement the other three
functions with visual images, music, etc.
Reiss’ text-typology includes a two-phase approach in translating a text: Phase of analysis and phase of
reverbalization. The analysis phase basically involves establishing the text type, genre and style (linguistic form).The
phase of analysis is the most important as that is what would inform the translation method to employ.
12. Katherina Reiss was one of the first to propose translation-oriented text classification with 3 basic text types:
 Informative (report, lecture, tourist brochure, official speech, instructions),
 Expressive (poems, play, biography),
 Operative( sermon, electoral speech, ads),
Language functions:
 Informative (can be realized through the explanation of facts)
 Expressive (express sender’s message)
 Appellative (desired response from the addressee)

Skopos Theory
“Skopos theory”, meaning “the end justifies the means” (Nord, 2001, p. 124), is an approach to translation which was
first put forward by Hans J. Vermeer and developed in the late 1970s. The word “skopos” which was derived from
Greek, meaning nothing but “aim” or “purpose”, is a technical term for the aim or purpose of a translation (Vermeer
227). The theory focuses above all on the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation methods and
strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result. Vermeer believes it as an “offer
of information” that is partly or wholly turned into an “offer of information” for the target audience. Its aim is to
liberate the translation from the confinement of the source text and orient a more functional and socio-cultural concept
of translation which consider the translation process as a specific form of human action.

He worked hard to explain the translation activity from the point of view of the target language. This theory stresses
the interactional, pragmatic aspects of translation, arguing that the shape of target text is a more important factor
determining the purpose of a translation. In the frame of Skopos theory, the function of a translation is dependent on
the knowledge, culture background, history values and norms of the target readers, who are influenced by the social
environment they are in. These factors determine whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text
can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed.

“Skopos rule” as the top-ranking rule for any translation, means a translational action depends on its skopos . Vermeer
thinks that each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve the purpose.

Because of differences in cultural background, thinking patterns and methods of expression, the intention of the source
language author’s and the form of original discourse are not fully in accordance with the target readers’ living habits.
The Skopos rule decides the translation strategies according to the expected purpose from the target readers’ point of
view. As the most significant rule of Skopos theory, it required the translation action be determined by its “Skopos” or
purpose. It means a translational text must be in accordance with some principle which is decided in specific situation
and influenced by translation commission. Thus, this rule is used to settle the argument of free or faithful translation,
dynamic or formal equivalence and domestication or foreignization. It means different translation methods such as a
“literal” or a “faithful” translation can be used to a certain translation task according to its purpose.

The coherence rule points out that the target text “must be interpretable as coherent with the target text receiver’s
situation”. That is to say, the target text must be translated in such a way that it makes sense in the communicative
situation where it is received and can be fully understood by the target text receivers, considering their social situation,
culture and knowledge. Coherence rule, in another word, the intra-textual coherence, means that the target text should
be fluent in the target receiver’s circumstance. Translator picks out terminology that is easy to accept by the target
readers and tries to be in line with the target reader’s expectation. Under the guide of coherence rule, the source text is
only part of the translation belief (brief) which offers information for the translator, who in turn makes decisions on
which part is meaningful and can be acceptable in a sense in the receiver’s situation.

Fidelity Rule
Since translation is to offer information, it is expected that there is an accurate relationship between information
offered by target text and that by corresponding source text. Vermeer names this relationship “inter-textual coherence”
or “fidelity” which means the target language text or the translated text should be faithful to the source language text.
It requires the translation should be faithful to the source text. The extent of faithfulness depends on the purpose of the
text and the understanding of the source text by the translator.

This is a further principle, also known as the “fidelity rule” by Reiss and Vermeer in 1984.The fidelity rule merely
states that there must be coherence between the translated version and the source text. Fidelity rule is regarded as a
subordinate rule to both coherence rule and Skopos rule. The above basic rules are to guide the translator in the whole
translation process. Since the source text is an offer of information in the process of translating the translator adopts
appropriate strategies to translate he source text according to the purpose of translation and the understanding of the
source text.

FUNCTION PLUS LOYALTY

According to Skopos theory, translation is determined by translation brief"; (A translation brief is a set of indications
and instructions that are compiled and sent to your translation provider at the beginning of every translation project.)
Pym questions the apparent neglect of the ST, undue emphasis on the TT and the 'freedom' skopos theory gives the
translator to produce any kind of text as dictated by the translation brief.
In response to such claims (Pym) Chritiane Nord advanced the Theory of FUNCTION PLUS LOYALTY. According
to the theory, though the client's brief determines the skopos of the translation, it is not the only determining factor for
the translation. The translator should be loyal to the ST author by ensuring that he does not produce a TT that falsifies
the author's intentions. Loyalty isused to refer to the responsibility of translators, as mediators between two cultures,
towards their partners namely, the source-text author, the client or commissioner of the translation, and the target-text
receivers. While function requires that the translation be modelled to fit into the brief provided by the commissioner,
loyalty requires the translator to justify their choice of translation method by considering the interests of all the
participants involved in the translation, not just that of the client. A translator should not produce a translation that
goes contrary to the brief; they also should satisfy the expectations of the target audience as well as not falsify the
intentions of the author. "With the addition of the notion of "loyalty" the translator is now ethically and professionally
responsible to either observe the expectations their partners have of their work or to tell them why these expectations
have not been met". Two questions may be raised against the loyalty principle: 1) Is it always possible for every party
to be made happy by the translator? According to Nord, the translator has the moral obligation not to translate on a
brief that will falsify the author's intention. If after explaining the situation to the client and the client insists on not
modifying the brief to make up for the defect, the translator has the moral responsibility to refuse to do the translation.
2) This raises the second question: will the adoption of the documentary translation in situations where the source
culture is markedly different from the target culture, seen in the additional explanations the translator has to make for
the reader, not affect the reception of the work since the audience is aware that the text is not the original, but a
translation? Though the reader might be affected by the realisation, the style shows that the translator has some respect
for the reader and will help build their confidence in the translator for taking the pains to explain their strategy and
choices.
The theory of situational dimentions. The original House model of translation quality assessment (1977,
2nd ed. 1981) is based on theories of language use. It was designed to provide an analysis of the linguistic-discoursal
as well as the situational-cultural particularities of originals and translated texts, a principled comparison of the two
texts and an evaluation of their relative match.
1. Medium: simple/complex

These distinctions between different combinations of spoken and written modes are important because, even if a text
is meant to be spoken and is, in fact, at some stage spoken, there is still a difference between genuine spoken language
(as in a conversation) and the above mentioned ‘spoken’ subcategories of the written mode.

2. Participation: simple/complex A text may be either a ‘simple’ monologue or dialogue, or a more ‘complex’
mixture involving, in an overt ‘monologue’, various means of indirect participation elicitation and indirect addressee
involvement manifest linguistically, for instance, in a characteristic use of pronouns, switches between declarative,
imperative and interrogative sentence patterns or the presence of contact parentheses, and exclamations
3. Social role relationship - the role relationship between addresser and addressees, which may be either symmetrical
(marked by the existence of solidarity or equality) or asymmetrical (marked by the presence of some kind of
authority). In considering the addresser’s social role vis-à-vis the addressee(s), account is further taken of the
relatively permanent position role (teacher, priest) and the more transient situational role (visitor in a prison, speaker
at a given occasion)

4. Social attitude - the degree of social distance or proximity resulting in relative formality or informality. She
adopted the distinction between different styles suggested by Joos (1961), which consists of five different styles or
levels of formality: frozen, formal, consultative, casual and intimate.

In using consultative style, the addresser does not assume that he can leave out certain parts of his message – which he
might be able to do in a socially closer relationship where much of the message is ‘understood’. In consultative style,
the author has to be fairly elaborate in supplying background information.

Casual style is especially marked by various degrees of implicitness, in which the addresser may indulge because of
the level of intimacy between himself and the addressee(s). Background information is not necessary: casual style is
used with friends or ‘insiders’ of all kinds with whom the addresser has something to

share or desires or imagines that there is something to share. Ellipses, contractions,

and the use of lexical items and collocations marked [- formal] are characteristic

linguistic markers of casual style.The consultative and the casual style levels, which are both colloquial styles, are
used to deal with public information. By contrast, intimate style excludes such public information; it is the language
used between people who are personally very close to each other, with a maximum of shared background information
being available.

Formal style deviates from consultative style in that addressee participation is to a large degree omitted. Formal texts
are well structured, elaborate, logically sequenced, and strongly cohesive. They clearly demonstrate advance planning.
Frozen style, like intimate style an extreme style, is the most formal, premeditated, often ‘literary’ style. Frozen texts
may be consummate products of art meant for the education and edification of the readers, but this style may also be
used in business letters, in which the social distance between writer and reader is thus given expression.

5. Province

Province is thus very broadly defined, referring not only to the text producer’s

occupational and professional activity but also to the field or topic of the text in

its widest sense of ‘area of operation’ of the language activity as well as details of

the text production, as these can be deduced from the text itself.

A textual function is to be kept equivalent in translation, it is posited that the function of a text can be determined by
opening up the linguistic material (the text) in terms of the above set of situational constraints. The evidence in the
text which characterizes it on any one particular dimension is, of course, itself linguistic evidence. The situational
dimensions and their linguistic correlates are then considered to be the means by which the text’s function is realized,
i.e. the function of a text is established as a result of an analysis of the text along the eight situational dimensions as
outlined above. The basic criterion of functional match for translation equivalence can now be refined: a translation
text should not only match its source text in function, but employ equivalent situational-dimensional means to achieve
that function, i.e. for a translation of optimal quality it is desirable to have a match between source and translation text
along these dimensions which are found – in the course of the analysis

L3
“PRAGMATIC TURN” in linguistics (1970s)
Language as action in relation to the world around and the situation concerned
Pragmatics is the study of language from the point of view of the user (the choices the user makes, the effect of the
text on the user in the act of communication).

Albrecht Neubert :
Pragmatic equivalence (the relation between words and their users) → Semantic equivalence (the relation between
words and their referents) → Syntactic equivalence (the relation between words).

A sentence is a common linguistic structure shared by a variety of utterances which differ only in their non-linguistic
properties.

Speech act theory.

An utterance as a speech act consists of
1) locution or sense;
2) illocution or force;
3) perlocution or effect.
Illocutionary status of a text (a text act) is the global picture of more and less prominent speech acts within the text.

TEXT LINGUISTICS
Katherina Reiss (Text Types, Translation Types and Translation Assessment, 1989) applied the notion of functions of
language to translation. Text types: informative (report, lecture, tourist brochure, official speech, instructions);
expressive (poems, play, biography), operative (sermon, electoral speech, advertisement). Language function:
informative (represents objects and facts), expressive (expresses sender’s attitude), appellative.

Ch. Nord “Text analysis in translation” (1991)

1) Translation brief
 the intended text functions;
 the addressees (sender and recipient);
 the time and place of text reception;
 the medium (speech and writing);
 the motif (why the ST was written and why is being translated).
2) ST analysis:
 subject matter,
 content
 presupposition (припущення)
 composition
 non-verbal elements
 lexis, sentence structure,
 supersegmental features (stress, rhythm, stylistic punctuation).
3) Functional hierarchy in translating:
 The intended function of the translation should be decided (documentary - or instrumental).
 To determine those functional elements that need to be adapted to the TT addressees
 To decide on the translation style (source-culture or target-culture oriented).
 To solve textual problems at a lower linguistic level.

SKOPOS THEORY
Reiss, Vermeer Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation (1984)
Skopos is the purpose of the translation, which determines translation strategies and methods that are employed to
produce a functionally adequate result or translatum.

 A TT is determined by its skopos.

 A TT is an offer of information in a target culture and TL concerning an offer of information in a SC and SL.
 Function of translation in the TC is not necessarily the same as in the SC.
 A TT must be inherently coherent. (по своїй суті послідовний) (for the TT receiver, given their circumstances
and knowledge)
 A TT must be coherent with the ST. Fidelity (точність, вірність) rule: Coherence (узгодженість) between the ST
information received by the translator; the interpretation the translator makes of this information; the information
that is encoded for the TT receivers.
 The five rules above stand in hierarchical order with the Skopos rule predominating.

Christiane Nord “Function+Loyalty: Theology Meets Scopos” (2016).

The theory of functional loyalty. Equivalence as a “fuzzy” concept. “Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in
translation theory: the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined (even after a heated debate of
over twenty years) presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague
approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation” (M. Snell-Hornby “The Illusion of
equivalence”)
Principle of loyalty.
Translators as “mediators between members of two cultures should be loyal towards all their partners in the
intercultural interaction. Loyalty is an interpersonal relationship built on mutual trust, a guiding principle between
partners who have to rely on each other’s competence, fairness and good will”
Principle of functionality
“It obliges the translator to respect the sender’s communicative intentions, as far as they can be elicited, and turns
functionalism into an anti-universalist model that takes different culture specific concepts of translation into
consideration”.
The skopos or intended function is to “bridge the gap” between the two cultures by making the SC accessible to the
TR without taking its strangeness or “otherness” away. This skopos can be paraphrased as “Otherness
Understood,”and all the decisions that were taken during the translation process were geared to this overall purpose.

Translation quality assessment and situational dimensions analysis by Julianne House.

Julianne House (A Model of Translation Quality Assessment , 1977; Translation Quality Assessment: Past and
Present, 2015) every text is placed within a particular situation which has to be correctly identified and taken into
account by the translator. If the ST and the TT differ substantially on situational features, then they are not
functionally equivalent, the translation is not of a high quality.
Juliane House’s model deals with ST and TT analysis by particularly focusing on “mismatches” and “errors”. The
TT has to be compared with the textual profile of ST to make qualitative statements about the translation.
Translation quality assessment has two functional components:
1) the ideational refers to empirical research, description, analysis and explanation.
2) the interpersonal relates to judgments of values and appropriateness.
 Situational dimensions
Dimensions of language user
1. Geographical origin
2. Social class
3. Time
Dimensions of language use
1. Medium: simple/complex
2. Participation: simple/complex
3. Social role relationship
4. Social attitude
5. Province

 “Statement of function” for the ST: description of ideational component (the very content) and interpersonal one
(the relationship between the sense and recipient)
 The same description of the TT.
 Comparison of the ST and TT schemes and statement of the mismatches on the level of situational dimensions
 A statement of quality of translation.
 Categorising translation as overt or covert (functionally equivalent to the ST).

James Holmes’s Map of Translation Studies (1972)

 G.Toury’s Map (1995)

• Interdisciplinarity is a multidimensional concept which "consists in creating a new which object which does not
belongs to anybody" (R. Barthes)
• Tr is intertwines with sociology, cultural studies, linguistics, historiography, philosophy and literary studies. It leads
to the establishment of "turns" which offer innovative potential for the research.

Mary Snell-Hornby (Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach, 1988, revised ed. - 1995).
Integrated approach: "concerned with a world between disciplines, languages and cultures". TrS is viewed within the
broader framework with other arts and sciences: general linguistics and its branches (lexicology, grammar, stylistics,
phonetics); special linquistics (historical linguistics, contrastive grammar, contrastive semantics, sociolinguistics,
dialectology, pragmalinguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive linguistics); anthropology; hermeneutics; cultural and
literary studies; sociocultural and area studies; philosophy; cybernetics; study of special subject.

Л4
RETRANSLATION, RELAY TRANSLATION AND PLAGIARISM
Points for discussion:

 Retranslation (translation multiplicity): definition

 Relay (indirect) translation
 Retranslation as a product and a process, types of retranslations
 Retranslation hypothesis
 Factors of retranslations
 Retranslation and plagiarism
Retranslation is defined as several translations of a work that has already been translated into the same target
language.
Types of retranslations or translation multiplicity:
 synchronic (simultaneous): translations of the same text done by different translators within relatively short time
span;
 diachronic: translations of the same text done by different translators and separated by a considerable temporal
gap;
 restricted: translations meeting the demands of different social and cultural groups (Hamlet tr. by Yu.
Andrukhovych in 1999);
 individual translator’s multiplicity: two or more versions of the same translation done by the same translator
(Prologue to Moses tr. by Vera Rich in 1957, 1973, 2006).

Reasons for retranslations

 Evolutionary: results from the change of the language structure, textual links and social and cultural perception
(A. Fiodorov, 1988, A.Neubert & G.Schreve, 1992)
 Deconstructive: results from the multiplicity of senses, the absence of the unified meaning of the text, “many-
voiced” principle (J. Derrida, M. Foucault)

The term retranslation is also used for translations from the translated versions of the original (“relay translation, or
indirect translation”).

Ivan Franko’s translation of Byron’s Cain (1879) –

allegedly a relay translation from German translation by Otto Gildermeister (1876)
DEATH: аn awful shadow [Byron] – ein finster Schatten [tr. by Gildermeister] − мара якась понура [tr. by Franko];
CYPRESS AS A SYMBOL OF DARK FUTURE: gloоmу tree – ein finster Baum − древо понуре;
UNEASINESS BEFORE THE MURDER: (...) а dreary dream // Had madden’d me [Byron] -(…) ein finster
Traum // Trieb mich zum Wahnsinn(...) [tr. by Gildermeister] – (…) сон понурий // Отуманив мене [tr. by Franko].

Oleksandr Hriaznov’s translation of Byron’s Cain (2006) – allegedly a relay translation from Russian
translation by Ivan Bunin (1904)
“Let me look at it, // For I was made of it” [Byron:] – “Дай поглянути на землю. Я син її” [tr. by Hriaznov] - “Дай
мне взглянуть на землю. // Я сын ее” [tr. by Bunin]
“That which I am I am” [Byron] – “Я син гріха” [tr. by Hriaznov]; “Я сын греха” [tr. by Bunin]
Who covets evil // For its own bitter sake? ─ None ─ nothing! // ’tis // The leaven of all life and lifelessness” [Byron]
– “І хто жадає зла? Ніхто й ніщо” [tr. by Hriaznov] – “Кто любит зло? Никто, ничто” [tr. by Bunin]

Oleksandr Hriaznov’s translation of Shakespeare’s Hamlet (2008) – allegedly a relay translation from Russian
version by Boris Pasternak (1940)
“O, my offence is rank, it smells to heaven, // It hath the primal eldest curse upon’t, // A brother’s murther” -
“Смердить моє злодійство до небес. // Прокляття найдавніше – братовбивство – // Мене затаврувало” -
“Удушлив смрад злодейства моего. На мне печать древневшего проклятья. Братоубийства грех”
“Queen: [...] cast thy nighted color off” - “Королева. Чи не доволі супитись, як ніч?” - “Королева. Ах, Гамлет,
полно хмуриться, как ночь”

Howard Lovecraft The Shadow over Innsmouth – relay translation by Yevhen Tarnavskyi (2017, Folio Publ.
House) from Russian translation by Sierov, Liebiediev, Musatov and Talanov (1993)
“During the winter of 1927-1928 officials of the Federal government made a strange and secret investigation of
certain conditions in the ancient Massachusetts seaport of Innsmouth”
“В течении всей зимы 1927-1928 годов официальные представители федерального правительства проводили
довольно необычное и строго секретное изучение состояния старого иннсмаутского порта”
“Упродовж усієї зими 1927-28 років офіційні представники федерального уряду проводили доволі незвичне та
дуже таємне дослідження стану старого Інсмутського порту”

Howard Lovecraft The Shadow over Innsmouth – relay translation by Yevhen Tarnavskyi (2017, Folio Publ.
House) from Russian translation by Sierov, Liebiediev, Musatov and Talanov (1993)
“But at last I am going to defy the ban on speech about this thing”
“Что касается меня, то я все же намерен бросить своеобразный вызов и нарушить заговор молчаливого
молчания относительно упомянутых событий”
“Щодо мене, то я все ж маю намір кинути своєрідний виклик і порушити заборону щодо цих подій”

Relay translation precedent in Ukraine

In 2015 relay translation of Steven King’s Pet Cemetery by Volodymyr Poliakov was won out of sale and retranslated
by Anatoliy Pityk and Kateryna Hrytsaichuk (Клуб Сімейного Дозвілля).
Retranslation can be viewed from two viewpoints: as a product and as a process.
In terms of a product, retranslation is a second or subsequent translation of the same ST into the same TL, whereas in
terms of process, it is a phenomenon which occurs within the period of time (Kaisa Koskinen, Outi Paloposki, 2010)

Retranslating and literary canon formation are mutually dependent: retranslations help texts in achieving the status of
a classic, and the status of a classic often promotes further retranslations (Leonardo Venuti, 2004).
«Кожне покоління перекладачів входить зі своїми блокбастерами світової літератури» (Юрій
Андрухович,2021)

In addition to ‘world literature’ and children’s classics, some scholars have also studied non-fiction (see e.g. Sebnem
Susam-Sarajeva 2006 on retranslating literary and feminist theory, and Luis von Flotow on feminist retranslation of
Simone Beauvoir 2009)

Російський синодальний переклад (1878) як джерело перекладу Біблії Київською Патріархією УПЦ КП
(переклад Патріарха Філарета (Денисенка), 2004.
Пісня пісень 4.1: “о, ты прекрасна, возлюбленная моя, ты прекрасна! Глаза твои голубиные под кудрями
твоими” (Русский Синодальный перевод);
“О, ти прекрасна, люба моя, ти прекрасна! Очі твої блакитні під кучерями твоїми” (Пер. Патріарха
Філарета)
“Яка ти прекрасна, моя ти подруженько, яка ти хороша! Твої оченятка, немов ті голубки, глядять з-за
серпанку твого!” (Пер. І. Огієнка)

Tr S issues raised by retranslation data

 the changing translation norms and strategies,

 the standardization of language,
 the effects of the political or cultural context

According to Koskinen and Paloposki, retranslation can be studied from at least two aspects: the profiles of
retranslations (which version in succession is more domesticated or foreignized) and the reasons for retranslation.

RETRANSLATION HYPOTHESIS by Antoine Berman and Paul Bensimon

Retranslations are expected to contribute to a better reception and transmission of an original; they are improved
translations. First translations are domesticating, whereas the following retranslations are foreignizing.

Factors motivating retranslations (Enrico Monti, 2011)

1. to restore the textual integrity of the source text since the previous translation is unsatisfactory because of
omissions or modifications
2. to recover a direct link to the source text, a link that could be missing in the previous translation (relay
translation). The status of any language as a lingua franca may be the cause of many cases of relay translations.
3. to revitalize the previous translation(s) that age(s).
4. to improve the previous translation(s) with the help of new lexicographical and research tools.
5. to give a new perspective to the text when some perspectives or dimensions of the source text were not
sufficiently taken into consideration in previous translations.
6. to create a retranslation just because the operation proves to be more profitable than a new edition of the existing
translation.
The concept of voice.
The translators are naturally urged to give their own voice to their new work which would make them visible and
distinguishable. Other terms: “translator’s visibility” (Venuti 1995), translator’s discursive presence (Schiavi 1996),
translator’s style” (Baker 2000).

Using previous translations: retranslation or plagiarism?

Angela Leighton’s (1994): it’s mandatory to identify “the line between permissible and impermissible use of existing
translations to create improved new versions”.

Avril Pyman (1965): the principles for an ethical, proper and authentic retranslation.
1) A close scrutiny of previous translations will result in the interference which is unwanted because of ethical and
stylistic considerations (retranslation as “a stylistic freak”).
2) The translator’s good sense as the moral justification in the use of previous translation/s for the betterment of the
new one.

Distinguishing between retranslation and revision.

Revision, i.e. editing, correcting or modernizing a previously existing translation for re-publication, is sometimes seen
as a first step towards retranslation.
Some texts are hybrids, containing chunks of revised earlier translation and chunks of retranslation.

Льюїс Керрол. Аліса в Країні Чудес. Аліса в Задзеркаллі.

Пер. В. Корнієнка, М. Лукаша (вірші). За ред. М. Габлевич, І. Малковича. – Київ: А-БА-БА-ГА-ЛА-МА-ГА,
2001.

Льюїс Керрол. Аліса в Дивокраї.

Пер. В. Корнієнка. За ред. І. Малковича. – Київ: А-БА-БА-ГА-ЛА-МА-ГА, 2018. – 144 с.

I have answered three questions, and that is enough,

Said his father; “don’t give yourself airs!
Do you think I can listen all day to such stuff?
Be off, or I’ll kick you down stairs!”
− Я тобі відповів вже на троє питань,
Та дурний все одно не мудрішає.
Ти з дурницями, хлопче, від мене відстань,
Вимітайся, бо вижену втришия!
(Пер. М. Лукаша, Рад. Письменник, 1960; А-БА-БА-ГА-ЛА-МА-ГА, 2018)
Скільки можна дурних задавати питань!
Ти схибнувсь чи об’ївся метеликів?
Все, терпець мій урвався, благаю, відстань!
Вимітайся, бо дам духопеликів!
(Редакція І. Малковича, А-БА-БА-ГА-ЛА-МА-ГА, 2001)

PLAGIARISM IN TRANSLATION
Teresa Turell (2004) identifies two forms of plagiarism in translation: 1) a translated text is published as an original
work in another language. 2) the publication of an already translated text as a retranslation by another translator.
Plagiarism in translation is a violation of intellectual property rights but norms, boundaries and understanding of
plagiarism are culture bound.
A retranslation is the translator’s commitment for making a contribution to literature with a new translation together
with the retranslator’s own interpretation and personal approach to the literary work. A retranslator’s starting point is
by no means the previous translations, but the original work; in addition the dictionaries and his/her expertise in
translation. If the retranslator adopts some of the lexical, syntactic or stylistic units from previous translations, this
effort is evidently a case of plagiarism.
The evidence of plagiarism may have qualitative or quantitative nature and it may come on lexical level with respect
to overlapping vocabulary, shared once-only words, phrases, unique vocabulary and approach to word plays; or on
syntactic level with respect to “calque syntactic structures”; or on stylistic level with respect to recreation in the target
language or translational approach particularly chosen by the translator.

How to identify genuine and plagiarized retranslations?

1) the wholesale duplication of a previous translation can be identified with a simple comparison of two texts
manually or electronically.
2) subtle ways :
 lexical and syntactic modifications to the previous translation(s);
 combining random or non-random pieces of two or more previous translations to create a “new” product;
 rewriting an existing translation by adding “style” to it;
 rewriting an existing translation by taking the style from it;
 producing a condensed version of a relatively longer text;
 combining a partial retranslation with sections from previous translation(s;
 combining different sections of a literary work “translated” by several translators.

Turrell’s criterion for identifying plagiarism

“overlapping vocabulary”: up to 35 per cent of which is considered normal and up to 50 per cent is not unusual.
Further above 50 per cent of overlapping is likely to indicate a borrowing relationship between the texts.

L5
CULTURAL TURN. TRANSLATION AS REWRITING.

 Translation, History and Culture (1990) ed. by S. Bassnett and A. Lefevere.

M. Snell-Hornby: Cultural turn is a move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics.
Cultural turn in translation involves studies of changing standards in translation over time, time, the power on the
publishing industry to fit specific ideologies, feminist writing and translation, translation and colonization and
translation as rewriting.
Polysystem theory

 Papers in Historical Poetics (1978) by I. Even-Zohar: "polysystem" is the aggregate of literary systems
(including everything from "high" or "canonized" forms such as poetry to "low" or "non-canonized" forms in a
given culture. Translation is a part of receiving part polysystem.
3 social circumstances enabling the situation in which translation will maintain the primary position in the
polysystem:
1) When a literature is young or in the process of being established;
2) when a literature is peripheral or weak or both;
3) when literature is experiencing the crisis or turning-point. Translations serve not only as a medium through which
new ideas are introduced, but also as a form of writing most frequently imitated by creative writers in the native I.

In well-developed literary traditions translations perform secondary functions: they may introduce new ideas into a
culture preserving traditional form.

 The relationship between the translated texts and the literary polysystem is analysed along two lines: 1) how texts
to be translated are selected by the receiving culture. Socio-literary conditions of the TC determine those texts
 which get translated in the first place. These tr-ns are to fill the “vacuums” within a literary culture. If not, the
polysystem remains defective; 2) how translated texts adopt certain norms and functions as a result of their
relation to other target culture.

 Lefevere Translation, Literature and Manipulation of Literary Fame (1992) -examination of factors that govern
the reception, acceptance and rejection of literary texts: power, ideology, institution and manipulation.
 The motivation for rewriting can be ideological (conforming or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or
poetological (conforming or rebelling against the dominant poetics)

 Translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting and the most influential for it can project the
image of the author and his works beyond the boundaries of their culture and origin.

Editing as rewriting

 Ось ідуть вони юрбами, / Мов на відпуст з хоругвами (І. Франко)

 Ось ідуть вони юрбами, / Ті безхвості, ті з хвостами (Ред. М. Рильський)

Тут кінчиться наша казка.

Всім, хто слухати був ласка,
Дай же , Боже, много літ!
Най і наш весь сум пропаде!
А тим, хто нам коїть зради,
Най зійдеться клином світ!
Тут кінчиться наша казка.
Бубликів солодких в’язка
Тим, хто слухав, не шумів…
Може, дехто пригадає,
Що не раз таке буває
І в людей, як у звірів!
 James Aldridge “The Statesman’s Game”
 Пер П. Шарандака “Підступна гра” (1971), “Небезпечна гра” (1976)
 Спершу я взявся писати історію Руперта Райса в традиційній формі, бажаючи показати, що сталося за той
недовгий час. (…) Руперт поставав блідою тінню, Джо – нерозумною істотою, і лише такі особи, як
Фредді (його брат у других) здавалися вдалими персонажами. (1971)
 Спершу я почав писати історію Руперта Райса в традиційній формі, маючи намір показати, що сталося за
той недовгий час. (…) Руперт поставав блідою тінню, Джо – нерозумним сотворінням, і лише такі особи,
як Фредді (його двоюрідний брат) здавалися вдалими персонажами.

Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”

 Чи бути, чи не бути? Ось в чім річ. // Що почесніш для духу – чи терпіти // Скалки та стріли навісної
долі, // А чи повстати проти моря лих, // Збороти їх? Умерти – лиш заснути. // І все. І знати, що вриваєш
сном // Біль серця й тисячі природних мук (tr. by L. Hrebinka)
 Чи бути, чи не бути – ось питання . // Що благородніше? Коритись долі // І біль від гострих стріл її
терпіти, // А чи, зітнувшись в герці з морем лиха, // Покласти край йому? Заснути, вмерти - // І все. І
знати: вічний сон врятує, Із серця вийме біль (ed. by M. Tupailo)
Literary system in which translation functions is controlled by three main factors:
1. Professionals: critics and reviewers, teachers (decide what book to study) and translators.
2. Patronage is any kind of force that can be influential in encouraging and propagating, but also in
discouraging, censoring and destroying works of literature: ideological, economic and status component.
Undifferentiated patronage combines all three components; differentiated patronage.
3. The dominant poetics:
a) literary devices: genres, symbols, leitmotifs and prototypical situtations and characters;
b) the concept of the role of literature.

Thy days are done, thy fame begun; Скінчилася мука твоя…
Thy country’s strains record Тепер зійде щастя зоря!
The triumphs of her chosen Son, І в пісні зелених дібров
The slaughters of his sword! Воскреснеш ти, велетню, знов,
The deeds he did, the fields he won, І образ за волю борця
The freedom he restored! У ній буде жить безз кінця.
Thy name our charging hosts along, Ми в січі підіймем твій стяг
Shall be the battle-word! І пройдемо пасмо звитяг.
(Byron “The Days are Done”) (Пер. М. Старицького «Борцю»)

 Refracted texts (заломлені) are texts that have been processed for certain audience (children, for example), or
adapted to a certain poetics or certain ideology.

Forms of totalitarian refraction in translation

 Eliminating or toning down ideologically incorrect expression;

 The control over the choice of the original;
 The disappearance of translator’s names;
 Ideology in TS work.

 As a rich property owner says ‘Bolsheviks’ – as an earnest Communist says ‘Capitalists!’ – as a good housewife
says ‘Blackbeetles’ – so did Miss Williams say ‘Man!’ (A. Christie ‘Five Little Pigs”)
Слово «мужчина» вона вимовляла так, як гарна господиня сказала б – «таргани»! (Пер. М. Олійник)
L6
SOCIOLOGY OF TRANSLATION
INTRODUCTION
Since its rise in the 1960s, the disciplne of translation studies seems inclined toward paradigmatic shifts, or “turns”.
the “cultural turn” in the 1990s views the sociological turn of translation studies
the object of translation studies as “text convicts that translation is a social practice
embedded within its network of both
source and target cultural signs”
(Bassnettn & Lafevere)

According to sociology of translation, any translation is inevitably bound up within social contexts because:
 the act of translating is undeniably carried out by individuals in a social system
 the translation phenomenon is unavoidably implicated in social institutions, which greatly determine the selection,
production, and distribution of translation, and, as a result, the strategies adopted in the translation itself
EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY OF TRANSLATION
21-26 August 1972 – Copenhagen – Translation Section of the Third International Congress of Applied Linguistics –
Holmes first proposed the concept of translation sociology or socio-translation studies in his paper The Name and
Nature of Translation Studies (1972).
“Pursuing such questions as which texts were (and, often as important, were not) translated at certain time in a
certain place, and what influences were exerted in consequence, this area of research is one that has attracted less
concentrated attention…. Greater emphasis on it could lead to the development of a field of translation sociology”.
(Holmes)

 However, the systematic study of translation from a sociological perspective didn't come up until the 1990s.
 In the past over two decades, a series of works contributed to the emergence of a "translation sociology" and
brought about important insights into the construction of a public discourse on translation and the self-image of
translators and especially into the translation process itself, among other central issues (Inghilleri, 2003, 2005;
Buzelin, 2005, 2013; Wolf & Fukari, 2007; Pym, Shlesinger, & Simeoni, 2008).

The new conceptualization of translation as a social practice has brought about a variety of research fields which so
far have been under-researched, such as:
 institutions of translators' training
 professional institutions and their impact on
 translation practices
 working conditions
 questions of ethics in translation
 political aspects of translation etc.

In the 2000s, the sociological turn became one of the most prominent translation studies fields of research and
included diverse themes and theoretical paradigms (Baker, 2010). Several sociological theories have been applied to
translation studies:
 Bourdieu's theory of social fields
 Latour's actor-network theory
 Worf's translation sociology

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES IN TRANSLATION

Bourdieu and Sociology of Translation
In studies on language in society, Bourdieu is often seen as a macro-sociological theorist whose main contributions lie
in the field of theorizing social action and structuration, symbolic power relations and capital, and habitus.

According to Bourdieu (1984), capital is accumulated labor which enables agents or groups of agents to appropriate
social energy in the form of reified or living labor.

 Capital takes four fundamental forms:

 as economic capital, which is immediately and directly convertible into money and may be institutionalized
in the forms of property rights:
 as cultural capital, which is convertible, on certain conditions, into economic capital and may be
institutionalized in the forms of educational qualifications;
 as social capital, made up of social obligations ("connections"), which is convertible, in certain conditions,
into economic capital and may be institutionalized in the forms of a title of nobility;
 as symbolic capital, which designates the effects of any form of capital when people do not perceive them as
such.
 Капітал Івана Франка як соціального суб’єкта

Соціальний капітал Культуриний капітал Символічний капітал

1) дискусії та суперечки з М. 1) глибинне знання Святого 1) просвітницькі ідеали в
Драгомановим, П. Кулішем, І. Письма; поєднанні з тонким
Полюєм, В. Щуратом; 2) ознайомлення з найновішими інтелектуалізмом;
2) кофлікт із церковними досягненнями біблійної 2) духовно-творчий модус
діячами критики; власних художніх біблійних
3) лінгвістично-текстологічний інтертекстів;
аналіз Біблії та біблійних 3) формування міфів про І.
перекладів; Франка (від міфу про
4) захоплення пававилонізмом переконаного атеїста, до
ототожнення із старозвітніми
пророками)

 Habitus is a system of embodied dispositions, tendencies that organize the ways in which individuals perceive the
social world around them and react to it.
 These dispositions are usually shared by people with similar background in terms of social class, religion,
nationality, ethnicity, education, profession etc., as the habitus is acquired through mimesis and reflects the lived
reality to which individuals are socialized, their individual experience and objective opportunities.

Обридлість (втома від життя)

як емоційна домінанта перекладу І. Франка (1879 р.)
Габітус перекладача Біблійний інтертекст Книги Йова
“[…] такий дух конечно мусить обридити собі “My soul is weary of my life. […] Oh that I had given
життя, запираючи перед ним вхід до знання, up the ghost, and no eye had seen me. [Job 10:1,1]
обридити собі людей, будь вони й найближчі йому й
найдобродушніші”. Велика політична реакція того “I am sick of all // That dust has shown me - let me
часу, страшний суспільний і умисловий гніт – се dwell in shadow”. [G.G. Byron “Cain”] – “Життя ми
ґрунт на якому він виріс” [І. Франко “Замітка збридло. Тут в тій тьмі лишуся” [пер. І. Франка]
перекладчика”]
Болісна реакція молодого перекладача на соціальну “[…] an innate clinging, // A loathsome, and yet all
несправедливість (захоплення соціалістичними invincible // Instinct of life which I abhor as I // Despise
ідеями), нещодавний арешт і остракізм від myself, yet cannot overcome” [G.G. Byron “Cain”] –
галицького суспільства, болючі переживання шлюбу “Тільки вроджений наклін // Гидкий, але
Ольги Рошкевич. непереможний потяг // Держить мя при життію
Усе ми збридло, // І сам я збрид собі, а вмерти
годі”. [пер. І. Франка]
Десакралізація, акцентування богоборства як витоку ідеології войовничого атеїзму.
Ідеологічні кліше в перекладі Ю. Корецького (1929 р.)
«Суть твору полягає в гнівному протесті проти тиранії. […] проклятого Каїна біблії поет перетворив
на героя-бунтаря з неспокійним розумом, людину, яка не з задрості, не з низьких якихось міркувань убиває
брата, а робить це в принциповій боротьбі проти тирана-бога» (Ю. Корецький, стаття «Джордж Гордон
Байрон»)
“By being // Yourself in yourself resistance” [G.G. Byron “Cain”] – “Боріться. // Собою будьте” [пер. Ю.
Корецького]
“Spirit! Whate’er or whoso’er thou art, // Omnipotent, it may be – and if good, // Shown in the exemption of thy
deeds from evil” [G.G. Byron “Cain”] – “Дух, ким не був би, чим не був би ти! // Всевладний? Може… Добрий?
Доведи, // Що зла нема в діяннях твоїх”. [пер. Ю. Корецького]
“[…] there is // A wisdom in the spirit, which directs // To right”. [G.G. Byron “Cain”] – “У духа // Ємудрість, що
до правої мети // Скеровує” [пер. Ю. Корецького]; порівн біблеїзм праведна путь [Прип. 8:20]

 A field is a setting in which agents and their social positions are located.
 The position of each particular agent in the field is a result of interaction between the specific rules of the field
agent's habitus and agent's capital (social, economic and cultural).

 Within Bourdieu's theoretical framework, translators with their own habitus and capital compete in the field of
power capital relations and thus practice translation.
 Bourdieu's conceptualization of the relationship between agency and structure has proved useful for addressing
the reproductive or transformative potential of acts of translation within particular historical and socio-cultural
contexts and the specific impact of translators and the complex of networks in which they operate on translation
activities.

Callon and Latour’s Actor-network Theory

Whereas Bourdieu assumes that society can only be explained by analyzing practices and relating them to their
authors' position in society as well as to their own trajectory, Latour claims that to understand a society one must,
above all, analyze the way humans and non-humans interact, i.e., how the artefacts that circulate in this society
(starting with scientific and technological ones) are produced.

 According to Latour (1997), actor-networks encompass human and non-human actors, i.e., anything that can
induce, whether intentionally or not, an action.
 Both human and non-human actors are treated equally according to the principle of generalized symmetry.
 Actor-network theory tries to explain how material-semiotic networks come together to act as a whole.
 The theory assumes that nothing lies outside the network of relations and suggests that there is no difference in the
ability of technology, humans, animals, or other non-humans to act (and that there are only enacted alliances).
 As soon as an actor engages with an actor-network it too is caught up in the web of relations, and becomes part of
the entelechy.

In light of Latour's theory, translation is a heterogeneous network in which human actors such as translators and
commissioners and non-human actors such as translation companies and paralleled texts interact with each other.

PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF SOCIOLOGY OF TRANSLATION

Current Problems in Sociology of Translation
1. TERMINOLOGY
sociology of translation
translation sociology } terms used in different studies and in most cases can replace each other.
socio-translation studies

The sociology of translation is a more proper name than translation sociology, as far as latter may indicate the study
subject is sociology, but the methods of study and theoretical basis are from translation studies.

2. STUDY SUBJECT
3 types of sociology of translation studies (Wolf):

 sociology of agents
 sociology of the translation process
 sociology of the cultural product
As sociology of translation deals with the macro environment of translation activities, some researches question that
its ignorance of language and text may make it deviate from the essence of translation studies.

 Translation is viewed as a "socially regulated activity" (Th. Hermans) as its involves individuals who are social
creatures and social institutions that determine translation strategies.
1) Sociology of agents

 Shifts from texts and contexts to individual translators as central objects of the research, "socially conditioned
subjectivity" (A. Pym)
Sociology of the translation process

 Scopos is socially motivated, translation is a deliberate and conscious act of selection and structurization.
Sociology of the cultural product

 Translation makes contribution to the construction of social identity, image, social role and ideology.

Chesterman "The Name and Nature of Translator Studies" (2008)

 The sociology of translators covers such issues as the status of translators in different countries, rates of pay,
working conditions, role models and translators' habitus, professional organizations, translators' networks,
copyright, public image of the translators' profession and so on + gender and sexual orientation and how it
affects a translator's work and attitudes.
 Translator Studies focus not on translations as texts, not even on translating process but on translators themselves
and other agents involved, on the agent model.

 On the one hand, sociology of translation focuses on social and cultural elements that influence the selection,
production, and distribution of translation.
 On the other hand, it is also concerned with language conversion, text production and translation strategies. It
advocates studying language, text and other micro questions in a macro context of field, system and network.
 In fact, to deny translation activity as a social phenomenon and repercussions of its social context on text
production is a real deviation from translation studies.

L7
Cognitive Linguistics. Conceptual Analysis
Cognitive linguistics is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive
and conceptualise experience. Its official launch is the 17th of July 1989 - the first symposium in Germany where the
International Cognitive Linguistic Association was set up.
Cognitive linguistics works from the premise that meaning is embodied, i.e. meaning is grounded in the shared
human experience of bodily existence. Human bodies give us an experiential basis for understanding a wealth of
concepts such as IN vs. OUT, UP vs. DOWN, NEAR vs. FAR, COUNT vs. MASS. FIGURE vs. GROUND.

All experience is filtered by perception, thus language is not a description of the real world but rather a description
of human perception of reality. Human beings are usually ignoring the vast majority of perceptual information
available at every given instant. The tension between what is perceptually and cognitively foregrounded and what is
backgrounded can be resolved in different ways, even by the same person in different moments. In CL this
phenomenon is called construel and it has important linguistic consequences.

Axioms of cognitivism: it researches not just events (products being watched) but their mental representations,
symbols, strategies and other human processes and capabilities that cannot be watched.
Culture forms a person, he is always under the influence of his culture. The global task of Cultural Studies is to
learn the categorization of the world and principles of verbalizing mental units (concepts) and their functioning in the
megatext. This can be done through contrasting them with analogous units of other languages to reveal culturally
marked information and culturally marked concepts.

Concept - «Concept is a general mental content also called sense" (V. Kuznetsov), "operative content unit of the
memory, mental lexicon, conceptual system and language of the brain (lingua mentalis), of the whole picture of the
world reflected in the human mind" (Ye. Kubriakova).

 Concept is a compressed knowledge about a segment of reality, a complex culture-focused socio-psychic

structure in the collective consciousness which is verbalized. !!!!! (collective consciousness of the nation)

Classification of concepts according

to O. Selivanova
according to the type of conceptualization:

 ideas (generalized sensory and visual images, the core of the concept);
 schemata (abstract configurations of images);
 notions (most essential signs of the concept);
 frames (methods of representing standard knowledge).
according to the place of concepts in the structure of consciousness' (the same concepts can be viewed in each type):

 cultural;
 mental;
 mythological;
 ideological;
 philosophical.
parameter of the object of conceptualization:

 anthropoconcepts;
 natural facts;
 artifacts;
 cultural;
 emotional;
 concepts-archetypes
parameter of the subject of conceptualization:

 general (universal);
 ethnoconcepts;
 group concepts;
 idioconcepts
according to the scope of information:
 zero;
 standard (in the minds of average native speakers);
 specified;
 encyclopaedic.
according to the quality of information:

 notional and logical;

 artistic;
 paradoxical.
(One more important notion is a conceptual sphere (conceptual lot) means the same. there I saspecific type of
semnatic lings existing between different concepts (a whole group of concepts with links among them) ,^ the
conceptual sphere of colour (when they are verbalized, they may lead to some challenging tasks )
«І взагалі помаранч – це не наш овоч (лізе в голову: бананова республіка, Oранжева республіка). Наш прапор
кольору поля і неба, за нього віддавали життя кращі люди всіх поколінь. (...) Зрештою, це гарний колір, у
Нідерландах це королівський колір. Він як очисне помаранчеве полум’я, в якому має згоріти уся нечисть. (…)
Я боюсь. Oтак внесемо їх у владу на своїх плечах, а що як вони не борці, не герої, а всього лише «оранжевые
дяди, оранжевые тети»? Потім вони полиняють або перефарбуються, а я так і залишусь «оранжевим
верблюдом»». (Ліна Костенко. Записки українського самашедшого)
оранжева ы бананова республыка це йдеться про крахни якы мало розвинуты ы в арфицы. we have a lot of
colour associations. it is hard to translate when it has some national relation, symbolic value.

Headline: Green with envy.

Main text: The German Greens’ success has turned their less fortunate French cousins a deep shade of, well, green.

Headline: Blair’s Blues versus the Redbrick Reds. Lead: Britain has its first redbrick cabinet, but Oxbridge still
rules in No. 10. Main text: While the Reds may have the weight, the Blues – who are obsessed with football – have
the technique. Some of the Blues have minor Red tendencies, while some of the Reds have pretensions to Blueness.
The Reds are a bit unruly, and some of them don’t like their captain, Brown; the Blues are united behind the Blair.
And it is an unfair game because the Blues have stolen the ball.
this peace is untranslatable ( you cannot play on those colour images used)
reds (political concept) – ліві (залежно від парламенту). люди з комуністськими поглядами, але не є
комуністами.
блус – повязане з універами, бо в них голуба юніформа
це аналіз як можна проаналізувати консептуальну сферу
Conceptual analysis: approaches.
1. R. Langacker introduced “visual approach” towards description of the concept using the notions profile and
base: while perceiving the concept, human beings do not operate with separate semantic features or their
combinations but with images.
Bartminski J. introduces the term “profiling” – creating the lingual picture of the object.
2. Theory of metaphor.
Cognition and the use of language involve the access and manipulation of mental spaces. Mental spaces are
constructed from human perceptual experience and extended through imaginative mapping process. The three most
significant processes are metaphor, metonymy and blends.
G. Lakoff identify three basic types of metaphor: orientational, ontological, structural. Orientational metaphor is the
extension of orientations such as IN-OUT to non-spatial domains. Ontological one is the conceptualization of non-
things (emotions, abstract ideas) as if they were things (entities, substances or places) – e. g. We are working towards
peace; His emotional health has deteriorated recently. Structural metaphor takes an item with rich structure in
bodily experience as the source domain for understanding something else – e.g. PEOPLE AS PLANTS underlies many
metaphorical expressions: we refer to the growth of children as sprouting up, youth as blossom, all age as withering or
fading, death of soldiers as being mowed down.

 …the impression of her youth and beauty grew on Dick until it welled up inside him in a compact paroxysm of
emotion ( F.S. Fitzgerald)
 Дік подивився на дівчину, і молодість та краса її так вразили його, що він аж задихнувся від раптової
хвилі почуттів. ( Tr. by M. Pinchevs’kyi)

 And when she was out on her wild business, … they had towards her a feeling which was a mixture of
exasperation, a ridiculous little inside tickle, and a deep unnamable sadness. (McCullers, The Ballad of the Sad
Café.)
 І навіть, коли вона пускалася берега, … і тоді в тих добрих людей роздратування змішувалося з глибоким,
невимовним жалем до неї. (Tr. by V. Lysenko)
шмігер використовує даний підіхд у своїх аналізах
меппінг накладання фізичної сфери (примітивніша) на абстрактну ментальну сферу
розуміння концеп метафор допомагає глибше зануритись у мову, а так то ми бачимл весь цей образ шо стоїть
за ними, хоча на перший погляд здається ніби нічого особливого немає.
Strategies for translating metaphors:

 a metaphor-to-metaphor procedure where an exact equivalent of the original metaphor is found (similar mapping
conditions with the identical source domain); Витрати паралізували б роботу всього підприємства – the
outcomes would paralyze the work of the whole company
 a metaphor-to-metaphor procedure where another metaphoric phrase expressing a similar sense is adopted (similar
mapping conditions with the changed source domain); Cтрахування знаходиться в зародковому стані – life
insurance market is in the bud; up to one’s neck in VAT – по вухах в ПДВ
 metaphor-to-paraphrase procedure; the appetite for commodities - попит на споживчі товари

 Metonymy occurs when a partial or associative reference maps to the referent itself. E.g. English over (movement
along the path – Bill walked over the hill. can be reduced to stationary path – The road goes over the hill. and the
endpoint of the path (Bill lives over the hill).
 Blends like metaphor involve two domains and a mapping relationship. However, both domains are source
domains and together they contribute to the creation of a third, entirely new domain. Portmanteau words
(workaholic), contaminated idioms (The skeleton in the cupboard is coming home to roost (T. Stoppard “Real
inspector Hound”)

8. Culturological theory by Yu. Stiepanov.

Concept has a complex structure. On the one hand, it contained everything that is typical of a notion, on the other
hand, the structure of the concept includes everything that makes it a cultural fact – source form (etymology), concise
history, modern associations, evaluations (Степанов Ю. С. Константы: Словарь русской культури. Опыт
исследования. – М.: Школа «Языки русской культуры», 1997. – 824 с. С. 41) Concept consists of various layers
which are “the result , «precipitations осадки» of the cultural life of different epochs» (Stiepanov, с. 46)
Stiepanov singled out a special complex structure for the cultural concept.
Notional component (field theory, componential analysis).
Layers of cultural component:

 historical
 etymological
 topical

9. Linguoculturological theory by V. Karasik and S. Vorkachiov.

Concept is a many-facet mental creation and has three important constituents – imagery (visual, acoustic, gustatory
properties of objects), notional (lingual form of the concept, his description, definition), evaluative (the importance of
this psychic creation).

The scheme of conceptual analysis:

 insight into the etymology of the name of the concept;

 analysis of dictionary definitions;
 examination of the word-building paradigm;
 investigation of the metaphoric combinability;
 analysis of paradigmatic and syntagmatic links;
 revealing the evaluative component;
 associative experiment.
 individual concepts (the last)

шмігер використовує даний підіхд у своїх аналізах

меппінг накладання фізичної сфери (примітивніша) на абстрактну ментальну сферу

розуміння концеп метафор допомагає глибше зануритись у мову, а так то ми бачимл весь цей образ шо стоїть
за ними, хоча на перший погляд здається ніби нічого особливого немає.