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Pervious concrete mixture optimization, physical, and mechanical properties

and pavement design: A review

Article  in  Journal of Cleaner Production · November 2020

DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125095

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 1 Pervious Concrete Mixture Optimization, Physical, and Mechanical Properties
2 and Pavement Design: A Review
3

4 Authors:

5 Othman AlShareedah, Ph.D. Student

6 Civil and Environmental Engineering
7 Washington State University
8 othman.alshareedah@wsu.edu
9 2001 East Grimes Way
10 Pullman WA 99164
11

12 Somayeh Nassiri, Assistant Professor (corresponding author)

13 Civil and Environmental Engineering
14 Washington State University
15 snassiri@wsu.edu
16 2001 East Grimes Way
17 Pullman WA 99164
18

19 Abstract
20 Pervious concrete has made a comeback as a green infrastructure solution for urban areas. The fast adoption
21 of the permeable pavement practice by many cities worldwide warrants an urgent response from researchers
22 to address the lack of standards for mixture optimization, pavement design, and characterization methods,
23 resulting in field placements with insufficient strength and durability. These critical issues are the topic of
24 this review paper. Laboratory test results relevant to the mechanical and hydrological performance of
25 pervious concrete, e.g., compressive and flexural strength, impact and abrasion resistance, porosity and
26 permeability, and their interrelationships are discussed in great detail. The use of additives, alternative
27 binders, fillers, and fibers from natural sources and waste streams and their impact on pervious concrete
28 performance parameters is reviewed. Efforts in computational modeling of mechanical, structural, and
29 hydrological behavior of pervious concrete materials and pervious concrete pavements are also presented.
30 Based on this extensive review of state of the art on these important matters, the areas of need for future
31 research are identified.

32 Keywords
33 Pervious concrete; permeable pavement; sustainable construction material; green infrastructure

1
34

35 1. Introduction
36 Pervious concrete has recently regained popularity for use in permeable pavement systems in urban
37 settings—the inception of pervious concrete dates to post-World War II Europe. Shortage in supply of
38 bricks and other building materials at the time of overwhelming demand for reconstruction led to the
39 increased acceptance of pervious concrete as a viable building material. At Present, pervious concrete is
40 mainly used in permeable pavement systems as roadways, sidewalks, driveways, parking lots, and other
41 light-duty flatwork applications [1,2]. While sufficiently strong to support light-traffic, pervious concrete
42 pavement is most used as a stormwater management practice. It freely infiltrates runoff to underlying layers
43 for temporary storage and gradual infiltration to sub-soil or sewer system.
44 There has been an uptick in demand for permeable pavements in many cities across the United States and
45 worldwide. In Europe, pervious concrete was used to reduce road noise, wet weather splashing, and to
46 enhance friction [3–5]. In China, pervious concrete was used in the sponge city plan to mitigate the
47 escalating issue of urban flooding and overloaded drainage systems [6,7]. The rapid surge in using this type
48 of pavement technology has urged researchers to invest efforts in many aspects of this technology to
49 overcome key shortcomings of unsatisfactory strength and durability.
50 In this paper, we present a compilation of prominent findings of studies focused on mixture design, testing,
51 and characterization, incorporation of waste and recycled materials, advances in computational modeling
52 of pervious concrete materials, and finally, structural design of pervious concrete pavements. Our objective
53 is to help the research community efficiently navigate the existing literature and respond promptly to new
54 challenges and issues that arise by the rapid adoption of permeable pavement technology.

55 2. Literature Search Approach

56 Research articles published in Science Citation Indexed Journals from the year 2000 until mid-2020 were
57 gathered for this literature survey by searching in Scopus and Web of Science. The search parameters were
58 a combination of "pervious concrete" with other keywords such as mechanical properties (compressive
59 strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength, resistance to impact loading and abrasion), permeability,
60 pavement design, and mixture design used in the title, abstract, and the body of the paper.
61 In the initial search, an extensive collection of papers was gathered using these keywords. Next, the papers'
62 abstracts were screened for their relevance to the general theme of this review, which is the mechanical,
63 durability-related, hydrological, and structural performance of pervious concrete. Papers containing
64 computational or statistical modeling with a rigorous experimental program presenting mechanical
65 properties of either compressive, tensile, flexural, abrasion, cantabro, or fatigue were selected for further
66 review. The authors reviewed the full texts of the selected papers to choose only those that followed proper
67 procedures of molding, compaction, curing, and testing in consistence with test standards for pervious
68 concrete and recent mixture proportions. After this review, a few technical reports and documents that
69 included valuable field performance data, statistical models, and experimental results that were not
70 published as a journal article were added to the select publications. The final collection included 118
71 publications, out of which, 45 are from the Journal of Construction and Building Materials, 9 from the
72 Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 6 from the Journal of Cement of Concrete Research, 5 from
73 Journal of Transportation Research Record, and other publications from various other journals.
74 In the writing stage, the authors crafted this review paper, so the behavior of pervious concrete in
75 mechanical, hydrological, and structural performance is understood. The key studied parameters are
76 mixture composition, mixture optimization, incorporation of recycled materials, fibers, and computational

2
 77 modeling of both the material and pavement structure. Based on this extensive survey of the literature, the
78 research gaps that still need to be addressed were identified.

79 3. Review of Mixture Design, Mechanical Properties, and Durability

80 3.1. Mixture Design
81 Compared to the mixture design method for standard concrete pavements that consider placability,
82 transportability, compactability, and sustainability, pervious concrete mixture design requires additional
83 considerations. Conventional aggregate grading methods based on packing density, void ratio, and other
84 standard concrete methods do not apply to pervious concrete due to the required air void system, which
85 makes it challenging to develop a standard mixture design method. Performance criteria used for typical
86 paving concrete, such as workability in terms of slump, drying shrinkage, and setting time, do not apply to
87 pervious concrete. For pervious concrete, accepted performance criteria in the literature and practice are
88 porosity, permeability, and compressive strength, and less commonly, flexural strength, durability against
89 freeze-thaw cycling, impact loading, and abrasion. An appropriate mixture design will balance
90 porosity/permeability and mechanical properties to meet structural and hydrological performance
91 requirements.
92 In the lack of a standard mixture design procedure, on a trial-and-error basis, several trial batches with
93 various compositions are made and tested for physical and mechanical properties until the required
94 performance factors are met [8]. Typical proportions for pervious concrete mixture components are
95 provided in Table 1, along with a range of test results for critical properties of porosity, permeability, and
96 compressive strength.
97
98 Table 1. Typical components of pervious concrete and their proportions, with basic mechanical and
99 physical properties of pervious concrete [8–15]

Material Typical range

Cement content (kg/m3) 280 – 310
Coarse aggregate content (kg/m3) 1,440 – 1,800
Fine aggregates content (optional) (kg/m3) 85 – 205
Water-to-cement ratio (W/C) 0.26 – 0.45
Aggregate:cement ratio by mass (A/C) 4:1 – 4.5:1
Coarse aggregate size (mm) 2.38 – 19
Hardened porosity (%) 15 – 35
Compressive strength (MPa) 2.8 – 28
Permeability (cm/s) 0.14 – 1.22
100
101 The mixture design results in an interconnected network of mesoscale air void system, created by mixing
102 relatively uniformly sized coarse aggregate with just enough cement paste to bond aggregates (Fig. 1).

3
103
104 Fig. 1. Fresh pervious concrete with sufficient cement paste to coat coarse aggregates

105 The pervious concrete committee 522 of the American Concrete Institute (ACI) included an eight-step
106 method for mixture design in their early publication (ACI 522R-10). The inputs to this method are water-
107 to-cement (W/C) ratio, porosity, and dry-rodded density of coarse aggregate. The cement and water contents
108 are determined using a relationship between porosity and paste volume for light and well compacted
109 pervious concrete [8]. However, this method is only used to proportion the first trial batch, which is then
110 used to modify the mixture proportions further to achieve the desired properties. Also, the mixture design
111 of pervious concrete has evolved significantly from the ratios used in the early 2000s.
112 In 2014, Nguyen et al. [12] proposed a method based on the volume of cement paste and the assumption of
113 spherical coarse aggregates to estimate the thickness of the cement paste film coating the aggregates in the
114 fresh state. In addition, the W/C ratio was determined using a proposed binder drainage test to achieve a
115 paste with sufficient viscosity to prevent the segregation of the components. However, this method was
116 developed based on a single mixture composition with angular coarse aggregate (4-6 mm). Thus, it needs
117 to be tested for a wide variety of mixtures using different W/C and aggregate/cement (A/C) ratios, aggregate
118 types, shapes, and different compaction levels. In 2019, Liu et al. [16] introduced a method to concentrate
119 the paste at the aggregate joints instead of a uniform coating of aggregate, achieved by reducing the surface
120 free energy of aggregates with a silane polymer. Pervious concrete with silane treated recycled aggregate
121 reached 32-114% higher strength than the control [16]. However, adding polymers is not the standard
122 practice for concrete producers and contractors, increases the price of pervious concrete, requires
123 preprocessing of coarse aggregates before mixing, and may partially refute the sustainability offerings of
124 pervious concrete.
125 Other studies focused on evaluating the effect of ratios of mixture parameters, e.g., the A/C ratio on various
126 performance factors, but the interrelation with porosity was not well-considered (more details in Section
127 1.3.2.). Several studies reported that decreasing the A/C ratio would increase strength; however, this change
128 is due to reduced porosity, which then increases the strength [16–18]. Similarly, several studies reported
129 that increasing W/C ratio within 0.25-0.35 range results in higher compressive strength due to a reduction
130 in porosity [19,20]. At constant porosity, reducing the W/C and superplasticizers could increase the strength
131 of pervious concrete.
132 3.1.1. Effect of Coarse Aggregate Properties on Strength
133 For pervious concrete pavements, resistance against abrasion (durability) is an essential required
134 performance factor, which increases for mixtures with higher compressive strength. The compressive
135 strength is driven by the aggregate-paste bond and, more importantly, the porosity of pervious concrete
136 affected by the aggregate nominal size, shape, angularity, texture, and other properties. As opposed to

4
137 standard concrete, the effect of aggregate size on the compressive strength of pervious concrete is not clear
138 in the literature, most likely due to its impact on porosity, which has an inverse correlation with strength.
139 Among eight tested mixtures with 20% porosity, pervious concrete with 2.36-4.76 mm aggregate size had
140 the lowest strength while 4.76-9.5 mm aggregate had 52% higher strength, as illustrated in Fig. 2 [21]. In
141 another study, pervious concrete with 60% 8-16 mm and 30% 4-8 mm-size aggregate reached 21% higher
142 strength than the mixture with 60% 4-8 mm and 30% 8-16 mm-size aggregates at constant porosity [13].
143 Deo and Neithalath tested pervious concrete specimens made with single-size aggregates (2.38, 4.76, and
144 9.51 mm). They showed that smaller aggregate size results in lower strength only due to the larger number
145 of pores [22]. However, in some cases, using smaller aggregate sizes results in a reduction in porosity and
146 increased compressive strength [23–25]. Regarding aggregate angularity, several researchers reported that
147 angular aggregates resulted in pervious concrete with higher porosity and, consequently, higher
148 permeability and lower strength [26–29].
35

30
Compressive strength (MPa)

25

20

15

10

0
2.36-4.75 4.75-6 6-8 4.75-9.5 8-9.5 10-12.5 12.5-15 10-15
Aggregate size ranges (mm)
149
150 Fig. 2. Influence of aggregate size on pervious concrete compressive strength at 20% porosity (created
151 after [21])

152 3.1.2. Effect of Fine Aggregate on Strength

153 Fine aggregates may be added in the pervious concrete mixture, typically within 5-10% of the coarse
154 aggregate mass, to improve the strength and durability. One study reported that the addition of 10% river
155 sand in pervious concrete mixture with a W/C ratio of 0.3-0.4 resulted in a slight reduction in porosity
156 (about 12%) while compressive strength increased by 50 percent [30]. For high porosity pervious concrete
157 (>50%) with recycled aggregates and W/C ratio of 0.27, the addition of 7% by mass of coarse aggregate
158 sand resulted in a 16% reduction in porosity and 19% increase in compressive strength [31]. Besides
159 reducing the porosity, sand improved pervious concrete strength due to thicker paste coating and increased
160 contact area between aggregates, which improves aggregate interlocking [30]. In cold-climate regions
161 where concrete pavements are exposed to freeze-thaw cycling, Kevern et al. [15] found that replacing 7%
162 of coarse aggregate by mass with sand results in significantly higher skid resistance. Furthermore, improper
163 curing of fresh pervious concrete can result in raveling, a common distress in pervious concrete pavements.
164 To improve pervious concrete curing, Kevern and Nowasell [14] proposed the use of fine prewetted
165 lightweight aggregates (PLWA) to provide internal curing. Their results indicated that replacing 7% of the

5
166 mass of coarse aggregates by PLWA increased the degree of hydration by 10% and provided greater
167 strength, freeze-thaw resistance, and less shrinkage.
168 3.2. Physical and Mechanical Properties and Durability
169 3.2.1. Porosity, Infiltration, and Permeability
170 ASTM C1754 test procedure provides the porosity of pervious concrete based on the difference between
171 the mass of dry (Md) and underwater specimen (Mw) according to Eq. 1 [32].
(𝑀𝑀𝑑𝑑 −𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 )
172 𝑃𝑃 = 100 × [1 − ] (1)
𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝑉𝑉
173 Where ρw is the density of water, and V is the volume of the pervious concrete specimen. This test has
174 gained popularity because it does not need sophisticated instruments, and it is quick and straightforward.
175 However, the method only provides the total porosity (pore size distribution is not quantified). Also,
176 tortuous void channels and dead-end air voids that are difficult to access or inaccessible by water may not
177 be quantified in this method. However, verification by X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT) showed
178 ASTM C1754 is sufficiently accurate in determining the porosity of pervious concrete specimens [33–35].
179 X-ray CT enables visualization and further analysis of the pore network. In this method, an X-ray beam is
180 directed to infiltrate the pervious concrete specimen from different angles and then received in a flat-panel
181 scintillator detector. After that, an image analysis software is used to reconstruct a three-dimensional (3D)
182 image from multiple 2D images [36]. The 3D reconstructed models of pervious concrete specimens were
183 used to establish the average pore sizes and their size distribution. Zhang et al. [34] reported that the average
184 pore sizes for pervious concrete samples with porosities of 13, 20, 25, and 28% were 3.38, 4.74, 5.4, and
185 7.47 mm, respectively. Other researchers have used X-ray CT to develop empirical relationships for
186 calculating pore sizes based on mixture input parameters such as aggregate sizes [37,38]. Another
187 application of X-ray CT in the literature is to use the reconstructed 3D model of the scanned pervious
188 concrete to model the mechanical or the hydrological behavior of pervious concrete and identify clogging
189 issues [34,39–41]. Amini et al. [42] developed regression models relating ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)
190 with pervious concrete permeability and compressive strength with a 0.74-0.76 average coefficient of
191 determination values.
192 ASTM C1701 provides a simple procedure to test the infiltration rate of pervious concrete pavements (Fig.
193 3a). First, a ring is attached to the pavement, then a known volume of water is poured into the ring while
194 maintaining a constant head, and the time for the water to infiltrate is measured. Researchers have used a
195 modified version of this method on laboratory specimens. The specimen is enclosed on the sides in shrink
196 wrap to prevent lateral loss of water (Fig. 3b) [43]. Infiltration tests are run with 1 and 2 liters of water for
197 100- and 150-mm-diameter cylinders, respectively. The time (t) for the volume of water (Vw) to drain
198 through the specimen is used to calculate the infiltration per Eq. 2:
4V
199 I = 2w (2)
D πt
200 where D is the diameter of the specimen. The relationship between pervious concrete porosity and
201 infiltration rate measured using Eq. 2 is illustrated in Fig. 4 based on the authors' data. Based on Fig. 4,
202 infiltration shows an upward trend with increasing porosity. Larger cylindrical specimens (150by300mm)
203 were compacted in three lifts and resulted in more consistent infiltration rates relative to small cylinders
204 (100by200mm) compacted in two lifts. Permeability testing was also performed on pervious concrete
205 specimens by the falling head and the constant head methods (Fig. 3c and d). In the falling head method,
206 the specimen is sealed and placed in between two pipes. The time required for the water pressure head to
207 drop within predetermined levels (h1 and h2) is recorded and used in Eq. 3 to calculate the hydraulic
208 conductivity (k):
aL h1
209 k= ln (3)
At h2

6
210 where a is the cross-sectional area of the pipe encasing the specimen, L and A are the length and cross-
211 sectional area of the specimen, respectively [7]. In the constant head method, the head (h) is maintained
212 constant, and the flow rate (Q) is recorded and used to calculate the hydraulic conductivity as in Eq 4 [7]:
QL
213 k= (4)
Ah
214 Testing results in various studies indicated that the constant head method results in higher permeability than
215 the falling head test method [44,45]. Moreover, the constant head test method is more sensitive to porosity
216 levels than the falling head test method, making it more suitable for pervious concrete permeability
217 assessment [45]. While Montes and Haselbach [46] reported that the water flow through pervious concrete
218 pores is laminar, other researchers indicated that the flow regime is transient. Therefore, the Darcy-
219 Forchheimer equation was proposed to obtain permeability more accurately [34,47].

220
221 Fig. 3. Infiltration tests: (a) ASTM C1701 field test; (b) modified ASTM C1701 run on pervious concrete
222 cylinder; (c) falling head test [47]; (d) constant head test.

7
 14
y = 0.48025x-2.206
R2=0.28321
12
y = 0.56461x-4.0513

Infiltration rate (mm/s)

R2=0.66473
10

100by200-mm cylinders
2 150by300-mm cylinders

10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Porosity (%)
223
224 Fig. 4. Correlation between infiltration rate and porosity for 100-mm and 150-mm cylinders [9].
225
226 3.2.2. Compressive and Flexural Strength and Correlations with Other Properties
227 As test data for physical and mechanical properties of pervious concrete populates, regression models were
228 developed to identify interrelations between porosity, permeability, mixture design components, and their
229 proportions. A list of published regression models to relate the mechanical properties of pervious concrete
230 with the proportions of mixture components is provided in Table 2. In general, the mechanical properties
231 of pervious concrete are highly driven by its hardened porosity [8,19,26]. Nassiri and AlShareedah [26]
232 developed regression models to relate compressive and flexural strength with its porosity, cement content,
233 and water-to-cement ratio. The compressive and flexural strength regression models (shown in Table 2)
234 were developed using 80 and 18 data test results, respectively.
235 Moreover, Ibrahim et al. [19] investigated the effect of mixture proportions on compressive strength and
236 permeability. The testing results of specimens from 24 mixture designs were used to develop regression
237 models that related pervious concrete compression strength and permeability with mixture design
238 proportions (Table 2). Fig. 5 has the data from both studies.
3
Flexural strength = 3.96 + -0.072*porosity
25 Compressive strength = 27.46 + -0.676*porosity

2.5
Compressive Strength (MPa)

20
Flexural Strength (MPa)

15
2

10

1.5
(a) 5
(b)
1 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

239 Porosity (%) Porosity (%)

240 Fig. 5. The dependency of flexural (a) and compressive (b) strength properties of pervious concrete on
241 hardened porosity [26]

8
242 Table 2. Summary of statistical models of various mechanical properties of pervious concrete

Property Statistical model Values Range Reference

W
fc-28 day = 25.38 − 0.539 P - 13.12 � � + 0.0045 C (R2= 0.92) f’c-28 day : 0.9 ~ 23.7; P:
C 13~24%; W/C:
fc-28 day : compressive strength (MPa); P: porosity (%); W/C: water-to-cement ratio; C: cement [26]
0.14~0.4; C: 150~412
Compressive content (kg/m3)
strength W
fc-28 day = 0.8967 + 0.7289 C + 8.163 � � + 1.4418 W − 0.1824 A1 − 0.1637 A2 − 0.1693 A3 f’c-28 day : 1 ~ 6.95
C C: 150-250; W/C:0.3-
(R2= 0.85); C: cement content (kg/m3); W: water content (kg/m3); A1: 4.5 mm aggregate content [19]
0.4; W:45-100
(kg/m3); A2: 9.5 mm aggregate content (kg/m3); A3: 19.5 mm aggregate content (kg/m3)
Aggregate: 1500-1800
MR = 5.18 − 0.0731 P − 3.621 (w/c) (R2= 0.83) MR: 1.1 ~ 2.7; P:
MR: flexural strength (MPa); P: hardened porosity (%); C: cement content (kg/m3) 15~38%; W/C: [26]
Flexural W: water content (kg/m3) 0.27~0.35; C: 285~412
strength
MR = 6.016 − 0.089 P − 0.171 Was (R2= 0.83) MR: 1.5 ~ 3.3; P:
MR: flexural strength (MPa), P: hardened porosity (%), Was: weighted aggregate size (mm) 20~34%; Was: unknown [48]

Tensile f’t = 0.039 (f’c-28 day)0.5 f’t: 1.24~2.75

f’t: tensile strength (MPa); f’c-28 day : compressive strength (MPa) f’c-28 day: 8.56~30.88 [49]
strength
W
K = 0.0114 - 0.0014 C + 0.0222 � � - 0.0019 W + 0.0002 A1 + 0.0003 A2 + 0.0004 A3 (R2= K: 0.015~0.0282; C:
C 150-250; W/C:0.3-0.4;
Permeability 0.75); K: permeability (m/s); C: cement content (kg/m3); W: water content (kg/m3); A1: 4.5 mm [19]
W:45-100; Agg: 1500-
agg (kg/m3); A2: 9.5 mm aggregate content (kg/m3); A3: 19.5 mm aggregate content (kg/m3)
1800
E = 25.7 – 0.65 P (R2=0.49) E:1~16
E: secant elastic modulus measured at 2.2 MPa stress level (GPa); P: porosity (%) P: 15~31 [50]
Elastic
modulus E = 4880�𝑓𝑓’𝑐𝑐 + 2800 E: 16,200~22,300
f’c: 8.4~23.2 [51]
E: elastic modulus (MPa); f’c: compressive strength (MPa)
Log SR = log 1.0368 − 0.0486 (1−R*) log N SR: 0.65~0.85; R:
SR: applied stress/strength; R: ratio of min to max applied cyclic stress; N: fatigue life 0.08~0.5; N: [52]
(for polymer-modified pervious concrete) 44~209,984
SR: 0.7~0.8; Porosity:
1 20.2, 27.8; Flexural
Log N = 9.557 – 10.028*SR + 4.396E–4*Flexural stiffness – 0.735 � � [53]
Fatigue 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 stiffness: 7158–13937
failure MPa; N: 40~327,580
Log SR = 0.0013 − 0.0347 log N (Reliability level = 50%) SR: 0.75~0.85; N:
Log SR = 0.0485 − 0.0939 log N (Reliability level = 80% 26~386,661 [29]
SR = 1 – 0.0468 log N (frequency = 10 Hz); SR = 1 – 0.0441 log N (frequency = 15 Hz); SR = SR: 0.6~0.9
1 – 0.0418 log N (frequency = 20 Hz) N: 89~2,000,000 [54]

243
9
244 Chandrappa and Biligiri [48] tested 45 pervious concrete beams from 15 mixture compositions to
245 investigate the effect of porosity and mixture proportions on pervious concrete flexural strength and flexural
246 stiffness to develop a regression model to predict the flexural strength as shown in Table 2. The split tensile
247 strength of pervious concrete is not commonly tested by researchers. Ghafoori and Dutta [49] developed a
248 relationship between pervious concrete compressive and split tensile strength (Table 2) based on test results
249 of four mixture designs with A/C ratio ranging from 4:1 to 6:1.
250 Rangelov et al. [9] reported six types of failure modes of pervious concrete cylinders (both 100 by 200 mm
251 and 150 by 300 mm sizes) under compression (Table 3) in which three types were similar to the typical
252 failure modes observed for conventional concrete. Cylinders with the highest compressive strength typically
253 showed a cone failure mode, while cylinders that experience side fracture or columnar failure had lower
254 compressive strength, as shown in Fig. 6.
255 Table 3. Observed failure types in cylinders after f'c test [9]

Cone and shear:

Columnar Shear: diagonal
well-formed Cone: well-
cracks: fracture
cone at one end, formed cones Side Side
Failure propagate throughout the
prominent on both ends fractures: at fractures on
modes vertically and specimen,
diagonal (shear) (top and bottom top/bottom. both ends
evenly around without cracking
cracks on intact)
the specimen of top/bottom.
another
Failure Type 1 Type 4 Type 5
modes in Not available
ASTM (NA) NA NA
C39 [55]

Photos

256
Side fracture

Shear

Shear and cone

Cone

100by200mm
150by300mm
Columnar

Shear

Side fracture at both sides

Side fractures

0 5 10 15 20 25
Compressive Strength (MPa)
257
258 Fig. 6. Compressive strength based on failure modes from Table 3 [9]

10
259 3.2.3. Elastic Modulus and Relationship with Porosity
260 Testing pervious concrete for its elastic modulus is rarely performed due to the absence of a test method to
261 specify the test setup and loading rate. Installing the test apparatus (compressometer) used for standard
262 concrete on pervious concrete cylinders is not possible due to large voids. Deflections can be collected by
263 other methods of LVDT attachment or crosshead travel; however, the load-deflection data shows
264 scatteredness, irregularities, and fluctuations as the voids collapse and solid particles rearrange and
265 repack—further, the unique distribution of pores in specimens from the same mixture with the same total
266 porosity could still show wide variability. Alam and Haselbach [50] studied the effect of porosity on the
267 elastic modulus of pervious concrete. For cylinders with 15-31% porosity, elastic modulus ranged from 1
268 to 16 GPa. Based on the test results of 37 cylinders, the relationship between porosity and elastic modulus
269 was highly scattered with R2 values ranging from 0.05 to 0.48. Zhong and Wille [51] reported elastic
270 modulus results of 16.2-22.3 GPa for pervious concrete with a porosity range of 17-31%, which are higher
271 than Alam and Haselbach [50] results. Moreover, Zhong and Wille [51] proposed a regression model
272 relating pervious concrete elastic modulus with compressive strength based on test results of only six
273 pervious concrete specimens.
274 3.2.4. Fatigue Performance
275 Pervious concrete may be susceptible to fatigue failure under traffic loading. Several researchers
276 investigated the fatigue behavior of pervious concrete in flexural or compression modes. Statistical models
277 were developed based on cyclic test results to estimate pervious concrete fatigue life. A summary of the
278 developed fatigue models for pervious concrete is presented in Table 2.
279 Zhou et al. [52] developed a fatigue model based on the flexural fatigue test results on polymer-modified
280 pervious concrete. However, polymer-modified pervious concrete is not used commonly, as discussed
281 earlier so this model has limited use. Later, Chandrappa and Biligiri [53] tested 45 pervious concrete beams
282 under flexural cyclic loading at 2, 5, and 10 Hz frequencies and studied the effect of porosity and flexural
283 stiffness on pervious concrete fatigue behavior. Porosity was included in their fatigue model as a parameter;
284 however, the impact of porosity may have already been accounted for in the stress ratio used during cyclic
285 testing as flexural strength is inversely proportional to porosity [8,26,48]. AlShareedah et al. [29] used the
286 results of testing 66 pervious concrete beams under flexural fatigue at a frequency of 0.5 Hz and developed
287 a fatigue model at two reliability levels. In their experimental program, pervious concrete beams were cast
288 using two aggregate shapes and two mixture compositions at three target porosity levels. It was found that
289 the fatigue life of pervious concrete is controlled by the stress ratio, and the effect of porosity is statistically
290 insignificant. In 2020, Jiao et al. [54] developed a fatigue model for pervious concrete under compressive
291 cyclic loading at four stress ratios of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, and 0.9 and three frequencies of 10, 15, and 20 Hz.
292 Similar to [29] and [52], the fatigue test results of 36 specimens were fitted using two-parameters Weibull
293 distribution. In addition, they concluded that fatigue failure did not occur at SR~0.6 and the effect of
294 frequency on the fatigue life of pervious concrete was statistically insignificant.
295 A comparison between the fatigue models from [29,53,54] studies is shown in Fig. 7. In general, the model
296 in [53] estimates lower fatigue life for pervious concrete in the medium and low-stress ratio ranges, while
297 the models of [29] and [53] agree relatively well.

11
 0.95
High loading level: not
0.85 commonly encoutntered

0.75
Stess/Strength Ratio Medium loading level: most
0.65 applicable for highway design

0.55

0.45

0.35 AlShareedah et al. [29]

Jiao et al. [54]
0.25 Low loading level: most
Chandrappa and Biligiri [53] applicable for light-duty road
applications
0.15
0 5 10 15
Log N
298
299 Fig. 7. Comparison between fatigue models from three studies [29,53,54]. For the model of [53], a 25%
300 porosity and 10547.5 MPa (average of flexural stiffness 7158–13937 MPa range which was used in their
301 study) stiffness value were used to produce the results in this figure

302 3.2.5. Mass Loss in Surface Abrasion (ASTM C944) and Cantabro (ASTM C1747)
303 Mass loss in Cantabro test was used in some studies in the literature. Cantabro is an accelerated and intense
304 method of evaluating the durability of pervious concrete by exposing a half-height 100-mm diameter
305 cylinder to impact loading in a rotary steel drum. Lower values of mass loss are desired. The test can be
306 stopped at certain intervals (every 50 or 100 cycles) to record the intermediate-mass loss and observe the
307 progression of the damage as well as the final value of mass loss after 500 revolutions.
308 ASTM C944 provides an accelerated test method to evaluate the resistance of pervious concrete against
309 abrasion. The test apparatus is made by modifying a press drill to hold a rotary cutter made of stacked
310 washers of 25-32 diameter rotating at a speed of 200 round/minute under a load of about 98 N or a doubled
311 load. The test is performed on at least three separate areas representing the surface of the pervious concrete
312 pavement. Abrasion is quantified by taking the mass loss after three, 2-minute abrasion periods. The two
313 abrasion tests' effectiveness was evaluated on eight pervious concrete mixtures in two different aggregate
314 sizes of 9.5-12.5 mm and 4.75-9.5 mm with and without polypropylene fibers and latex. Both tests showed
315 sensitivities to the changes in the mixture design, but Cantabro showed a 62% deviation from the control,
316 and surface abrasion showed 45% sensitivity [56].
317 3.2.6. Freeze-Thaw Durability
318 Field investigations revealed that pervious concrete performed well in a freeze-thaw environment [57]. The
319 critical factor in resisting freeze-thaw damage was to provide sufficient drainage under pervious concrete
320 pavement to prevent saturation in cold weather [57]. However, Vancura et al. [58] concluded that pervious
321 concrete with no air-entrained is more susceptible to freeze-thaw damage when installed in cold weather
322 areas. In the lack of a standard test method for freeze-thaw durability of pervious concrete, researchers used
323 the standard test method used for conventional concrete (ASTM C666). Kevern et al. [15] reported that
324 replacing coarse aggregates with 7% sand significantly enhanced the freeze-thaw resistance of pervious

12
325 concrete. Also, the use of fibers and latex in pervious concrete was found beneficial in resisting freeze-thaw
326 damage [15,59].

327 4. Review of Literature on the Use of Waste Materials in Pervious Concrete

328 Accumulating post-consumer urban waste such as tires, glass, different types of plastics, carpet/textile,
329 construction and demolition wastes, as well as industrial, manufacturing, bio-agricultural side streams, and
330 other sources of wastes have posed waste management challenges in various parts of the world. Cement
331 and concrete researchers sought ways to transform multiple types of wastes into value-added products for
332 use by the building materials sector. There are many cases in the literature on the use of waste materials in
333 pervious concrete to further increase the sustainability of this technology as a green infrastructure solution.
334 The benefits and limitations of using various waste materials and byproducts in pervious concrete
335 concerning the mechanical properties are discussed. A summary of all the reviewed studies on this topic is
336 presented in Table 4.
337 4.1. Pozzolanic Additives
338 4.1.1. Fly Ash
339 Cement-free pervious concrete and high-volume fly ash (FA) pervious concrete were produced in several
340 studies. Tho-in et al. [60] studied the properties of cement-free pervious concrete with lignite FA that was
341 geopolymerized using sodium silicate (NS), sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution. Their compressive
342 strength results from different mixture proportions ranged from 5.4 to 11.4 MPa, and the splitting tensile
343 strength was between 0.7 and 1.4 MPa. Sata [61] confirmed those results after testing pervious concrete
344 made with a high-calcium FA geopolymer as a binder and recycled aggregate in which the compressive
345 strength was in the 2.9-10.3 MPa range. Moreover, the use of 0-2% metakaolin (MK) and Class F FA (0-
346 20%) in pervious concrete resulted in lower porosity (due to the increased workability and compatibility)
347 and, consequently, higher compressive strength [62]. The use of class C fly ash in replacing 15-25% of
348 ordinary portland cement (OPC) mass in pervious concrete resulted in 61-120% higher compressive
349 strength, 57-94.5% higher tensile strength, while flexural strength was reduced by 16-28%.

13
350 Table 4. Summary of reviewed studies on the usage of waste material in pervious concrete.

Waste material Usage in pervious concrete Impact on pervious concrete properties Reference

Industrial side streams

lignite fly ash geopolymerized in
Compressive strength range 5.4-11.4 MPa
sodium silicate (NS) and sodium Replacement of OPC [60]
Tensile strength range 0.7-1.4 MPa
hydroxide (NaOH) solution
FA geopolymerized in sodium
silicate (Na2SiO3) and (NaOH) Replacement of OPC Compressive strength range 2.9-10.3 MPa [61]
solution
Replacement of OPC:
Class F FA Better workability and compactibility resulted in lower
FA: 0, 5, 10, 15, 20% [62]
Metakaolin (0 and 2%) porosity and higher strength
Mk: 0, 2%
SF densify the ITZ phase but results in a minor
Replacement of OPC by 10% and 15% [63,64]
contribution to compressive and tensile strength
Replacement of OPC with 6% SF. 20% fine
Compressive strength increased by 157% [65]
aggregates were included
Improvement in the 90-day compressive and flexural
Silica Fume Replacement of OPC with 6-10% SF [66]
strength (higher than 38.5 and 5.1 MPa)
Replacement of OPC with 10, 20, and 30% SF Compressive strength reduced when SF>10% [67]
Optimum SF dosage is 5% with 0.5% superplasticizer
Replacement of OPC with 5 and 10% SF [68]
at 0.26-0.3 W/C ratio
Increased bond strength resulted in high pervious
Used as coarse aggregates in three size
concrete compressive (41.5 MPa) and flexural strength [69]
groups: 2.5-5 mm, 5-10 mm, 10-15 mm
(8 MPa)
Steel slag Compressive and tensile strength increased by 34%
Used as coarse aggregates [40]
and 50%. Permeability reduced by 18%
Compressive strength of 10 MPa was reached at 20%
Used as coarse aggregates and as a binder [70]
porosity
Reduction in compressive, split tensile, and flexural
Blast furnace slag Replacement of OPC by 25% [71]
strength by 30, 22, and 40%
Replacement of OPC by 30% compressive strength reached 18.5 MPa [72]
Red mud
compressive strength was similar to control, flexural,
Replacement of OPC by 30% [73]
and tensile strength increased by 38% and 15%.
Agroforestry-bio waste materials

14
 Reached reasonable compressive strength (9-13 MPa)
Petioles from Sterculia foetida plant Rod-shaped materials used as aggregates [74]
and high permeability with high porosity (40-53)
higher porosity, poor compactness, and high water
Oil palm kernel shell (OPKS) Replacement of coarse aggregates demand resulted in a reduction in compressive strength [75]
by up to 60%
Mollusk shell waste Replacement of coarse aggregates Increased compressive and flexural strength [76]
Increased the compressive strength by 29% at 8%
Rice husk ash Replacement of OPC [77]
replacement of OPC
Construction and demolition waste
Waste concrete and waste concrete Recycled aggregate replacing 20-80% of Slight improvement in compressive strength and
[78]
block natural aggregates surface abrasion
Waste concrete and crushed clay Recycled aggregate replacing natural Reduction in compressive strength by 6-77% and in
[61]
brick aggregate permeability by 9-40%
Recycled aggregates replacing natural compressive strength increased by 32-114% while
Waste concrete and saline polymer [16]
aggregate permeability remained constant
Recycled aggregates replacing natural
Optimum mixture reached 21 MPa compressive
Waste concrete and TiO2 aggregate in pervious concrete made with 5% [17]
strength and 12.5 mm/s permeability
FA
Post-consumer urban waste
Used as a replacement for fine natural
Crushed waste glass aggregates. 10% of silica fume used as a 28% reduction in compressive strength [79]
replacement for OPC.
Used as coarse aggregate in pervious concrete Compressive and flexural strength increased by 31 and
Waste tire rubber [80]
made with latex and silica fume. 18%.
351
352

15
353 4.1.2. Silica Fume
354 Research on standard concrete shows that silica fume (SF) can have significant contributions to the
355 mechanical properties of concrete either by creating a denser interfacial transition zone (ITZs) or by creating
356 a stronger cement paste constituent [81]. Given that pervious concrete has a reduced cement paste content
357 and thus a smaller ITZ phase, the effect of SF on ITZ in pervious concrete may not contribute to the strength.
358 For instance, Agar-Ozbek et al. [63] found minor contributions from SF replacement of 15% of OPC to the
359 tensile and compressive strength of pervious concrete with 4-8 mm size coarse aggregate. However, X-ray
360 CT analysis showed some effects of using SF in densifying ITZ of smaller aggregate sizes (2-4 mm), due
361 to the larger ITZ phase than 4-8 mm aggregates. Similar findings were reported by Chinchillas-Chinchillas
362 et al. [64] in which the use of 10% SF lead to a denser ITZ phase in pervious concrete but no improvement
363 in mechanical properties. The reason could be that calcium hydroxide was dissolved due to curing
364 underwater and was unavailable for reactions with SF for improvement in the strength.
365 In contrast to these analytical studies, several empirical studies demonstrate SF positively influenced the
366 mechanical properties. Yang and Jiang [65] reported a maximum compressive strength of 35 MPa (157%
367 higher than the control) and flexural strength of 6 MPa achieved by pervious concrete with 6% SF, 0.8%
368 superplasticizer, and 20% fine aggregate. In a later study by Chen et al. [66], twelve pervious concrete
369 mixes with OPC (80,76,72,100%), Class-C FA (14,16,18%), SF (6,8,10%), and SP (0.2,0.3,0.4,0.5%)
370 contents and W/C (0.28 to 0.34) were tested. Specimens had 90-day compressive strength above 38.5 MPa
371 and 28-day flexural strength greater than 5.1 MPa. Superplasticizers are crucial when using SF to distribute
372 the cement paste to coat the aggregate and avoid caking at the bottom surface, which is common in pervious
373 concrete. Moreover, using more than 10% of SF in replacing OPC leads to strength reduction [67]. Liu et
374 al. [68] performed a series of testing of the physical and mechanical properties of pervious concrete with
375 aggregate sizes of 4.75–9.5 mm and 9.5–16 mm and identified that the optimum percentage of SF is 5%
376 with 0.5% superplasticizer, 0.26-0.3 W/C ratio.
377 4.1.3. Steel Slag
378 Steel slag is a byproduct of steel manufacturing that can replace coarse aggregate due to a higher impact
379 and crushing strength, better anti-skid capacity due to angularity, higher abrasion resistance, and good
380 bonding with the cement matrix [40,69]. The chemical composition of slag includes oxides of various
381 metals (iron, aluminum, magnesium, and calcium) and high contents of SiO2 and CaO thus can be
382 pulverized and used as a partial replacement of OPC in concrete [40]. Waste steel slag in three size groups,
383 small (2.5-5 mm), medium (5-10 mm), and large (10-15 mm), were used as coarse aggregate in pervious
384 concrete together with magnesium phosphate cement as a binder. The medium-sized slag rendered the
385 highest compressive strength of 41.5 MPa and flexural strength of 8 MPa due to the high binding capacity
386 of magnesium phosphate cement [69]. Wang et al. [40] used steel slag in 0, 40, 70, 100% replacement of
387 basalt natural coarse aggregates (NCA). Based on those replacement ratios, the compressive strength
388 increased by 34%, and the split tensile strength increased by 50%, while permeability slightly declined by
389 18 percent. Pervious concrete made with 100% solid waste was studied by Shen et al. [70] in which crushed
390 steel slag was used as aggregates while carbonated ground steel slag and phosphogypsum were used as the
391 binder. The optimum dosage of phosphogypsum was 5%, in which compressive strength reached 10 MPa
392 at 20% porosity. However, Chen et al. [71] found that using a 25% granulated blast furnace slag as a
393 replacement of OPC reduced the compressive, split tensile and flexural strength of pervious concrete by
394 30, 22, and 40%, respectively.
395 4.1.4. Red Mud
396 Red mud from bauxite is an industrial waste produced during the treatment of aluminum ore. China is the
397 largest producer of red mud and discharged nearly 80 million tons of red mud in 2016 [72,73]. Red mud

16
398 contains a variety of metal oxide, including iron oxide, and can potentially absorb heavy metals as it has a
399 high pH (9.2-12.8) due to the presence of NaOH. Based on these attributes, red mud was geopolymerized
400 using NaOH or Na2SO3 solutions and used with granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) as the binder in
401 pervious concrete for water purification [72]. Using 30% red mud in replacement of OPC resulted in
402 compressive strength of 18.5 MPa. Prasad and Anand [73] used 30% red mud as an additive in mixing
403 pervious concrete. The compressive strength was similar to the control while the flexural and tensile
404 strength increased by 38% and 15%, respectively, compared to the control.
405 4.2. Agroforestry-Bio Waste
406 Agricultural waste and biowaste materials have numerous applications in concrete. For instance, the
407 petioles from the sterculia foetida plant common in tropical climate areas were used as rod-shaped elements
408 packed, coated with cement paste, and sandwiched between a cement paste and a mortar layer to create an
409 overall lightweight pervious concrete system. A study by Liu et al. [74] showed that this regenerative waste
410 material could make pervious concrete with a compressive strength ranging from 9-13 MPa and with a
411 permeability of 1.44-3 cm/s and a porosity of 40-53 percent. Moreover, oil palm kernel shell (OPKS), a
412 waste material from the palm oil industry, were used as coarse aggregates (4.75-6.3mm and 6.3-9.5mm) in
413 producing lightweight pervious concrete. However, pervious concrete with 75% aggregate replacement
414 with OPKS had a 60% lower compressive strength due to the high porosity of OPKS-pervious concrete,
415 weak compactness due to the shape of OPKS, and high water demand [75]. Mollusk shell waste from the
416 seafood industry was also used to replace 80% of coarse aggregates in pervious concrete (less than 2 mm
417 and 2-7 mm size groups). It resulted in 274% and 16% higher compressive and flexural strength than the
418 control [76]. Furthermore, Hesami et al. [77] used rice husk ash (RHA) as a pozzolanic cement to replace
419 2-12% of ordinary portland cement (OPC) by weight. The optimum RHA dosage was 8% in which pervious
420 concrete achieved a compressive strength of 18 MPa, which is 29% higher than the control.
421 4.3. Construction and Demolition Waste
422 Reuse of concrete rubble from construction and demolition waste as recycled aggregate (RA) in new
423 concrete has been the topic of extensive research [82]. RA has also been studied for pervious concrete, and
424 it typically reduces the compressive, flexural, and permeability of pervious concrete [64]. The most
425 influential attribute of RA pervious concrete is the porosity and the level of strength achieved for the RA-
426 paste ITZ, given the high porous, weak, and high water-absorbent nature of RA compared to NCA due to
427 the attached old mortar surrounding the aggregate. The porosity of the ITZ phase in RA in pervious concrete
428 was quantified to be 190% higher than the reference pervious concrete with NCA by image analysis. The
429 use of SF reduced the porosity of the ITZ by 32% by serving as a filler material [64]. However, one study
430 by Zaetang et al. [78] found that using RA and recycled concrete block aggregate (RBA) in replacement of
431 20-80% of NCA increased the compressive strength and surface abrasion of pervious concrete. The authors
432 speculate these improvements are because of the better bond between the cement paste and the rough,
433 porous surface of the RA. Using RA and crushed clay brick (CCB) aggregate compared to NCA was studied
434 by Sata [61] in a geopolymer pervious concrete. The use of RA and CCB reduced the compressive strength
435 by 6-77% and the permeability by 9-40%. It was observed that when using NCA, failure occurred at the
436 interfaces of geopolymer paste and NCA. However, when using RA, the fractures occurred in the attached
437 old mortar, the weakest zones [61]. Liu et al. [16] improved the cement paste distribution around RA to be
438 concentrated at the joint zones between aggregates using saline polymer treatment. This method resulted in
439 around 32-114% improvement in compressive strength, while permeability remained constant. In another
440 study, RA was soaked in TiO2 to empower photocatalytic capacity for air purification purposes. After
441 testing of nine mixes with varying levels of replacement of OPC with fly ash, water-to-binder (w/b) ratio,
442 and RCA/NCA replacement ratio, a mixture formulation with a w/b ratio of 0.35, coarse aggregate-to-

17
443 binder ratio of 3 by mass, 0.5 of RA/NCA ratio, and 5% fly ash was selected as the optimized mixture
444 which reached the highest 28-day compressive strength of 21.6 MPa [17].
445 Jiang and Cheng [83] reused crushed ceramic foam waste (0.5-4 mm) as a fine aggregate in pervious
446 concrete with a 2.15 fine aggregate/cement ratio. While porosity and permeability remained approximately
447 constant (12.9-13.8% and 2.9-3.1 mm/s), the compressive strength increased by 42%. In another study,
448 locally available over burnt brick were used as RA in pervious concrete with 5, 10, 15, and 20% variations
449 of fine aggregate and varied W/C ratio from 0.28 to 0.35. The compressive strength reached the maximum
450 value of 10 MPa with a W/C ratio of 0.3 with a 20% fine aggregate [84]. Opiso et al. [85] made pervious
451 concrete using coal fly ash (CFA) in 10% replacement of OPC and added up to 12% by weight of the
452 cement of fine sawdust in 2% incremental additions as an internal curing agent and filler admixture due to
453 high water-absorbent capability. The results revealed that replacing 10% of OPC with CFA did not
454 compromise the strength and permeability of pervious concrete. Moreover, adding 8% fine sawdust to
455 conventional pervious concrete boosted the compressive strength up to around 30 MPa.
456 4.4. Post-Consumer Urban Waste
457 Lu et al. [79] developed an eco-friendly pervious concrete incorporating crushed waste glass from post-
458 consumer beverage bottles (2.36-5 mm) as a replacement for fine aggregates, RA (5-10 mm) in replacement
459 of natural granite coarse aggregate, and 10% SF in replacement of Type I OPC. It was found that using
460 crushed waste glass reduced the compressive strength by 28%; however, the resulted strength remains
461 acceptable. Moreover, rubber coarse aggregate from rubber tires was used with polymer (Latex) and SF to
462 make pervious concrete. The developed pervious concrete had 31 and 18% higher flexural and compressive
463 strength compared to the control [80].
464 4.5. Nano Additives for Pervious Concrete
465 Nanomaterials sizing 1 to 100 nm in at least one dimension, including nano-silica, clay, calcite, and carbon
466 nanotubes, have been experimented in standard concrete to improve mechanical properties [86]. With their
467 high surface area to volume ratio, nanomaterials are exceptionally chemically reactive. They can serve as
468 nucleation sites to promote the growth of cement hydrates, catalysts of the cement hydration, and rheology
469 modifiers [86]. Nanofibers and carbon nanotubes with high aspect ratio and high modulus can also add to
470 the overall mechanical properties of pervious concrete by increasing the stiffness of the composite and
471 serving as reinforcement and other roles [87,88]. Nanomaterials can especially be advantageous for
472 pervious concrete because they, instead of sand, do not occupy the macro void space, avoiding the negative
473 impact on permeability while gaining in mechanical properties.
474 Studies focused on nanomaterials in pervious concrete for strength optimization were not found; however,
475 nano-silica and nano-titanium dioxide have been used in pervious concrete, particularly for water
476 purification purposes with a side focus on strength and permeability. The capacity of pervious concrete
477 with nano-silica (15-20 nm) to remove nitrates in manufactured polluted water with NaNO3 was
478 investigated [89]. They found that a combination of 20% FA and 6% nano-silica had the best nitrate removal
479 performance and the maximum compressive strength of 3.6 MPa with a void ratio of 19.7% and
480 permeability of 1.06 cm/s. Liang et al. [90] obtained up to 20% increase in compressive strength (as high
481 as 22 MPa) with 1.5 g/L addition of nano-TiO2; however, they found that adding nano-TiO2 results in some
482 agglomeration and can reduce the permeability of pervious concrete by 10% (0.2 cm/s).
483 4.6. Fiber Reinforcement in Pervious Concrete
484 The effects of different fibers in varying dosages on the mechanical properties of pervious concrete from
485 the pervious concrete literature are summarized in Table 5. Steel fibers used widely in standard concrete
486 are not common for pervious concrete due to exposure to water and high risks of corrosion of fibers. As

18
487 shown in Table 5, polypropylene copper-coated steel fibers were tried in pervious concrete. They resulted
488 in a 19% increase in compressive strength and a 42% improvement in flexural strength [91].
489 As seen in Table 5, monofilament or fibrillated polypropylene macrofibers (PPF) (short [<19mm] and long
490 [>19mm]) were the most commonly used fibers in pervious concrete literature. Mechanical properties
491 (porosity, permeability, compressive, tensile, and flexural strength), durability (freeze-thaw cycling,
492 abrasion, and Cantabro) were evaluated for PPF-pervious concrete. In terms of size, 12-54 mm-long PPF
493 resulted in a positive effect on pervious concrete strength and durability [15,91–94]. However, using PPF
494 in pervious concrete may result in a reduction in permeability [94]. Additionally, Rehder et al. [93] found
495 that PPF was not influential on pervious concrete fracture toughness, which was more governed by porosity.
496 Polypropylene is inert, chemically incompatible with cement, and hydrophobic; thus, it results in weak
497 fiber-cement bond and poor dispersion and lowers ultimate strength due to its low modulus. Therefore,
498 researchers applied sulfuric acid treatments to PPF to create a rough for a better bond with the cement.
499 Pervious concrete with treated PPF outperformed the control with untreated fiber [95].
500 The use of natural fibers in pervious concrete is not common; in one study, cellulose fibers resulted in
501 notable improvements in pervious concrete mechanical properties [96] (see Table 5). The authors' research
502 group published a series of papers on reusing high-value reinforced plastic composites from manufacturing
503 lines of airplanes as structural fibers in pervious concrete. Cured carbon fiber composite (CFC) material
504 scraps in large pieces were hammer-milled and resized into strands and used in pervious concrete. In the
505 first study [97], CFCs were sieved and categorized into three sizes: small (passing 0.84 mm), medium
506 (passing 2 mm sieve and retained on 0.84 mm sieve), and large (passing 3.35 mm sieve and retained on 2
507 mm sieve) and a combination of all three sizes, as shown in Fig. 8a. In later studies [98,99], 11.6 mm-long
508 CFCs with 14.3 aspect ratio was used. The results indicated that using CFC volume fractions of 0.5-5% can
509 improve the mechanical (Table 5) and durability properties of pervious concrete remarkably while
510 providing a recycling solution for this high-quality scrap material [97–99]. Reinforcement of pervious
511 concrete with 4% CFC (Fig.8b) increased the flexural and tensile strength by 64% and 84%, respectively,
512 while the impact resistance (measured using Cantabro test) increased by 61-68 percent. In addition, the use
513 of CFC increased flexural toughness by 41-54 percent [98].

514
515 Fig. 8. (a) recycled fibres from CFC scraps in different sizes: C (combined), S (small), M (medium), and
516 L (large); (b) From left to right: specimens from control, 3%, 4% and 5% by volume CCFCM fibers in
517 pervious concrete.

19
518 Table 5. Summary of the reviewed studies on fiber-reinforced pervious concrete

Change in Change in Change in

Fiber size Cement Aggregate
Fiber type Fiber dosage Water/cement compressive flexural tensile strength Reference
(mm) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
strength (%) strength (%) (%)
13-19 +24 +22.5
Polypropylene 0.03-0.1% 0.27 343 1602 N/A [15]
50 +2 +2.5

Polypropylene 19 0.9 kg/m3 0.31-0.36 350-370 1400-1490 0 N/A 0 [92]

+25 for 0.5%

Polypropylene 54 0.5-1% 0.30 N/A N/A dosage N/A N/A [93]
0 for 1% dosage

Polypropylene 12 0.36-0.91 kg/m3 0.30 283 N/A +20.6 +37 N/A [91]

Treated
19 1% by volume 0.27-0.33 357-383.5 1428-1534 +2 +40 N/A [95]
polypropylene
Thick [91]
55 2-4 kg/m3 0.25-0.35 281-358 N/A +19.0 +39 N/A
Polypropylene
Polypropylene 0.3% by
50-54 0.27-0.4 340 1395 +28-50 +17-21 +28-37 [77]
sulfide volume
Copper-coated [91]
12 2.75-5.1 kg/m3 0.30 275-279 N/A +19.3 +42 N/A
steel fiber
0.2% by [77]
Glass 12 0.27-0.4 340 1395 +32-46 +7-24 +19-31
volume
0.5% by [77]
Steel 36 0.27-0.4 340 1395 +24-40 +13-22 +27-33
volume
1.15% by
Cellulose fibers N/A weight of 0.3 620 2426 +30 N/A +44 [96]
cement
3-5% by
0.84-3.35 0.27 413 1376 -14.5 to +4 +36-65 +57-84 [98]
volume
Cured carbon
0.5-1.5% by
fiber composite 11.6 0.24 397 1632 +4-11 +6-45 +11-46 [97]
volume
material
0.27-0.4% by
11.6 0.35 285 1640 -6.7 -6 to +9 -22 [99]
volume
519
20
520 5. Computational Mechanical, Hydraulic, and Structural Models of Pervious Concrete
521 5.1. Mechanical models
522 Computational methods were used to simulate the load-deflection behavior of pervious concrete. The finite
523 element and the discrete element methods (FEM and DEM) were both used for this purpose. Computational
524 fluid dynamic (CFD) was used to simulate permeability testing and estimate the hydraulic conductivity
525 (Fig. 9).

526
527 (a) (b)
528 Fig. 9. Simulations of (a) mechanical testing in uniaxial compression mode and (b) testing for hydraulic
529 properties of pervious concrete

530 Pervious concrete can be conceptualized as a cohesive or cemented granular material suitable for modeling
531 with DEM [101,102]. Lian et al. [103] simulated the load-deflection behavior of pervious concrete under
532 compression using the particle flow code (PFC) 2D DEM model. In their model, the aggregates and the
533 cement paste coating layer were represented by circular particles. Large voids were introduced randomly
534 to achieve the desired porosity. Unfortunately, the calibration process of the model parameters was not
535 clearly presented. In 2017, a study by Liu et al. [104] used scanned X-ray CT images of real aggregates to
536 obtain the contour lines of their outer surface. Then, the outer surface of each scanned aggregate was
537 exported to the PFC5.0 3D DEM software and filled with a cluster of spherical particles that are clumped
538 together to represent the actual aggregate in DEM (Fig. 10). Liu et al. [104] study focused on creating a
539 realistic model of the actual aggregate shapes in DEM, and not the load-deflection behavior. Using realistic
540 aggregate shapes in DEM models is desired for better accuracy; however, a high computational capability
541 is required, and the simulation time is much longer than uniform-shape particles. For instance, simulating
542 pervious concrete as spheres packing in PFC5.0 software using 923 spheres took only 22 seconds while the
543 same simulation using the actual scanned aggregate shapes took around 8 hours [104].

544
545 Fig. 10. Reproducing the actual aggregate shapes using spherical clumps [104]

546 In a study by Xie et al. [100], acoustic emission and DEM were used to study the fracture mechanics of
547 pervious concrete cubes. Similar to Liu et al. [104] study, aggregates were scanned using X-ray CT and

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548 were modeled as clumped spheres in PFC5.0 3D software. While Xie et al. [100] model could predict the
549 fracture behavior of pervious concrete cubes, the model applications were limited to the scanned aggregate
550 shapes. The ability of their model to predict the load-deflection behavior of pervious concrete with different
551 aggregate shapes is uncertain. Furthermore, the mixture design parameters such as the paste-to-aggregate
552 ratio and the aggregate gradation were not considered in the model.
553 5.2. Flow models
554 Free draining is required of pervious concrete is to perform as a stormwater management practice. However,
555 just a few studies on computational modeling of flow inside pervious concrete void network were published.
556 Pieralisi et al. [105] developed a DEM model representing pervious concrete as spherical particle packing
557 in Yade open-source DEM code. The packed spheres were exported to SolidWorks Flow software, where
558 the void network was extracted and meshed for CFD analysis using the finite volume method. The boundary
559 conditions were set to imitate the experimental constant head permeability test. Prescribed pressure was
560 applied on the specimen's top and bottom surfaces while the sides were insulated using no-flux boundary
561 conditions. Validation with experimental results revealed that the model overestimated permeability by
562 48%; therefore, a correction factor was introduced to overcome this numerical error. This error is mainly
563 due to uniform shape particles, which creates larger voids with less tortuosity compared to actual aggregates
564 packing of pervious concrete [105].
565 As discussed in the previous section, reproducing aggregate shapes in numerical models require advanced
566 computational capability. One workaround is to scan pervious concrete specimens by X-ray CT as in Zhang
567 et al. [34] study, where 100 mm pervious concrete cubes were scanned and digitally reconstructed for
568 modeling. Forty-mm cubes were extracted from the original cubes and used for analysis to reduce the
569 computational requirements to a practical level. The pore network was extracted and exported to ANSYS
570 Fluent: Fluid Simulation Software, resulting in simulated permeability results that fell within the range of
571 experimental results found in the literature. Zhang et al. [34] 's model requires scanning specimens, but the
572 method is accurate and can be applied to a broader range of aggregate sizes and shapes to develop
573 relationships between permeability and mixture proportions. Using the same approach, Yu et al. [39] also
574 used X-ray CT to obtain the pore network of pervious concrete for permeability simulation using Avizo. In
575 their study, eight pervious concrete mixes were prepared with the same porosity and different aggregate
576 sizes to study the effect of pore sizes on permeability. The results indicated that increasing aggregate sizes
577 eliminated small pores with a cross-sectional area < 20 mm2 and increased permeability [39].
578 Generally, pore-scale CFD models of pervious concrete using commercial CFD software packages require
579 highly refined mesh, which increases the computational capacity significantly [106]. An alternative
580 approach to pore-scale models is a continuum approach in which the complex internal structure of pervious
581 concrete— solid skeleton and pores— is reduced to one continuum domain. At the same time, porosity and
582 tortuosity are accounted for as resistance parameters to the flow of water. Turco et al. [107] implemented
583 this approach using HYDRUS-2D to simulate a laboratory-scale permeable pavement system consisting of
584 pervious concrete on a granular base and subbase layers with a total thickness of 410 mm. The model was
585 successfully calibrated to estimate the permeability of the laboratory-scale permeable pavement system.
586 5.3. Pavement structural models
587 Much less focus is placed on the structural design of pervious concrete as a pavement. Vancura et al. [108]
588 used ISLAB2005, a FEM-based software explicitly developed for concrete pavements, to estimate the
589 stresses in pervious concrete pavements under axle loads. In their study, two pervious concrete installations
590 were subjected to a falling weight deflectometer (FWD) test, and the AREA back-calculation method [109]
591 was used to calculate elastic modulus (E) of pervious concrete slab and the modulus of subgrade reaction
592 (k-value) of the foundation. The calculated E and k-value were used as input parameters in ISLAB2005 to

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593 simulate the structural response of pervious concrete pavement to FWD loading. Comparing the resulted
594 pervious concrete deflections in ISLAB2005 and field deflections from FWD testing revealed that
595 ISLAB2005 could be used to perform pavement structural design for pervious concrete pavements. Vancura
596 et al. [108] validation was limited to two pervious concrete pavement installations and was expanded in a
597 study by AlShareedah and Nassiri [1]. They used the surface deflection results of 14 pervious concrete
598 pavements tested by a lightweight deflectometer (LWD) to validate ISLAB2005 models further. Their
599 validated ISLAB2005 model had a maximum error of 10% when comparing LWD with simulated
600 deflections under LWD loading. AlShareedah et al. [110] also used ISLAB2005 to evaluate the stresses due
601 to the applied load in combination with temperature gradients in pervious concrete with various mechanical
602 properties and modulus of subgrade reactions. Based on these studies, FEM software and specifically
603 ISLAB2005 software appear as an acceptable tool for estimating structural behavior of pervious concrete
604 pavement, which is one of the initial steps in pavement design as discussed below.

605 6. Structural Design of Pervious Concrete Pavements

606 Studies on developing a thickness design method for pervious concrete are scarce. One critical factor in the
607 thickness design of pervious concrete is defining suitable failure criteria. These criteria can be established
608 based on field performance observations, but comprehensive and long-term studies are currently lacking.
609 For conventional concrete pavements in parking lots and low-traffic volume streets, the failure criteria are
610 fatigue and erosion [111]. However, erosion failure is not considered as a failure criterion in pervious
611 concrete design since the base layer is mostly granular materials. The risks of erosion in the subgrade (the
612 sub-soil under the base layer) were not quantified in the literature. Following the practice for standard
613 concrete pavements, pervious concrete is designed to control fatigue damage, even though field placements
614 do not show much of this type of failure [1,108,112].
615 Vancura et al. [108] presented a recommended layer thickness table for pervious concrete pavements with
616 different base layer properties and pervious concrete flexural strength values using fatigue as the central
617 failure criterion. However, their suggested pavement design was based on a fixed elastic modulus of 17
618 GPa for pervious concrete, while flexural strength was varied independently from 2 to 3.4 MPa. Using more
619 realistic mechanical properties, AlShareedah & Nassiri [1] developed a thickness design table for pervious
620 concrete for three flexural strength values obtained from in-situ testing of 14 pervious concrete installations,
621 two k-values, and four traffic categories (adopted from ACI 330 [113]) using fatigue as the failure criterion
622 (Table 6). The critical stresses in pervious concrete pavement due to the applied traffic load were
623 determined using ISLAB2005 software. The recommended thicknesses ranged from 150 to 250 mm [1].

23
 Table 6. Recommended thickness of pervious concrete (in mm) for various traffic load levels [1]

k-value (MPa/m) 27 54
Modulus of rupture in (MPa) 1.7 2.4 3.1 1.7 2.4 3.1
ADTT**=1 178 152 152 178 152 152
Category A*
ADTT=10 178 152 152 178 152 152

ADTT=25 229 178 152 203 178 152

Category B
ADTT=300 229 178 152 203 178 152

ADTT=100 254 203 178 229 203 178

Category C ADTT=300 254 203 178 229 203 178

ADTT=700 254 203 178 229 203 178

Category D ADTT=700 229 203 178 229 178 152

*Category A: passenger cars; Category B: Buses parking area; Category C: Trucks entrance and parking area; Category D: Trucks parking area
**ADTT: average daily truck traffic

Delatte [112] also presented a layer thickness database for pervious concrete pavement using PerviousPave;
a design software for pervious concrete by the American Concrete Pavement Association. The pavement
design by Delatte [112] cover a wide range of traffic levels, pervious concrete and base layer properties
(i.e., flexural strength, k-value, CBR, etc.), but the recommended thicknesses were conservative compared
to AlShareedah & Nassiri [1]. This difference could be due to a high-reliability factor (80%) and the use of
an empirical equation to estimate the pervious concrete pavement stresses under axle loading. In contrast,
FEM was to obtain the stresses in pervious concrete pavement in AlShareedah & Nassiri [1], as discussed
earlier. In a later study, AlShareedah et al. [110] showed how temperature gradients in pervious concrete
slabs can be incorporated in layer thickness design using the fatigue model developed specifically for
pervious concrete in [29]. However, their suggested layer depths ware based on temperature data for one
location and assuming the worst-case scenario for the combination of axle loading and temperature
gradients. In this way, the temperature gradient effect increased the thickness of the slab by up to 100 mm
[110].
The use of pervious concrete as highway shoulders is lucrative for runoff management; however, highway
agencies have reservations due to potential clogging by sand and road debris, migration of seepage to under
the highway lanes, and structural damage from heavy traffic wander. Jones et al. [115] investigated the
structural design of pervious concrete as a highway shoulder to support maximum legal traffic loads in
California. The applied stresses in pervious concrete subjected to various axle loads were obtained using
EverFE, a FEM software. Then, pervious concrete design thicknesses were developed based on Darter [116]
fatigue model that was developed for conventional concrete.
In all the reviewed studies of pervious concrete pavement design, fatigue failure models of conventional
concrete were used to estimate the life of pervious concrete. However, studies of fatigue of pervious
concrete discussed earlier show pervious concrete fatigue life could be lower than conventional concrete in
certain stress ratios [29]. Therefore, the pavement design of pervious concrete must be performed using its
own fatigue models. In addition, more research is required to investigate the critical failure criteria in
pervious concrete pavements. For instance, raveling is common distress reported in pervious concrete
pavement installations, which may cause pavement failure before fatigue cracking develops. Thus, studies
of quantifying raveling failure as a function of traffic load applications are needed.

24
 7. Identified Research Needs
7.1. Standard Mixture Design Method
Accepted target values for performance factors for pervious concrete, e.g., porosity, compressive strength,
mass loss in durability testing, and permeability has already developed in the literature as compiled in this
review. Substantial knowledge on the effect of proportions of mixture components, e.g., aggregate-to-
cement and water-to-cement ratios, on these performance factors also already exists. Based on these
accepted ranges of values, a collective mixture design method should be developed to optimize the use of
portland cement, water, and aggregate with considerations for aggregate size and angularity.
7.2. Standard Test Methods
Standard practice for mixing, curing, and batching of pervious concrete is needed. In the lack of a standard,
various procedures were found in the literature for curing specimens. Some used underwater curing, which
could dissolve calcium hydroxide and impacts the strength results. Others kept sealed specimens to cure in
control ambient conditions of the laboratory. Standard practice for casting specimens and compaction is
also not available, resulting in uncontrolled levels of porosity and different strength levels. There is also a
need for a standard method to measure the in-situ density of the installed pervious concrete flatwork to
determine the required compaction to achieve the desired fresh density. Finally, a standard practice for
mechanical testing and the allowable variability of test results are needed.
7.3. High-Performance Mixtures
Raveling, cracking, and other failures due to low strength and durability are still a challenge. There exist
opportunities for developing high-performance pervious concrete with the use of abundant waste streams,
as reviewed in this paper. Fibers and nano additive present great potential and merit further exploration for
use in pervious concrete.
7.4. Mechanistic Studies of Mechanical Behaviors
In this review, an abundance of empirical studies on mixture design, reuse of waste streams, testing, and
characterization were summarized. There is a need for more mechanistic and analytical studies of
functioning mechanisms of aggregate-paste bond and the transition areas. In the reviewed studies on
computational studies of pervious concrete, the validation was narrow in scope and limited to specific
mixture designs, packing arrangements, aggregate shapes, and narrow porosity ranges. A step forward in
this direction is to develop an experimentally validated computational tool to estimate the mechanical
behavior of pervious concrete based on mixture design parameters at a reasonable computational cost. For
this purpose, DEM has a great potential to capture the mechanical behavior of pervious concrete at the meso
and macro levels. The primary advantage of DEM for pervious concrete over FEM is that porosity is
intrinsically included in DEM as voids between the packed particles. However, porosity is accounted for as
a reduction in the mechanical properties of the continuum model of FEM. Moreover, DEM can be used to
study the effect of particle packing arrangements and particle shapes (spherical, elliptic, irregular, etc.) on
the mechanical behavior of pervious concrete. Moreover, most of the hydraulic models of pervious concrete
are based on extracting the pore network for pore-scale CFD modeling, which requires high computational
capacity. Further research is required to develop a more efficient and affordable pore-scale pervious
concrete permeability simulation.
7.5. Field performance and pavement design
Physical and structural long-term evaluation of in-service pervious concrete installations is much needed to
develop a consensus on common modes of failure. Current pavement design methods blindly follow the
same fatigue failure criteria used for standard concrete pavements, but other issues of clogging and raveling

25
seem to be prevalent for pervious concrete. In addition, the durability of pervious concrete in cold regions
under freeze-thaw conditions and exposure to de-icing chemicals is not fully investigated.

8. Conclusions
The following key conclusions are drawn based on this literature review:
- Typical mixture design for pervious concrete in recent publications falls in the range of 1: (4-4.5):
(0.38-0.45) for the cement: aggregate: water mass ratio. This mixture composition has resulted in
compressive strength, porosity, and permeability properties in the ranges of 3-28 MPa, 15-35%,
and 0.14-1.22 cm/s, respectively. However, one should note that the test results are influenced by
varying methods of compaction, curing, and testing in the lack of standard procedures. The
important interrelation of mix design parameters with porosity and the effect of that on mechanical
properties was overlooked in many studies. Sufficient details were not provided on the curing
method, fresh unit weight, and compaction efforts in many studies, making the comparison of
mechanical and other performance indicators invalid in some cases.
- Formulas are available to correlate mechanical properties such as compressive and flexural strength
with porosity and permeability based on test data. The least of the test data is available for load-
deflection, and elastic modulus of pervious concrete making it challenging to define suitable
constitutive models for this material.
- The use of fly ash and silica fume were successful in pervious concrete and resulted in an acceptable
range of strength and permeability in most cases. Successful applications of other waste streams
such as red mud and steel slag recycled aggregates and agricultural wastes were also presented.
Polypropylene fibers were the main kind of fibers evaluated for use in pervious concrete, which
showed success in increasing the compressive and flexural strength by up to 25% and 37%,
respectively. Besides, fibers were highly beneficial in improving the durability of pervious
concrete, such as abrasion and freeze-thaw resistance.
- The need for future research was identified in the areas of mixture design, high-performance
pervious concrete, computational modeling of mechanical and flow behaviors, as well as long-term
monitoring and evaluation of performance and physical conditions of field installations.

Declarations of interest
None.

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