Astm E168

Designation: E168 − 16
Standard Practices for

General Techniques of Infrared Quantitative Analysis1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E168; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the U.S. Department of Defense.
1. Scope eters: Level Zero and Level One Tests

1.1 These practices cover the techniques most often used in E1655 Practices for Infrared Multivariate Quantitative
infrared quantitative analysis. Practices associated with the Analysis
collection and analysis of data on a computer are included as 3. Terminology
well as practices that do not use a computer.
3.1 For definitions of terms and symbols, refer to Terminol-
1.2 This practice does not purport to address all of the ogy E131.
concerns associated with developing a new quantitative
method. It is the responsibility of the developer to ensure that 4. Significance and Use
the results of the method fall in the desired range of precision 4.1 These practices are intended for all infrared spectrosco-
and bias. pists. For novices, these practices will serve as an overview of
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as preparation, operation, and calculation techniques. For experi-
standard. No other units of measurement are included in this enced persons, these practices will serve as a review when
standard. seldom-used techniques are needed.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the 5. Apparatus
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
5.1 The infrared techniques described here assume that the
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
equipment is of at least the usual commercial quality and meets
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
the standard specifications of the manufacturer. For dispersive
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. Specific hazard
instruments, also refer to Practice E932. For Fourier Transform
statements appear in Section 6, Note A4.7, Note A4.11, and
and dispersive instruments, also refer to Practices E1421 and
Note A5.6.
E932 respectively, and for microanalysis with these instru-
2. Referenced Documents ments see Practice E334.
2.1 ASTM Standards:2 5.2 In developing a spectroscopic method, it is the respon-
E131 Terminology Relating to Molecular Spectroscopy sibility of the originator to describe the instrumentation and the
E334 Practice for General Techniques of Infrared Micro- performance required to duplicate the precision and bias of a
analysis method. It is necessary to specify this performance in terms
E932 Practice for Describing and Measuring Performance of that can be used by others in applications of the method.
Dispersive Infrared Spectrometers 6. Hazards
E1252 Practice for General Techniques for Obtaining Infra-
red Spectra for Qualitative Analysis 6.1 Users of these practices must be aware that there are
E1421 Practice for Describing and Measuring Performance inherent dangers associated with the use of electrical
of Fourier Transform Mid-Infrared (FT-MIR) Spectrom- instrumentation, infrared cells, solvents, and other chemicals,
and that these practices cannot and will not substitute for a
practical knowledge of the instrument, cells, and chemicals
1
These practices are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E13 on used in a particular analysis.
Molecular Spectroscopy and Separation Science and are the direct responsibility of
Subcommittee E13.03 on Infrared and Near Infrared Spectroscopy. 7. Considerations for Quantitative Infrared
Current edition approved April 1, 2016. Published June 2016. Originally
approved in 1964. Last previous edition approved in 2006 as E168 – 06 which was
Measurements
withdrawn January 2015 and reinstated in April 2016. DOI: 10.1520/E0168-16.
2
7.1 Quantitative infrared analysis is commonly done with
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
grating, filter, prism, or interferometer instruments. The fol-
lowing guidelines for setting up an analytical procedure are
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Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on

the ASTM website. appropriate:
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E168 − 16
7.1.1 Always operate the instrument in the most stable and processor makes the necessary conversion from transmittance
reproducible conditions attainable. This includes instrument to absorbance. If spectra cannot be obtained in absorbance,
warm-up time, sample temperature equilibration, and exact then Eq A12.1 and A12.2 in Annex A12 can be used to convert
reproduction of instrument performance tests for both stan- the data.
dards and samples. After calibration, use equivalent settings for 7.1.7 Use spectral regions offering the most information on
analyses. For all infrared instruments, refer to the manufactur- the analyte. Select analytical wavenumbers where the compo-
er’s recommendations for the instrument settings. After nent has a relatively large absorptivity. In addition, other
calibration, use these same settings for analysis. analytes should have minimal effect on the measured absor-
7.1.2 The absorbance values at analytical wavenumbers bance.
should fall within the acceptably accurate range of the particu- 7.1.8 The performance of the spectrometer should be suffi-
lar spectrometer used. In general, a single absorbance measure- ciently good to give adequate linearity of response for the
ment will have the best signal-to-noise ratio when it is in the desired range of concentrations. The signal-to-noise ratio, S/N,
range from 0.3 to 0.8 absorbance units (AU) (1).3 The should be acceptable for the desired precision.
sensitivity of Fourier transform (FT-IR) spectrometers is such 7.1.9 Select analytical wavenumbers such that the linearity
that lower absorbance values can be used quite effectively, of the absorbance-concentration relationship is least affected
provided that the baseline can be estimated accurately (see by molecular interaction, dispersion in refractive index, and
Section 12). Absorbances greater than 0.8 AU should be spectrometer nonlinearity.
avoided wherever possible because of the possibility of
instrumentally-caused non-linearity, both for dispersive (2) and 8. Theory for a Single-Compound Analysis
FT-IR (3,4) spectrometers. Variation of the concentration and 8.1 Quantitative spectrometry is based on the Beer-
sample path length can be used to adjust absorbance values into Bouguer-Lambert (henceforth referred to as Beer’s) law, which
the optimum range. When multiple components are determined
--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---
is expressed for the one component case as:

in a particular sample, it is acceptable to use absorbance values
outside the optimum range, (5) however, absorbances greater A 5 abc (1)
than 1.5 AU should be avoided (2-4). Weaker absorption bands where:
of high concentration components may be selected to provide A = absorbance of the sample at a specified wavenumber,
absorbance values within the optimal range. a = absorptivity of the component at this wavenumber,
7.1.3 The most accurate analytical methods are imple- b = sample path length, and
mented with samples in solution. With liquid samples that are c = concentration of the component.
not exceptionally viscous, best results are obtained if the cell is
Since spectrometers measure transmittance, T, of the radia-
not moved after the first sample is introduced into the instru-
tion through a sample, it is necessary to convert T to A as
ment (the fixed-cell method). The reason is that sample cell
follows:
position is difficult to reproduce accurately by insertion into
typical cell holders. Suitable fittings and tubes can be attached P
A 5 2logT 5 2log (2)
to the cell to allow sample changing in a flow-through manner. P0
When it is not practical to use a flow-through cell, the cell where:
should fit tightly in the holder so that lateral and tilting motions
P0 = input radiant power at the sample, and
are restricted. P = radiant power transmitted through the sample.
7.1.4 Unless there is reason to suspect deposition on or
contamination of the cell from the samples, it is generally
9. Calibration for a Single-Component Determination
preferable to wash out the current sample with the next sample,
if sufficient sample is available. The volume of sample used to 9.1 Proper sample preparation is essential to quantitative
flush the cell should be at least five times (and preferably more, analysis. See Annex A4.
for example, 20 times) the volume between the sample inlet 9.1.1 Quantitative analysis has two distinct parts: calibra-
and cell exit points. tion and analysis. For a simple one-component analysis, select
7.1.5 For some bands, the wavenumber of the maximum an appropriate solvent that is essentially free from interfering
absorbance changes as a function of concentration. Similarly, absorptions at the analytical wavenumber.
the position of the baseline points may change with concen- 9.1.2 For calibration, measure the absorbances, A, of the
tration. Selection of baseline points must be done carefully to analyte solutions at several known concentrations, c.
account for the shift of the absorbance maximum. The question Absorptivities, a, are then calculated, using Eq 1 with the
arises whether it is preferable to measure absorbances at fixed baseline corrections as described in Sections 12 – 14.
wavenumber locations or at the observed maximum of the Alternatively, the absorbances, A, of a single solution in several
analytical band. The best approach is empirical testing of both cells of different, but accurately known, path lengths may be
the fixed point and the tracking methods of evaluation. measured; however, interaction effects will not be elucidated in
7.1.6 Whenever possible, working directly in absorbance is this fashion.
preferable. That is, either the instrument or associated data 9.1.3 Calculate the average of the several a values for future
use, or draw an analytical working curve by graphing absor-
3
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of bance versus concentration for a constant path length as
these practices. demonstrated in Fig. 1. Use the linear part of the curve to

E168 − 16
·· ········ ······ ······
·· ········ ······ ······
A i 5 a i1 bc1 1a i2 bc2 1····1a inbcn
where:
Ai = total absorbance at wavenumber i,
ain = absorptivity at the wavenumber i of component n,
b = path length of the cell in which the mixture is sampled,
and
cn = concentration of component n in the mixture.
10.2 During calibration, concentrations cn are known, and
baseline corrected absorbances A are measured. The experi-
mental absorptivity-path length products ainb are then calcu-
lated (see Note 2). During analysis, the absorptivity-path length
products ainb are known, and the absorbances A are measured.
The unknown concentrations are then calculated (see Section
17). Therefore, accurate calibration generally requires that
experimental absorptivity values be obtained from at least n
standards. The following requirements must be met:
10.2.1 The number of standards must be equal to or greater
than the number of analytes, n, and
FIG. 1 An Analytical Working Curve
10.2.2 The number of analytical wavenumbers, i, must be
--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---
equal to or greater than the number of independent
calculate a. The calculation of a where curvature is present will components, n.
be discussed in 18.1 and 18.2.
NOTE 2—All absorbance conversions use transmittance (that is, the
NOTE 1—In practice, the calibration curve may not have a y intercept of decimal value), not percent transmittance. Regardless of form (that is,
zero. This could be due to a variety of factors including, but not limited to, decimal or percent), the term transmittance refers to the term P/P0 of Eq
incompletely resolved analyte bands, reflection losses, and solvent inter- 2, and should not be called transmission. (See Terminology E131).
ferences. It is important that the method used to calculate the calibration
curve not force the y intercept to be zero. 10.3 The first requirement allows the analyst to use more
than the minimum number of standards. Over-determination of
9.1.4 For analysis, dissolve the unknown in the solvent, standards permits error estimation in the analytical result. The
measure the absorbance, A, and determine the concentration, c, second requirement allows the use of more than the minimum
of the analyte graphically or by calculation. Convert this number of peaks for specifying a chemical system, where at
concentration in solution to the concentration in the unknown least one distinctive band is selected for each component
sample. (7-10).
9.1.5 Both analysis time and chance of error are less if the
concentrations of the unknowns and the cell path length are 10.4 The procedures used in multicomponent analysis will
kept the same over a series of analyses, and the concentrations be discussed further in the following section which is also an
of the calibration solutions have bracketed the expected high introduction to general solution phase analyses.
and low values of the unknown solutions (6, 7).
11. Multicomponent Solution Analysis
10. Theory for Multicomponent Analysis
11.1 For the quantitative analysis of mixtures, Eq 4 is
10.1 Beer’s law is expressed for a mixture of n indepen- applicable. The absorptivities ain of the n components of the
dently absorbing components at a single path length and single mixture at the ith analytical wavenumber are determined from
wavenumber as: absorbance measurements made on each component taken
A 5 a 1 bc1 1a 2 bc2 1······1a n bcn (3) individually. These absorbances must be measured under
conditions (sample path length, temperature, pressure, and
Eq 3 defines an absorbance at a wavenumber as being due to solvent) identical to those used for the unknowns, and they
the sum of the independent contributions of each component. should be corrected for baselines as discussed in Sections 12 –
In order to solve for the n component concentrations, n 14. Absorbance measurements are made with concentrations of
independent equations containing n absorbance measurements the analyte bracketing the amounts expected in the unknown
at n wavenumbers are necessary. This is expressed for constant samples.
path length as follows:
11.2 Where possible, prepare samples as dilute solutions
A 1 5 a 11bc1 1a 12bc2 1····1a 1n bcn (4)
and place in cells of appropriate path lengths (typically 0.2 to
A 2 5 a 21bc2 1a 22bc2 1····1a 2n bcn 1.0 mm). Use lower concentrations in longer path length cells
rather than higher concentrations in shorter path length cells to
·· ········ ······ obtain absorbance values in the 0.3 to 0.8 range. Lower

E168 − 16
concentrations will minimize nonlinear effects due to disper-
sion (that is, change of refractive index with wavenumber).
Where freedom from intermolecular effects is uncertain or
where intermolecular effects are known to be present, calibra-
tion must be based on measurements taken from synthetic
mixtures of all components as described in 15.1.2.
11.3 Dissolve a known weight of a pure component in a
suitable infrared solvent. Measure the absorbance at all ana-
lytical wavenumbers and correct for baselines as discussed in
Sections 12 – 14. Repeat this procedure for several concentra-
tions covering the range of concentrations expected in the
samples to be analyzed, remembering that concentrations of
components must be linearly independent. Plot absorbance
versus concentration. Similarly, construct analytical curves for
this component at each of the other analytical wavenumbers.
Repeat this procedure for each of the n components. Thus,
there are i plots for each component, or a total of i × n
analytical curves, each yielding one of the values of ainb.
11.4 The number of standard mixtures required is at least
equal to n, the number of components. For each analytical
wavenumber, there will be a set of at least n equations in n
unknowns. The n sets of equations can be solved directly for
the values of ainb. If more than n synthetic mixtures are used
FIG. 2 A Zero-Absorbance Baseline
as standards, a least-squares procedure can be used to calculate
the values of ainb. To repeat, in order to obtain information
about errors, at least one more mixture than the number of maximum, A1, as demonstrated in Fig. 3. The point of
analytes is needed. minimum absorbance is adjacent to or at least in the vicinity of
the band under evaluation.
12. Baselines in General
14.3 Two points may be needed if the band of interest is
12.1 Any quantitative method depends on the choice of a superimposed on a sloping background. Manually a line is
--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---
reproducible baseline. The correction of raw data for baseline drawn from one side to the other as in Fig. 4. The absorbance
absorbance is important in some methods. The guiding factor of the band is calculated as the value at the peak maximum A1
in baseline selection is the reproducibility of the results. minus the baseline absorbance minimum A23. An inappropriate
Methods used for drawing baselines with computerized instru-
ments are similar in most ways to those for data recorded on
chart paper. Where differences exist, they will be explained in
Annex A1.
13. Single Wavenumber Measurement
13.1 A technique known as the “cell-in-cell-out” method is
often used in single-beam infrared work. In this method, a
blank (that is, solvent in cell, potassium bromide (KBr) pellet,
or other substrate) is measured at a fixed wavenumber and then
the analyte readings are recorded (7). In the simplest cell-in-
cell-out method, a zero absorbance baseline is used (see Fig.
2). If the spectrum cannot be obtained in absorbance, the
absorbance is calculated as in Eq A12.1 where T2 = 1.0 and T1
= transmittance at the analyte wavenumber (1, 6) (see Note 2).
14. Baseline Method (7)
14.1 The cell-in-cell-out technique was the method of
choice for early single-beam infrared instruments. After the
advent of double-beam dispersive spectrometers, the baseline
method has been the method of choice. Portions of the data
around the base of the bands are picked as baseline references.
There are two common variations.
14.2 When one baseline point is chosen, the value of an
absorbance minimum, A2, is subtracted from the absorbance FIG. 3 A One-Point Baseline

E168 − 16
intermolecular influences, and the differences in the values of
the absorptivities thus determined will indicate the extent of
these influences.
15.1.4 A single set of absorptivities may not suffice to
analyze mixtures throughout all possible concentration ranges
of the components, in which case, narrowing the range of
concentrations is recommended.
15.1.5 Since the ainb products are calculated directly in this
procedure, it is not necessary to plot analytical curves.
15.2 Solids:
15.2.1 For cast films, pressed films, or pellets, follow the
same general procedure as for liquids (see 15.1). Measure the
--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---
thickness of each film and apply a proportional correction for
deviations from standard thickness.
NOTE 4—The spectra of films and pellets can be complicated by the
presence of a fringe pattern. For pellets and films, follow the suggestions
in A4.5.1.2 and Note A5.1, respectively. A fringe pattern is undesirable
because analyte absorbance values can be altered by its presence.
15.2.2 In cases where all components of a mixture are
determined to a total of 100 %, it is usually sufficient to
determine only the ratios of absorbances. In such cases, it is not
necessary to know the thickness of the sample layer; it is only
necessary to know the ratio of the components. However, a
FIG. 4 A Two-Point Baseline knowledge of the thickness is needed to determine the presence
of impurities because the total then will be less than 100 %.
15.2.3 The above procedure for films is also used with
choice of baseline in this situation may have deleterious effects powders prepared as mulls. Measurement of thickness can be
on the accuracy of the final calculation. accomplished by an internal standard technique as described in
A4.4.2. This involves the addition to the sample of a known
NOTE 3—The above baseline correction procedure should be performed weight ratio of a compound having an absorption band of
only if the spectrum is plotted in absorbance units. When the spectrum is
plotted in transmittance, the two baseline transmittances and the transmit- known absorptivity that does not overlap the bands of the
tance at the analytical wavenumber should be converted to absorbance. sample.
The corrected baseline absorbance can be calculated by Eq A12.1 in 15.2.4 When powders are measured as pressed plates or
Annex A12. Conversion to absorbance is required because a sloping linear pellets, analytical curves are prepared in the same manner as
baseline in transmittance becomes curved in absorbance.
solutions, see Sections 9 and 11.
15. Nonsolution Analyses 15.3 Gases:
15.1 Liquids: 15.3.1 All calibration measurements for a given analysis
15.1.1 Analyzing a liquid mixture without the use of a must be made at a fixed total pressure. This pressure must be
diluting solvent is sometimes complicated by intermolecular equal to the total pressure employed in the analysis. An
forces. An absorption band may undergo intensity changes or analysis may be set up in either of two ways:
frequency shifts, or both, relative to the same absorption band 15.3.1.1 Method 1—A fixed sample pressure is established
of the component in solution. The absorbance contribution of a that is a fraction of the total pressure obtained by addition of a
component in a mixture can seldom be calculated from its nonabsorbing diluent gas.
absorbance measured in the pure state. It is desirable to 15.3.1.2 Method 2—A fixed sample pressure is used as the
determine the absorptivities from known mixtures having total pressure. Analytical curves are prepared by introducing a
proportions near those of the samples. pure component at various measured pressures which bracket
15.1.2 Prepare mixtures having known concentrations of the the expected component pressures in the sample. A diluent gas
various components covering the expected ranges. Measure is then added to bring the total pressure up to the established
baseline corrected absorbances at each of the wavelengths value.
chosen for the analysis and substitute them (along with the 15.3.2 In Method 2, the analytical curve preparation does
known concentrations) in Eq 4. Solve for the absorptivity-path not allow for the possibility of band broadening for different
length products, ainb directly from the set of n simultaneous components. This factor is more properly addressed by follow-
equations, or use a multivariant method (see Annex A8) if ing Method 1 where the same diluent gas is employed for
sufficient data are available. sample preparation and calibration. Low molecular weight
15.1.3 If the concentrations in the unknowns vary widely, gases frequently produce very strong, sharp absorption fea-
calculation of a second set of the ainb products is recom- tures. Addition of a diluent gas and use of pressure less than
mended. A second set may be necessary due to the presence of atmospheric may be necessary. Absorbances are measured for

E168 − 16
each standard at the wavenumbers selected for analysis. Where spectrum of Z, an unknown mixture containing components X
possible, integrated absorbances (see Annex A3) are preferred and Y. Using a subtraction routine, the spectrum of X is
to offset the effect of small pressure variations. The absor- removed using the isolated, in this case higher, wave-number
bances are plotted against the partial pressures (or mole bands of X as a guide (11). The concentration of Y is
fractions) to produce analytical curves. ascertained from Fig. 5(d) by reference to an analytical curve
or by calculation as described in 9.1.3.
16. Difference Method
16.3 The same result is achieved with a noncomputerized
16.1 Spectral subtraction using a computer is a common double-beam spectrometer by placing sample X in the refer-
practice in qualitative infrared analysis. This technique is also ence beam, and the unknown mixture in the sample beam. If
used to perform quantitative infrared analyses. The advantage the sample and reference are in solution, a variable path length
of spectral subtraction (the difference method) is that small cell can be used in the reference beam to remove spectral
concentration differences can be measured with greater accu- contributions due to X (7, 12).
racy than is possible on superimposed bands.
16.2 A generalized procedure follows and is illustrated in 17. Calculation Methods
Fig. 5. All spectra are obtained using samples of well charac- 17.1 Matrix Inversion:
terized path length and concentration. Fig. 5(c) shows the 17.1.1 After the values of the ainb products have been
determined for a given set of n components, according to 10.2,
substitute the numerical values into Eq 4. Solve the n equations
for concentrations, cn, in terms of the baseline corrected
--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---
absorbances, An, by matrix inversion (6). The inverted equa-
tions will have the following form:
C 1 5 A 1 F 11 1A 2 F 12 1····1 A n F 1n (5)
C 2 5 A 1 F 21 1A 2 F 22 1····1A n F 2n
·· ····· ····· ···· ·····
·· ····· ····· ···· ·····
·· ····· ····· ···· ·····
C n 5 A 1 F n1 1A 2 F n2 1····1A n F nn
where Fin are the inverted coefficients. Thereafter calculation

of individual sample concentration is simply done by substi-
tuting the measured absorbance values, An, in the equations.
17.2 Matrix inversion is a convenient method to calculate
concentrations from the simultaneous equations presented in
Eq 4. Programs for solving simultaneous linear equations using
matrix-inversion techniques are available on many program-
mable calculators and computers and are contained in most
commercial quantitative analysis programs. Classical least
squares regression (CLS) is simply a sophisticated method of
matrix inversion (see Annex A8).
18. Correction for Curvature in Beer’s Law Plots

18.1 In some cases, the analytical curve of one or more
analytes of a mixture will exhibit curvature to such an extent
that the value of the slope may differ significantly between low
and high concentrations. Two methods are acceptable: a
non-linear regression using a computer or graphical method as
immediately explained. If the graphical method (see 9.1.3) is
used, and if the concentrations of analytes fall in the linear and
low range, then the values of the slope for the linear range can
be used. However, if the concentration is in the higher range, a
correction is necessary. The following method is recom-
mended:
18.1.1 The concentration of the component under consider-
FIG. 5 An Example of Difference Spectroscopy ation ranges in the sample between c1 and c2 in Fig. 1. Draw a

E168 − 16
straight line between A1 and A2. The slope of this line is the ment can be made. Often the major indeterminate errors are
value of ainb that is used in Eq 4. The intercept of this line with introduced by variation in sample positioning and errors in
the absorbance axis yield the value of a correction term, A0, determining the baseline. However, if these are held constant,
which must be subtracted from the measured absorbance of the the major contributing indeterminant error frequently is detec-
sample at the analytical wavenumber of the analyte. This tor noise, which is usually independent of signal. Therefore,
subtracted result is substituted for A2 in Eq 4 at this analytical the noise in transmittance units is independent of the amount of
wavenumber. If the concentration of the component under light reaching the detector. For a review of the sources of noise
scrutiny should happen to fall outside the range c1 to c2, it will in Fourier transform instruments, see Ref (11) and Practice
be necessary to repeat the above procedure to determine the E1421.
slope and intercept for the new concentration range.
19.4 For quantitative infrared spectrometry, the operative
18.2 In some binary mixtures, pure bands representing the equation for determining concentration from transmittance
individual components are not present. However, single bands
measurements is Beer’s law as follows:
or groups of bands, as intensities or area, can be ratioed and
plotted to the known concentrations (13). These calibration A 5 2logT 5 abc (6)
curves are almost always curved, but as explained in Ref. (13), c 5 A/ab (7)
curved absorbance/concentration plots are not a problem since
numerous computer programs are available for non-linear To determine the effect of random error (in the measurement
regression analysis. of transmittance) (1, 12, 15) on the concentration, it is
necessary to calculate the partial derivative as follows:
19. General Considerations for Statistical Evaluation
δc 2loge 20.434
19.1 The statistical evaluation of experimental data and the 5 5 (8)
δT abT abT
parameters necessary for reporting statistical confidence are
described in this section and in Annex A6. The reliability of an The standard deviation of the concentration sc can be given
experimentally measured quantity is an important factor which by:
must be considered in evaluating any experimental technique.
This reliability can be described by two terms: precision and
bias. The precision of a technique refers to the reproducibility
sc 5 S D
0.434
abT
sT (9)
of replicate measurements; the bias represents the degree to where sT is the standard deviation of the transmittance
which the measured quantity approaches the true value. The measurement. The relative standard deviation of the concen-
sources of experimental error limiting bias or precision, or tration is:
both, are broadly classified as determinate or indeterminate
error (1, 14, 15).
sc
c
5S0.434
logT DS D
sT
T
(10)
19.2 Determinate error is systematic error which can be
attributed to definite causes. In quantitative infrared analyses, and the standard deviation of the transmittance is calculated
determinate error may arise from problems such as optical from Eq A6.6 for a series of n measurements of T. sT can be
misalignment, photometric inaccuracy, stray radiant power, determined from the noise in the 100 % line since generally sT
poor spectral resolution, improper sample handling, or devia- will be independent of T.
tions from Beer’s law. Quantitative bias depends upon mini-
mizing determinate error. 20. Keywords
19.3 Indeterminate, or random, error arises from uncontrol- 20.1 infrared spectroscopy; molecular spectroscopy; quan-
lable variables, and limits the precision with which measure- titative analysis
ANNEXES
--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---
(Mandatory Information)
A1. BASELINE PROCEDURES FOR COMPUTERIZED INSTRUMENTS
A1.1 Obtaining a Good Spectrum for Baseline Procedures by computing the negative logarithm of the transmittance
A1.1.1 There are two ways to get good (FT-IR) spectra. For spectrum. The background can be that of the open beam, or an
the first method, three steps are necessary. 1) Obtain both aperturing device, or an accessory, such as an ATR or gas cell
single-beam background and single-beam sample spectra. 2) or a liquid cell containing solvent used to dissolve the analyte.
Ratio the single-beam sample to the single-beam background NOTE A1.1—Dispersive duel-beam instruments perform the above by
spectrum. This provides a spectrum in transmittance and using the reference beam to obtain a background simultaneously. Hence,
requires conversion to absorbance. 3) Convert to absorbance the reference beam should contain similar beam limiting accessories as

E168 − 16
used in the sample beam. In some cases, for example with a gas cell, the method is then used to obtain the actual quantitative data.
above approach is impractical. The alternative is to run spectra of the These methods are demonstrated in Figs. 2-4.
sample and the empty accessory separately, then using the computer
software to subtract the empty accessory from the sample. Keep in mind
A1.2 Calculation Procedure
that these spectra must be in absorbance.
A1.1.2 The second method similar to A1.1 is frequently A1.2.1 The calculation of data with one baseline point is
used when the spectrum of the sample material contains discussed in 14.2.
extraneous absorption features (for example, solvents or impu-
A1.2.2 Automatic computation of peak absorbance with a
rities). In this approach, the single-beam spectrum of the
two-point baseline is more subject to error. The calculations are
sample and the single-beam spectrum of the solvent or impu-
rity are each ratioed against the single-beam background based on the point-slope method, where the hypotenuse of a
spectrum. Both transmittance spectra are converted to absor- right triangle is the desired sloping baseline as shown in Fig. 4.
bance. The absorbance spectrum of the solvent or suspected The slope of the baseline may be either positive or negative.
impurity is then scaled by multiplying it by a factor chosen to The peak absorbance is the result of the following:
minimize all spectral features caused by the solvent or impu- ~ A 3 2 A 2! ~ w 1 2 w 2!
rity. The impurity or solvent spectrum is then subtracted from A 5 ~ A 1 2 A 2! 2 (A1.1)
~ w 3 2 w 2!
the sample spectrum. This paragraph describes in general how
subtraction works with both FT-IR and dispersive spectra. where:
A = corrected absorbance of the peak at w1,
A1.1.3 For dispersive, optical-null instruments, the selec- A1 = uncorrected absorbance at w1,
tion of instrumental settings or mode (for example, resolution, A2 = baseline absorbance point at the lower wavenumber w2,
scanning region, etc.) are based on sample characteristics and and
the absorbance of the functional group being measured. A3 = baseline absorbance point at the higher wavenumber
A1.1.4 In general, for both spectrometer types, spectral data w3.
are collected by the cell-in-cell-out method of 14.1. A baseline
A2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR BAND AREA
A2.1 All data should be expressed in absorbance as a A2.4 When integrated area is used for quantitative analyses,
function of wavenumber. the reliability of the results frequently depend on the baseline
treatment selected. The accuracy by band area is often im-
A2.2 Band shape changes can cause peak-height data to be proved by limiting the range of absorbances. The wings
nonlinear. Band area, however, may remain essentially unaf-
contribute very little signal while contributing substantial
fected by the changes in shape of the band because band area
uncertainties to the total area. A useful guideline is to limit the
is a function of the total number of absorbing centers in the
integration limits to absorbance values which are no smaller
sample. If the shape change is caused by changes in intermo-
lecular forces, even band area may not be linear. than 20 to 30 % of the peak absorbance.
A2.3 Band area is calculated by integrating across band-

width. Band area is advantageous when band shape undergoes
change as a function of increasing concentration. Frequently,
band area is found to be more accurate than peak-height
measurements because one is, in effect, averaging multipoint
data.
--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---

E168 − 16
A3. CALCULATION OF BAND AREA
A3.1 In reference to Fig. A3.1, when no baseline points are where I0 is given by Eq A3.1.
used for an area calculation, the area between lower and upper
wave-number limits is the following: A3.3 If a two-point baseline treatment is used with absor-
bances AW2 at wavenumber w2 and Aw3 at wavenumber w3, as
I 5 A w4 ∆1A w411 ∆1···1A w521 ∆ (A3.1) shown in Fig. A3.3, the formulation is as follows:
where: I 2 5 I 0 2 I 2b (A3.3)
I = integrated absorbance (area),
∆ = sampling interval in wavenumbers,
A = absorbance measured at the designated interval,
I 2b 5 F (S
np
j51
A w2 1
~ A w3 2 A w2 ! ~ w 4 2 w 2 1j∆ !
~ w 3 2 w 2! DG ∆ (A3.4)
w4 = lower wavenumber limit, and

w5 = upper wavenumber limit.
The number of points in the sum is np = (w4 − w5)/∆. and I0 is given by Eq A3.1.
NOTE A3.1—The algorithms above are not the most accurate, but as ∆
A3.2 In reference to Fig. A3.2, for a one-point baseline becomes smaller, all methods (that is, trapezoidal and Simpson’s rule)
treatment w2 with a corresponding absorbance Aw2, the area I1 approximate the same value.
is as follows:
I 1 5 I 0 2 I 1b (A3.2)
I 1 5 I 0 2 ~ A w2 ! ~ w 5 2 w 4 !
I 1 5 I 0 2 @ ~ ∆ w2 ~ np 2 1 !! #
FIG. A3.1 Band Area With Zero-Absorbance Baseline
--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---

E168 − 16
FIG. A3.2 Band Area With a One-Point Baseline

--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---
FIG. A3.3 Band Area With a Two-Point Baseline

10
Order Number: 02216981
E168 − 16
A4. SAMPLE PREPARATION
A4.1 Where possible, solution techniques are recom- A4.4.3 Break up the mixture and distribute it over the
mended. However, other methods are discussed. mortar surface by gentle grinding with the pestle. Rub to an
extremely fine powder by vigorous back and forth grinding
A4.2 Liquids—Liquids may be measured either neat or until the mixture becomes caked and takes on a smooth, glossy,
preferably, as solutions in a sealed cell of suitable path length light-reflecting surface.
(15).
A4.4.4 Add one drop of mulling agent (see Note A4.5),
A4.3 Solution Techniques: grind with a rotary motion, using a smooth, hard mortar and
pestle, until all of the mixture is picked up and suspended. The
A4.3.1 For liquids and solids, the following procedures are
suspension should be viscous, not fluid.
recommended but may not be all encompassing:
A4.3.2 Choose a solvent that has minimal absorbance at the NOTE A4.5—Mineral oil, fluorinated hydrocarbon, or appropriate sub-
stances can be used as the mulling agent. Matching the refractive indices
analytical wavenumbers and that will completely dissolve the as closely as possible gives best results.
sample.
A4.4.5 Transfer the sample to a clean, flat salt plate with a
A4.3.3 Measure a specified amount of sample into a volu- clean, rubber policeman or clean, plastic spatula.
metric flask or other suitable container, and add some of the
solvent to be used. The analyte must be completely dissolved. NOTE A4.6—A discussion of salt plates and cell-window materials is
covered in Practice E1252.
A4.3.4 Allow for temperature equilibration to the same A4.4.6 Cover with a second clean, flat plate; squeeze and
temperature as that used for the standards. rotate to obtain the desired thickness and to remove all trapped
A4.3.5 Make up to volume or weight with solvent and mix air.
thoroughly. A4.4.7 Visually observe the scattering of light passing
A4.3.6 Aqueous solutions can be analyzed using flat surface through the sample. As a guideline, the sample may appear
or circular ATR techniques. slightly hazy, but objects on the far side should be distinguish-
able.
NOTE A4.1—For other difficult solutes, such as elastomers and tars, it is
frequently more convenient to roughly weigh the solute in a suitable
container, add solvent from a graduated cylinder, dissolve, and run the
A4.5 Solids By Pressed-Pellet Technique (8, 12):
analysis. The concentration is then obtained by doing a percent solids A4.5.1 Particle size of the sample should be reduced to less
content on an aliquot from the remaining solution. than the analytical wavelength. This is relatively easy for many
NOTE A4.2—Solvent influence or overlap on the absorption bands to be
measured must be recognized and taken into account in the calculation.
samples without incurring any change in the sample. However,
NOTE A4.3—For best results, measure unknown sample solutions at polymorphic changes, degradation, and other changes may
concentrations that will place the analyte absorbances in the range of those occur during grinding. If such changes do happen and are not
used for calibration. controlled, the method will not be valid.
A4.5.1.1 Grinding conditions must be established for the
A4.4 Solids by Mull Techniques (8, 12):
particular sample type since grinding severity can affect
A4.4.1 The following is the recommended procedure for absorption-band intensity.
preparing solids by mull techniques; however, other methods A4.5.1.2 Weigh the preground sample and powdered potas-
also may be appropriate. Average particle size of the sample sium bromide (KBr) or other alkali halide in specified amounts
should be reduced to less than the analytical wavelength. The (sample weight should be about 1 % of the KBr weight; about
particle size reduction is relatively easy for many samples 350 mg KBr is appropriate for a 13-mm disk to avoid
without incurring any change in the sample. However, poly- interference fringes), and mix by hand in a mortar. This should
morphic changes, degradation, and other changes may occur be a mixing step rather than a grinding step.
during grinding. If such changes do occur and are not A4.5.1.3 Place the mixture in an appropriate evacuable die,
controlled, the method will not be valid. If changes are evacuate to at least 15 mm Hg and press at sufficient pressure
suspected, other techniques such as attenuated total reflectance to produce a transparent disk. Follow the manufacturer’s
(12) or diffuse reflectance (11) should be investigated. recommendation as to pressure for a particular die. Other
A4.4.2 Weigh slightly more than the minimum amount of methods, such as minipress cells are also used, but these
sample required, and then weigh the desired amount of an methods may not be as satisfactory due to crazing caused by
appropriate internal standard. Mix thoroughly. trapped air and water vapor.
NOTE A4.4—An appropriate internal standard (7, 11, 12) is a substance NOTE A4.7—Precaution: During pressing operations, place the die
that (a) exhibits a band in a suitable region of the spectrum, and as close symmetrically in the press. Otherwise, the die may forcefully slip out of
to the analyte’s wavenumber as possible, (b) is not present in the sample, the press, causing personnel injury or damage to surrounding equipment.
and (c) does not react chemically with or dissolve in the sample or mulling Some laboratories require safety shields in front of presses.
agent. An alternative to a separate internal standard is to use a band in the NOTE A4.8—Since the purity of alkali halide powders are not all the
sample that does not change as the moiety of interest is varied. This same, the same alkali halide powder should be used for the sample and
approach is very useful in polymer analyses. blank.
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E168 − 16
NOTE A4.9—If a steel-ball mill is used, clean, dry, rust-free stainless closed-loop pumping system of known volume. A known (or
steel vials and balls are recommended. A blank pellet (7) is made in the unknown) sample can be injected from a gas syringe into the
same manner as for the sample using the same ball-mill equipment, and
procedures. closed loop containing a diluent gas. The closed loop greatly
NOTE A4.10—Samples may undergo polymorphic changes or reactions reduces the time for mixing and helps to provide a homoge-
such as oxidation, ion exchange, or salt formation with the alkali halide neous sample for analysis.
material. These events may also invalidate a method.
NOTE A4.11—Precaution: Safety considerations require the use of
A4.6 Gaseous Samples (12, 15, 16, 17): proper pressure reduction valves for metering gases into a sample bomb.
A4.6.1 Take care that samples do not affect cell windows, Take precaution when mixing potentially hazardous or reactive gases.
mirror, or interiors. NOTE A4.12—All measurements for calibration and analysis under a
A4.6.1.1 Either fixed or variable path length cells can be given analytical system should be at a single, reproducible total pressure,
since the band intensity is a function of the partial pressure of the analyte,
used for gas analyses. Cells with path lengths from 1 cm to 20
--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---
the total pressure of the sample, and the total pressure within the cell and
m are readily available and other lengths can also be obtained. the temperature.
A4.6.1.2 Cells can be filled through the use of a vacuum NOTE A4.13—Mixing does not happen automatically. Attention must be
system coupled to a pressure gage for measurement of partial paid to assure complete transfer and equilibrium mixing.
pressures. NOTE A4.14—Calibration mixtures should be cross-checked by an
A4.6.1.3 An alternative method for filling and using long independent method.
path length cells is to have the cell incorporated into a
A5. PREPARATION OF POLYMERS
A5.1 Polymeric materials are studied by a variety of tech- desired value and released after a predetermined time. The
niques; the choice depends on the physical properties of the template and the pressed film are quickly quenched (and dried
particular polymer. Thermoplastics are hot pressed to form gently, if necessary). Film thickness is determined by averag-
films of a desired thickness. Cross-linked elastomers are often ing multiple micrometer measurements of the sample area in
prepared by microtoming, while others, particularly reinforced the infrared beam. These measurements can then be used to
materials, can be cold ground and pressed into a pellet using a calibrate the thickness with standard bands.
suitable sintering agent such as KBr or made into a mull using NOTE A5.1—Occasionally, a sinusoidal pattern is superimposed on a
a suitable suspending liquid such as mineral oil or fluorocar- spectrum. This is referred to as fringing. The fringe pattern is caused by
bons. Another method of forming a thin film is to cast from multiple internal reflections within the sample. This phenomenon can be
solvent. This is especially suitable for resins which either are reduced by placing fine (Grade 6/0) corundum paper between the first
sheet of aluminum foil and the backing plate. The corundum paper causes
not thermoplastic or break down at pressing temperatures. All a matte finish which scatters the reflected light diminishing the multiple
of these techniques can be successfully used for quantitative or internal reflections. This technique must be used cautiously because
semiquantitative analysis. If the above methods are not precision can be lessened by the matte finish (7).
satisfactory, either ATR (12) or diffuse reflectance (11) may be NOTE A5.2—Aluminum foil or other metal in contact with the molten
useful. polymer may need a mold-release agent. Many releasing agents contain
silicone polymers which can interfere with the peaks of interest. Wiping
A5.2 Preparation of polymers by the hot-pressing technique the surface with a solvent is sometimes effective, but use of cover plates
requires a suitable hydraulic press with heated platens capable coated with TFE-fluorocarbon or with a nonmigratory releasing agent is
better.
of reaching the softening point of the polymer. In some cases,
NOTE A5.3—For very thin films, templates are less useful, and
water-cooled platens are also necessary to obtain the desired
release-coated, flat metal plates can be used. Use smaller amounts of
results. The pressing zone for a number of common polymers polymer to achieve thinner films.
is given (18, 19, 20, 21). For quantitative results, the use of a NOTE A5.4—For quantitative determination of blended components, it
template with an opening to accommodate the infrared beam is is advisable to increase homogeneity by pressing a large sample, about 5
recommended. Typically templates from 0.3 to 6 mil (7.5 to g, into a film. Cut this film and stack the pieces so outer edges will lie on
150 µm) are easily cut from metal shimstock. Sufficient center portions, and then repress. Select smaller samples from this blend
powdered or pellets of polymer to fill the opening is placed in for final pressing.
the template between two layers of aluminum foil which are NOTE A5.5—Pressing techniques must be used with caution when
investigating crystalline polymers, or polymers with other order-
then placed between two larger smooth backing plates. A small producing structures. These polymers are temperature sensitive. Some
amount of pressure is applied while the polymer heats to the problems can be avoided by annealing under controlled conditions before
desired temperature, then pressure is increased rapidly to the quantitative measurements are made.

12
E168 − 16
A5.3 Microtoming —This technique is used for cross- A5.6 Polymers can be prepared as cast films. Selection of
linked and hard elastomers. Hand-driven and automated mi- solvent is important since both solubility of the polymer and
crotomes are available where sample size and thickness are volatility of the solvent affect the resultant film (23). A film can
preselected for the analysis method. Temperature of the sample be cast on the surface of an IR transparent material, or a
and knife should be controlled within the plastic range of the free-standing film can be cast on the surface of glass, metal,
material (22). water, TFE-fluorocarbon, polyethylene, or mercury
(Warning—See Note A5.6.) The dried film is then mounted
A5.4 Friable polymers may be prepared for infrared exami-
nation by the pressed-pellet technique as in A4.5. Grinding at directly in the infrared beam. Uniform thickness is very
reduced temperatures allows the technique to be extended to difficult to achieve and best quantitative results are obtained by
soft or rubbery polymers. Avoid water contamination by using a calibrated, preselected internal-thickness band.
condensation. Quantitative results are obtained by one of NOTE A5.6—Warning: Mercury vapor is toxic. Exercise precaution
several methods: (a) using an internal standard band from one when mercury is used.
of the components, (b) adding a known quantity of an inert NOTE A5.7—Polymer crystallinity and phase separation of blends
commonly result as film drying progresses. Multiple areas should be
internal standard such as potassium thiocyanate, or (c) using a
sampled to test composition, and to provide average values.
known concentration of polymer in the pellet matrix and
measuring the thickness of the pellet.
A5.5 Friable polymers may also be prepared for infrared
examination by the mull technique as in A4.4. For quantitative
measurements, the best results are usually obtained by using an
internal reference band, but adding an internal standard is an
acceptable alternative.
A6. MORE ABOUT STATISTICS
A6.1 The Gaussian Distribution and Confidence Intervals: visualize the utility of the standard deviation, the following
A6.1.1 Often random error has a normal (Gaussian) distri- substitution can be made:
bution (16,17). This is generally true when there is no single ~x 2 µ!
y5 (A6.3)
dominant source of error. We can define a population as a σ
hypothetical set of N observations from which the sample of ~ 2y 2 !
observations actually obtained are taken. In a normally distrib- p ~ y ! dy 5 ~ 2π ! exp dy (A6.4)
2
uted population, the probability that the measured quantity has
a value between x and x + dx is given by p(x) dx as follows: The area under the distribution curve represents the prob-
ability that a measured value will be within a particular range,
p ~ x ! dx 5
~ 2π !
σ
21/2
exp F 2~x 2 µ !
2σ 2
2
G dx (A6.1) and the confidence interval placed upon a measured value can
be given in terms of the standard deviation. For example, if the
where µ is the true value of the measured quantity and σ is error is normally distributed, 68.26 % of the time the value of
the true standard deviation of the measurements. σ is defined: the single measurement will lie in the range between −σ and σ;
F G 95.44 % of the time the measurement will lie between −2σ and
n 1/2
( ~x
i51
i 2 µ !2 2σ; and 99.74 % of the time the measurement will lie between
σ5 (A6.2) −3σ and 3σ.
N
where N is the number of measurements. The standard A6.2 Gaussian Distribution of a Sample:
deviation, σ, has the same units as the quantity being measured
A6.2.1 In practice it is necessary to deal with a limited
and expresses the degree of scatter among the measured
number of measurements, n (14, 24, 25) called a sample, which
quantities and is related to the precision of the measurements.
The quantity σ2 is called the variance and has additive are obtained from the population. From these n observations,
properties. The overall variance of a multistep process is the arithmetic mean, x̄, is taken as an estimate of the true
simply the sum of the variances of the individual steps if there population mean, µ, where:
n
is no correlation between the sources of variation of the
individual steps. The square root of the overall variance yields (x
i51
i
X̄ 5 (A6.5)
the standard deviation for the whole process. To more fully n
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13
E168 − 16
A6.2.2 The operational definition of the standard deviation ~ x̄ 2 µ ! n 1/2
t5 (A6.8)
must be modified for the sample, and it is given the symbol s, s
where:
where the symbols have their usual meanings. Slight modi-
F( G
n 1/2
2 fications are necessary for the second case as follows:
~ x i 2 x̄ !
s5
i51
n21
(A6.6)
t5
~ x̄ 1 2 x̄ 2 !
s S n 1n 2
n 1 1n 2 D 1/2
(A6.9)
s2 is then the variance for the sample. The confidence ~ n 1 2 1 ! s 12 1 ~ n 2 2 1 ! s 22

interval of the mean for the sample is determined from the s2 5 (A6.10)
n 1 1n 2 2 2
Student’s t distribution as follows:
where the subscripts refer to the different data sets.
ts
µ 5 x̄6 1/2
n
(A6.7) A6.3.2 The value of t calculated from the experimental data
is compared to table values. It is clear that the value of t will
Tables of Student’s t distribution for appropriate significance become larger as the difference between x̄ and µ (or x̄1 and x̄2)
levels and appropriate n values (or degrees of freedom, n − 1) becomes larger, and large t-values imply statistically signifi-
are given elsewhere (25-28). cant differences between the quantities being compared. The
table value of t is chosen according to the significance level
A6.3 Significance Testing: required and the number of degrees of freedom (n − 1 for the
A6.3.1 The t-Test—The t-test (14, 25, 26) is useful (1) for first case and n1 + n2 − 2 for the second case). If the calculated
comparing the mean of an experimental study with an accepted value of t equals the table value for the 95 % significance level,
value or (2) for comparing the means of two sets of data. In the then only 5 % of the time would random error account for the
first case t is defined (by rearranging Eq A6.7) as follows: difference in the quantities being compared.
A7. ADVANCED STATISTICAL METHODS
A7.1 Detailed descriptions of multilinear regression (also analysis, and analyses using derivative techniques. Because of
called inverse least-squares), principal components regression the many possible variations of these methods and their relative
and partial least squares are discussed in Practices E1655. complexity, only the general nature of these methods is
Other methods of multivariate analyses are briefly discussed presented.
below as classical least squares, cross-correlation, factor
A8. CLASSICAL LEAST-SQUARES METHODS
A8.1 When the quantitative equations relating A and c are A 5 KC1E (A8.1)
written in the form of Beer’s law (see Eq 4), then the where the A matrix is an i × m matrix of m calibration
least-squares analysis is a classical regression (often referred to spectra at i wavenumbers, and C is an n × m matrix of the n
in infrared spectroscopic literature as the K-matrix method) known component concentrations for each of the m mixtures. K
(28-35). Either univariate methods (that is, each reference is the i × n matrix of the n pure component spectra at unit
spectrum contains only spectral features of one component in concentration and unit relative path length for each of the i
the spectral region of interest (28, 29, 31) or multivariate wavenumbers. E is the i × m matrix of random noise or error
methods (that is, the calibration standards are mixtures of the in the absorbance values of the calibration spectra. K is
pure components) (30) may be used. The univariate method is estimated by least-squares methods as follows:
simply a special case of the multivariate technique. When the
multivariate methods are employed, the least-squares analysis K̂ 5 AC' ~ CC' ! 21 (A8.2)
is a two-step analysis involving both a calibration step and an where K̂is the least-squares estimate of K, the primes
analysis step. The calibration step takes the m known calibra- indicate transposed matrices and the superscript −1 indicates the
tion mixture spectra and estimates the pure component spectra inverse of the matrix. The estimated K matrix, K̂, is then used
by least-squares methods. The calibration equations are as in the least-squares prediction of the unknown sample concen-
follows: tration as follows:
--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---

14
E168 − 16
Ĉ 5 ~ K̂K̂' !
21
K̂' A (A8.3) independent of the number of wavenumbers used in the
where Ĉis the least-squares estimate of the unknown sample analysis, the complexity of matrix inversion is also indepen-
concentrations and A is now the unknown sample spectrum at dent of the number of wavenumbers used. This favors the use
i wavenumbers. In the univariate case, the K matrix is simply of a large number of wavenumbers in the analysis which
constructed directly from the measured pure component spec- improves bias and precision and makes analyses possible even
tra. Baseline fitting of the sample spectrum can also be when the signal-to-noise ratios are less than one (28). Note that
included in the solution of Ĉ in Eq A8.3 to allow for baseline the use of a larger number of wavenumbers also increases the
variations between the calibration and sample spectra (28, 29). chance that the analysis will be compromised by an unknown
A weighted least-squares analysis may also be used to give component. The effect of an unknown component can be
greater emphasis to those spectral data with greater signal-to- reduced if the algorithm is written to minimize the influence of
noise ratios (29, 30). In Eq A8.2 and A8.3, the final number of those regions of the spectra that contain the unknown interfer-
simultaneous equations to be solved can be reduced to the ences (29, 30). The minimum number of calibration standards
number of components used in the analysis. This means that and wavenumbers necessary for the analysis is equal to the
the dimension of the matrix which must be inverted is also the number of components.
same as the number of components. Since this dimension is
A9. CROSS-CORRELATION METHODS
A9.1 The use of cross-correlation methods in infrared spec- mine quantitatively the amount of one contained in the other. If
troscopy has recently been described (20, 32, 33). Cross- Beer’s law is valid, then the value of the correlation function at
correlation techniques can evaluate the similarity between two zero displacement is a linear function of concentration. The
spectra (for example, the reference and the sample) to deter- mathematical details are given (20, 32, 33).
A10. ABSTRACT FACTOR METHODS
A10.1 Abstract factor methods utilize the concept of repre- Analysis of an unknown sample is then accomplished by
senting spectral data as a linear data set. Instead of using determining the scores of the principal factors for the sample
discrete data points representing changes in component spectrum. The relation between scores and concentrations
concentration, factor analysis uses the entire spectrum of each determined from the sample data can then be used to yield the
standard and transforms the data into a linear representation of sample concentrations. The linear regression analysis may be
quantitative information. Factor abstract methods involve find- carried out using any of a number of factor spaces (or basis
ing a set of principal factors (for example, eigenvectors or sets) including Fourier and Taylor series or more commonly,
loadings) required to reproduce the calibration spectra. The principal components analysis (PCA or PCR) and partial least
relation between the scores of these principal factors for each squares (PLS). Theories and application of factor analysis
calibration spectrum and the desired properties is determined methods are presented in the literature (9, 10, 21, 36) and
by the application of standard linear regression methods. Practices E1655.
--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---

15
E168 − 16
A11. DERIVATIVE METHODS
A11.1 Derivative methods are useful when the absorption tude of the negative-derivative lobe, or the difference between
band or bands being analyzed do not yield a suitable choice for the two lobes. The ratio of any of the above quantities between
a baseline as described in Sections 12 and 13. Derivative corresponding sample and reference bands is assumed to be
techniques have generally required that isolated spectral bands proportional to the ratio of sample and reference concentra-
be used in the analysis although one least-squares full- tions.
spectrum derivative method has been described which allows A11.1.2 Use of Second Derivatives—The second-derivative
for overlapping peaks (31). The derivative of a band or spectrum may be calculated from the first-derivative spectrum
spectrum can often be calculated by taking the difference in the same manner that the first-derivative spectrum was
between absorbances in the spectrum at equally spaced wave- calculated from the absorption spectrum. Generally the second-
numbers. However, because derivatives increase spectral noise, derivative spectrum has a positive lobe, a negative lobe, and a
mathematical smoothing (for example, Savitzky-Golay second positive lobe. The magnitude of any of these or their
smoothing) is often used either before or after derivatives are differences can be used in the quantitative analysis.
calculated.
--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---
NOTE A11.1—Depending upon the specific algorithm used, the first
A11.1.1 Use of First Derivatives—There are three possible derivative of the first derivative may not be exactly identical to the second
methods used in first-derivative analyses. These include using derivative. This is not normally a problem, as long as a consistent
the magnitude of the positive first-derivative lobe, the magni- approach is used.
A12. NOTES ON OPERATION OF NONCOMPUTERIZED, DISPERSIVE INSTRUMENTS
A12.1 For noncomputerized, dispersive instruments, the

zero value of transmittance must be known in the spectral
region where measurements are taken. Check the zero trans-
mittance value at the analytical wavenumber by the following
procedure:
A12.1.1 When increasingly thick samples are placed in the
instrument, the absorption bands will bottom out on the chart
paper at the effective zero transmittance as shown in Fig.
A12.1. If the instrument does not record this point as zero
transmittance, the value of T0 is noted and transmittance values
are corrected by subtracting the T0 value before conversion to
absorbance. Blocking the sample beam with an opaque object
is sometimes necessary, but gives a less accurate zero. The true
absorbance A is calculated by the following equation:
A 5 log@ ~ T 2 2 T 0 ! / ~ T 1 2 T 0 ! # (A12.1)
where:
T0 = transmittance with a very thick or concentrated sample
in the beam (or with the beam blocked),
T1 = transmittance obtained with the sample in the beam,
and
T2 = transmittance without the sample in the beam.
If T0 = 0, then Eq A12.1 reduces to the following: FIG. A12.1 Transmittance Zero Determination
A 5 log~ T 2 /T 1 ! (A12.2)

16
E168 − 16
A13. SETTING UP AN ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE
A13.1 Record the interval of the spectrum containing the A13.3.5 Convert these transmittance values to absorbance
band(s) to be measured. This interval should normally include and determine the analyte absorbance.
at least one maximum and one minimum transmittance.
A13.4 For computerized data, do the following:
A13.2 For each of the analytical wavenumbers that are A13.4.1 Record the spectrum of the analyte sample.
specified in the method make certain all peaks to be measured
are in the desired absorbance range. A13.4.2 Record the spectrum of a blank if possible.
A13.3 For instruments without a computer, do the following A13.4.3 Subtract the blank from the sample spectrum scal-
at the selected wavenumbers: ing appropriately.
A13.3.1 Measure the zero transmittance with a thick or A13.4.4 Using a preselected baseline treatment, determine
concentrated sample (see Annex A12). the analyte absorbance.
A13.3.2 Read the transmittance value T1 for the sample (see NOTE A13.1—For dispersive instruments, a reference beam attenuator
Fig. A12.1). is useful for shifting the apparent zero absorbance for highly absorbing
samples. For optical null instruments, changing the position of the
A13.3.3 If possible, prepare a blank that is free of analyte, attenuator will require readjustment of the gain for maximum sensitivity.
then measure T2. NOTE A13.2—Most computerized instruments have software for quan-
titative analysis which give step-by-step assistance in both calibration and
A13.3.4 Using a preselected baseline treatment, determine analysis. The general procedure is, however, as outlined in A13.1 –
--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---
the analyte and baseline transmittances (see Note 3). A13.4.4.
REFERENCES
(1) Ingle, J.D. and Crouch, S.R., Spectrochemical Analysis, Prentice Hall, (18) Henniker, J.C., Infrared Spectrometry of Industrial Polymers, Aca-
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1988. demic Press, 1967.
(2) Ramsay, D.A., Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol 74, (19) Brandrup, J., and Immergut, E.H., Polymer Handbook, 2nd edition,
1952, p. 72. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1975, p. III-51.
(3) Anderson, R.J., and Griffiths, P.R., Analytical Chemistry, Vol 47, (20) Mann, C. K., Goleniewski, J.R., and Sismanidis, C.A., Applied
1975, p. 2339. Spectroscopy, Vol 36, 1982, p. 223.
(4) Zhu, C., and Griffiths, P.R., Applied Spectroscopy, Vol 47, 1988, pp. (21) Malinowski, E.R., and Howery, D.G., Factor Analysis in Chemistry,
1403 and 1409. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1980.
(5) Hieftje, G.M., Dehonigs, D., Hirschfeld, T., Applied Spectroscopy, Vol (22) Seisler, H.W., and Holland-Moritz, K., Infrared and Raman Spec-
39, No. 2, p. 253. troscopy of Polymers, Vol 4, Marcel Deker, Inc., New York, 1980, p.
(6) Bauman, R.P., Absorption Spectroscopy, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 116.
New York, 1962. (23) An Infrared Atlas for the Coatings Industry , Federation of Societies
for Coatings Technology, Philadelphia, 1980, p. 17.
(7) Potts, W.J., Jr., Chemical Infrared Spectroscopy: Volume 1,
(24) Meyer, S.L., Data Analysis for Scientists and Engineers, John Wiley
Techniques, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1963.
and Sons, New York, 1975.
(8) Conley, R.T., Infrared Spectroscopy, 2nd edition, Allyn and Bacon,
(25) Fisher, R.A., The Design of Experiments, Hafner, New York, 1971.
Inc., Boston, 1972.
(26) Selby, S.M., ed., Standard Mathematical Tables, 15th edition,
(9) Kramer, R., Chemometric Techniques for Quantitative Analysis,
Chemical Rubber Co., Cleveland, 1967.
Marcel Decker, New York, NY, 1998.
(27) Fisher, R.A., and Yates, F., Statistical Tables, Hafner, Darien, CT,
(10) Beebe, K.R., Pell, R.J., Seasholtz, M.B., Chemometrics, A Practical 1970.
Guide, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 1998. (28) Haaland, D.M., and Easterling, R.G., Applied Spectroscopy, Vol 34,
(11) Griffiths, P.R., and deHaseth, J.A., Fourier Transform Infrared 1980, p. 539.
Spectroscopy, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1986. (29) Haaland, D.M., and Easterling, R.G., Applied Spectroscopy, Vol 36,
(12) Smith, A.L., Applied Infrared Spectroscopy, John Wiley and Sons, 1982, p. 665.
Inc., New York, 1979. (30) Haaland, D.M., Easterling, R.G., and Vopicka, D.A., Applied
(13) Cole, K.C., Thomas, Y., Pellerin, E., Dunoulin, M.M., and Paroli, Spectroscopy, Vol 39, 1985, p. 73.
R.M., Applied Spectroscopy , Vol 50, No. 6, 1996, pp. 774-780. (31) Kisner, H.J., Brown, C.W., Kavarnos, G.J., Analytical Chemistry,
(14) Skoog, D. A., and West, D.M., Principles of Instrumental Analysis, Vol 54, 1982, p. 1479.
2nd edition, Saunders, Philadelphia, 1980. (32) Tyson, L.L., Ling, Y.C., and Mann, C.K., Applied Spectroscopy, Vol
(15) Rothman, L.D., Crouch, S.R., and Ingle, J.D., Analytical Chemistry, 38, 1984, p. 663.
Vol 47, 1975. (33) Tyson, L.L., Vickers, T.J., and Mann, C.K., Applied Spectroscopy,
(16) Infrared Application Study, No. 10, Perkin-Elmer Corp. Vol 38, 1984, p. 697.
(17) Ferraro, J.R., and Basile, L.J., Fourier Transform Infrared (34) Antoon, M.K., Keonig, J.H., and Koenig, J.L., Applied Spectroscopy,
Spectroscopy, Vol 2, Academic Press, New York, Chapter 2, 1979. Vol 31, 1977, p. 518.

17
E168 − 16
(35) Brown, C.W., Lynch, P.F., Obremski, R.J., and Lavery, D.S., Ana- (36) Mark, H., and Workman, J., Statistics in Spectroscopy, Academic
lytical Chemistry, Vol 54, 1982, p. 1472. Press, Boston, 1991.
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--`,,,,```,`,`,,,,,`,`,`-`-``,```,,,`---

18

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What is the scope of this standard?

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What apparatus and instruments are discussed?

Designation: E168 − 16

Standard Practices for

1. Scope eters: Level Zero and Level One Tests

Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on

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is expressed for the one component case as:

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·· ········ ······ ······

A i 5 a i1 bc1 1a i2 bc2 1····1a inbcn

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·· ····· ····· ···· ·····

·· ····· ····· ···· ·····

·· ····· ····· ···· ·····

where Fin are the inverted coefficients. Thereafter calculation

18. Correction for Curvature in Beer’s Law Plots

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A1. BASELINE PROCEDURES FOR COMPUTERIZED INSTRUMENTS

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A2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR BAND AREA

A2.3 Band area is calculated by integrating across band-

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A3. CALCULATION OF BAND AREA

w4 = lower wavenumber limit, and

FIG. A3.1 Band Area With Zero-Absorbance Baseline

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FIG. A3.2 Band Area With a One-Point Baseline

FIG. A3.3 Band Area With a Two-Point Baseline

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A4. SAMPLE PREPARATION

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A5. PREPARATION OF POLYMERS

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A6. MORE ABOUT STATISTICS

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s2 is then the variance for the sample. The confidence ~ n 1 2 1 ! s 12 1 ~ n 2 2 1 ! s 22

A7. ADVANCED STATISTICAL METHODS

A8. CLASSICAL LEAST-SQUARES METHODS

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A9. CROSS-CORRELATION METHODS

A10. ABSTRACT FACTOR METHODS

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A11. DERIVATIVE METHODS

A12. NOTES ON OPERATION OF NONCOMPUTERIZED, DISPERSIVE INSTRUMENTS

A12.1 For noncomputerized, dispersive instruments, the

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A13. SETTING UP AN ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE

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