Transistor

The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device consisting of either

two n- and one p-type layers of material or two p- and one n-type layers of
material. The former is called an npn transistor, while the latter is called a
pnp transistor. Both are shown in Figure (1).

Figure (1): Types of transistors: (a) npn. (b) pnp

The terminals have been indicated by the capital letters E for emitter, C for
collector, and B for base. The abbreviation BJT, from bipolar junction
transistor, is often applied to this three terminal device. The term bipolar
reflects the fact that holes and electrons participate in the injection process
into the oppositely polarized material.
The pn junction joining the base region and the emitter region is called the
base-emitter junction. The pn junction joining the base region and the
collector region is called the base-collector junction. Figure (2) shows the
schematic symbols for the npn and pnp bipolar junction transistors.

Figure (2): Standard BJT (bipolar junction transistor) symbols

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Transistor Operation
In order for a BJT to operate properly as an amplifier, the two pn junctions
must be correctly biased with external dc voltages.
One p-n junction of a transistor is reverse biased, while the other is forward
biased.
Biasing
Figure (3) shows a bias arrangement for both npn and pnp BJTs. Notice that
in both cases the base-emitter (BE) junction is forward-biased and the base-
collector (BC) junction is reverse-biased. This condition is called forward-
reverse bias.

Figure (3): Forward-reverse bias of a BJT

To understand how a transistor operates, let’s examine what happens

inside the npn structure. The heavily doped n-type emitter region has a very
high density of conduction-band (free) electrons, as indicated in Figure (4).
These free electrons easily diffuse through the forward biased BE junction
into the lightly doped and very thin p-type base region. The base has a low
density of holes, which are the majority carriers, as represented by the
white circles. A small percentage of the total number of free electrons
injected into the base region recombine with holes and move as valence
electrons through the base region and into the emitter region as hole
current.

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 Figure (4): BJT action

Most of electrons flowing from the emitter into the thin base region do not
recombine but diffuse into the BC depletion region. They are pulled
through the reverse biased BC junction by the attraction of the collector
voltage source. This forms the collector electron current. The collector
current is much larger than the base current.

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Transistor currents:
The directions of the currents in an npn transistor and its schematic symbol
are shown in figure (5-a), and those for a pnp transistor are shown in figure
(5-b).

Figure (5): Transistor currents

These diagrams show that the emitter current IE is the sum of the collector
current IC and the base current IB:
IE = IC + IB
BJT characteristics and parameters:
DC Beta ( βDC) and DC Alpha ( αDC):
The dc current gain of a transistor is the ratio of the dc collector current (IC)
to the dc base current (IB) and is designated dc beta (βDC).

 Typical values of βDC range from less than 20 to 200 or higher.

The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc emitter current (IE) is the
dc alpha (αDC). The alpha is a less-used parameter than beta in transistor
circuits.

 Typically, values of αDC range from 0.95 to 0.99 or greater, but αDC is
always less than 1.

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Collector Characteristic Curves
Using a circuit like that shown in Figure 6(a), a set of collector characteristic
curves can be generated that show how the collector current, IC, varies with
the collector-to-emitter voltage, VCE, for specified values of base current, IB.

Figure (6): Collector characteristic curves.

Assume that VBB is set to produce a certain value of IB and VCC is zero. For
this condition, both the base-emitter junction and the base-collector
junction are forward-biased because the base is at approximately 0.7 V
while the emitter and the collector are at 0 V. The base current is through
the base-emitter junction because of the low impedance path to ground
and, therefore, IC is zero. When both junctions are forward-biased, the
transistor is in the saturation region of its operation. (Saturation is the
state of a BJT in which the collector current has reached a maximum and is
independent of the base current).
As VCC is increased, VCE increases as the collector current increases. This is
indicated by the portion of the characteristic curve between points A and B
in Figure 6(b). IC increases as VCC is increased because VCE remains less than
0.7 V due to the forward-biased base-collector junction. Ideally, when VCE
exceeds 0.7 V, the base-collector junction becomes reverse-biased and the
transistor goes into the active, or linear, region of its operation.
Once the base-collector junction is reverse-biased, IC levels off and remains
essentially constant for a given value of IB as VCE continues to increase. This
is shown by the portion of the characteristic curve between points B and C
in Figure 6(b). For this portion of the characteristic curve, the value of IC is

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determined only by the relationship expressed as IC = βDCIB. When VCE
reaches a sufficiently high voltage, the reverse-biased base-collector
junction goes into breakdown; and the collector current increases rapidly as
indicated by the part of the curve to the right of point C in Figure 6(b). A
transistor should never be operated in this breakdown region.
A family of collector characteristic curves is produced when IC versus VCE is
plotted for several values of IB, as illustrated in Figure (7).
When IB = 0, the transistor is in the cutoff region although there is a very
small collector leakage current as indicated. (Cutoff is the non-conducting
state of a transistor).

Figure (7): Family of IC versus VCE curves for several values of IB

(IB1< IB2< IB3, etc.)

Cutoff
When IB = 0, the transistor is in the cutoff region of its operation. This is
shown in Figure (8) with the base lead open, resulting in a base current of
zero. Under this condition, there is a very small amount of collector leakage
current, ICEO, due mainly to thermally produced carriers. Because ICEO is
extremely small, it will usually be neglected in circuit analysis so that
VCE=VCC. In cutoff, neither the base-emitter nor the base-collector junctions
are forward-biased. The subscript CEO represents collector-to- emitter with
the base open.

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 Figure (8): Cutoff

Saturation
When the base-emitter junction becomes forward-biased and the base
current is increased, the collector current also increases (IC = βDCIB) and VCE
decreases as a result of more drop across the collector resistor
(VCE= VCC - ICRC). This is illustrated in Figure (9). When VCE reaches its
saturation value, VCE(sat), the base-collector junction becomes forward-
biased and IC can increase no further even with a continued increase in IB.
At the point of saturation, the relation IC = βDCIB is no longer valid. VCE(sat) for a
transistor occurs somewhere below the knee of the collector curves, and it
is usually only a few tenths of a volt.

Figure (9): Saturation

DC Load Line
Cutoff and saturation can be illustrated in relation to the collector
characteristic curves by the use of a load line. Figure (10) shows a dc load
line drawn on a family of curves connecting the cutoff point and the
saturation point. The bottom of the load line is at ideal cutoff where IC = 0
and VCE = VCC. The top of the load line is at saturation where IC = IC(sat) and VCE
= VCE(sat). In between cutoff and saturation along the load line is the active
region of the transistor’s operation.

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Figure (10): DC load line on a
family of collector
characteristic curves

The BJT as an
amplifier:
Amplification is the
process of linearly
increasing the
amplitude of an
electrical signal and is
one of the major
properties of a transistor.
Voltage Amplification
A transistor amplifies current because the collector current is equal to the
base current multiplied by the current gain, b. The base current in a
transistor is very small compared to the collector and emitter currents.
Because of this, the collector current is approximately equal to the emitter
current. In Figure (11), an ac voltage, Vs, is superimposed on the dc bias
voltage VBB by capacitive coupling as shown. The dc bias voltage VCC is
connected to the collector through the collector resistor, RC.

Figure (11): Basic transistor amplifier circuit

The ac input voltage produces an ac base current, which results in a much

larger ac collector current. The ac collector current produces an ac voltage

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across RC, thus producing an amplified, but inverted, reproduction of the ac
input voltage in the active region of operation, as illustrated in Figure (11).
The forward-biased base-emitter junction presents a very low resistance to
the ac signal. This internal ac emitter resistance is designated r’ e and
appears in series with RB. The ac base voltage is

The ac collector voltage, Vc, equals the ac voltage drop across RC.

Since Ic ≅ Ie, the ac collector voltage is

Vb can be considered the transistor ac input voltage where Vb = Vs - IbRB.

Vc can be considered the transistor ac output voltage. Since voltage gain is
defined as the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage, the ratio of
Vc to Vb is the ac voltage gain, Av, of the transistor.

Substituting IeRC for Vc and Ie r’e for Vb yields

The Ie terms cancel; therefore,

The BJT as a Switch:

When used as an electronic switch, a BJT is normally operated alternately in
cutoff and saturation. Many digital circuits use the BJT as a switch. Figure
(12) illustrates the basic operation of a BJT as a switching device. In part (a),
the transistor is in the cutoff region because the base-emitter junction is
not forward-biased. In this condition, there is, ideally, an open between
collector and emitter, as indicated by the switch equivalent. In part (b), the
transistor is in the saturation region because the base-emitter junction and
the base-collector junction are forward-biased and the base current is
made large enough to cause the collector current to reach its saturation
value. In this condition, there is, ideally, a short between collector and
emitter, as indicated by the switch equivalent. Actually, a small voltage

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drop across the transistor of up to a few tenths of a volt normally occurs,
which is the saturation voltage, VCE(sat).

Figure (12): Switching action of an ideal transistor

Conditions in Cutoff:
A transistor is in the cutoff region when the base-emitter junction is not
forward-biased. Neglecting leakage current, all of the currents are zero, and
VCE is equal to VCC.

 Since VCE(sat) is very small compared to VCC, it can usually be neglected.

Conditions in Saturation:
When the base-emitter junction is forward-biased and there is enough base
current to produce a maximum collector current, the transistor is
saturated. The formula for collector saturation current is

The minimum value of base current needed to produce saturation is

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