PULSE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION

In PAM the successive sample values of the analog signal s(t) are used to effect the amplitudes of a
corresponding sequence of pulses of constant duration occurring at the sampling rate. No
quantization of the samples normally occurs (Fig. 1a, b). In principle the pulses may occupy the
entire time between samples, but in most practical systems the pulse duration, known as the duty
cycle, is limited to a fraction of the sampling interval. Such a restriction creates the possibility of
interleaving during one sample interval one or more pulses derived from other PAM systems in a
process known as time-division multiplexing (TDM).

PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION

In PWM the pulses representing successive sample values of s(t) have constant amplitudes but vary
in time duration in direct proportion to the sample value. The pulse duration can be changed relative
to fixed leading or trailing time edges or a fixed pulse center.

3 PULSE-POSITION MODULATION

PPM encodes the sample values of s(t) by varying the position of a pulse of constant duration
relative to its nominal time of occurrence. As in PAM and PWM, the duration of the pulses is
typically a fraction of the sampling interval.

PULSE-CODE MODULATION

Many modern communication systems are designed to transmit and receive only pulses of two
distinct amplitudes. In these so-called binary digital systems, the analog-to-digital conversion
process is extended by the additional step of coding, in which the amplitude of each pulse
representing a quantized sample of s(t) is converted into a unique sequence of one or more pulses
with just two possible amplitudes. The complete conversion process is known as pulse-code
modulation.

three successive quantized samples of an analog signal s(t), in which sampling occurs every T
seconds and the pulse representing the sample is limited to T/2 seconds. Assuming that the number
of quantization levels is limited to 8, each level can be represented by a unique sequence of three
two-valued pulses

PCM enjoys many important advantages over other forms of pulse modulation due to the fact that
information is represented by a two-state variable. First, the design parameters of a PCM
transmission system depend critically on the bandwidth of the original signal s(t) and the degree of
fidelity required at the point of reconstruction, but are otherwise largely independent of the
information content of s(t). This fact creates the possibility of deploying generic transmission
systems suitable for many types of information. Second, the detection of the state of a two-state
variable in a noisy environment is inherently simpler than the precise measurement of the
amplitude, duration, or position of a pulse in which these quantities are not constrained. Third, the
binary pulses propagating along a medium can be intercepted and decoded at a point where the
accumulated distortion and attenuation are sufficiently low to assure high detection accuracy. New
pulses can then be generated and transmitted to the next such decoding point. This so-called
process of repeatering significantly reduces the propagation of distortion and leads to a quality of
transmission that is largely independent of distance.

WHY PULSE WIDTH MODULATION?

Pulse-width modulation (PWM) of a signal or power source involves the modulation of its duty cycle,
to either convey information over a communications channel or control the amount of power sent
to a load.
ADVANTAGES OF PWM

I. The entire control circuit can be digital, eliminating the need for digital-to-analog
converters.
II. Using digital control lines will reduce the susceptibility of your circuit to interference.
III. Finally, motors may be able to operate at lower speeds if you control them with PWM.
When you use an analog current to control a motor, it will not produce significant
torque at low speeds.
IV. The output voltage control can be obtained without any additional components.
V. With this method, lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized Along with its
output voltage control.
VI. As higher order harmonics can be filtered easily the higher order harmonics can be
minimized.

PULSE WIDTH MODUALTION

There are many forms of modulation used for communicating information. When a high frequency
signal has amplitude varied in response to a lower frequency signal we have AM (amplitude
modulation). When the signal frequency is varied in response to the modulating signal we have FM
(frequency modulation. These signals are used for radio modulation because the high frequency
carrier signal is needs for efficient radiation of the signal. When communication by pulses was
introduced, the amplitude, frequency and pulse width become possible modulation options. In many
power electronic converters where the output voltage can be one of two values the only option is
modulation of average conduction time.
LINEAR MODULATION

The simplest modulation to interpret is where the average ON time of the pulses varies
proportionally with the modulating signal. The advantage of linear processing for this application lies
in the ease of de-modulation. The modulating signal can be recovered from the PWM by low pass
filtering. For a single low frequency sine wave as modulating signal modulating the width of a fixed
frequency (fs). Clearly a low pass filter can extract the modulating component fm.

SAW TOOTH PWM

The simplest analog form of generating fixed frequency PWM is by comparison with a linear slope
waveform such as a saw tooth.

the output signal goes high when the sine wave is higher than the saw tooth. This is implemented
using a comparator whose output voltage goes to logic HIGH when ne input is greater than the
other. Other signals with straight edges can be used for modulation a rising ramp carrier will
generate
REGULAR SAMPLED PWM

For a single phase inverter modulated by a sine-sawtooth comparison, if we compare a sine wave of
magnitude from -2 to +2 with a triangle from -1 to +1 the linear relation between the input signal
and the average output signal will be lost. Once the sine wave reaches the peak of the triangle the
pulses will be of maximum width and the modulation will then saturate. The Modulation depth is the
ratio of the current signal to the case when saturation is just starting. Thus sine wave of peak 1.2
compared with a triangle with peak 2.0 will have a modulation depth

SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTERS

In many industrial applications

the following reasons are:

• To cope with the variations of DC input voltage

• For voltage regulation of inverters

• For the constant volts/frequency control requirement

There are various techniques to vary the inverter gain. The most efficient method of controlling the
gain (and output voltage) is to incorporate pulse width modulation (PWM) control within the
inverters. The commonly used techniques are

I. Single Pulse width Modulation

II. Multiple Pulse width Modulation
III. Sinusoidal Pulse width Modulation
IV. Trapezoidal Pulse width Modulation
V. Stair case Pulse width Modulation

SINGLE PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

In this control, there’s only one pulse per half cycle and the width of the pulse is varied to
control the inverter output. The gating signals are generated by comparing a rectangular
reference signal of the amplitude Ar with triangular carrier wave of amplitude Ac, the frequency
of the carrier wave determines the fundamental frequency of output voltage. By varying Ar from
0 to Ac,the pulse width can be varied from 0 to 100 percent. The ratio of Ar to Ac is the control
variable and defined as the modulation index.

MULTIPLE PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

The harmonic content can be reduced by using several pulses in each half cycle of output
voltage. The generation of gating signals for turning ON and OFF transistors by comparing a
reference signal with a triangular carrier wave. The frequency Fc, determines the number of
pulses per half cycle. The modulation index controls the output voltage. This type of modulation
is also known as uniform pulse width modulation (UPWM).

SINUSOIDAL PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

Instead of ,maintaining the width of all pulses of same as in case of multiple pulse width
modulation, the width of each pulse is varied in proportion to the amplitude of a sine wave
evaluated at the centre of the same pulse. The distortion factor and lower order harmonics are
reduced significantly. The gating signals are generated by comparing a sinusoidal reference
signal with a triangular carrier wave of frequency Fc .The frequency of reference signal Fr
,determines the inverter output frequency and its peak amplitude Ar ,controls the modulation
index M, and rms output voltage VO .The number of pulses per half cycle depends on carrier
frequency .