6.2 The Blood System IB PDF

6 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
Body functions are carried out by specialized organ

systems
6.1 Digestion and absorption
6.2 The blood system
6.3 Defense against infectious disease
6.4 Gas exchange
6.5 Neurons and synapses
6.6 Hormones, homeostasis and reproduction.
Essential idea
The blood system continuously transports substances
to cells and simultaneously collects waste products

• Arteries carry blood at high pressure from the ventricles of the heart to
the tissues of the body.
• Arteries have muscle cells and elastic fibres in their walls, which maintain
blood pressure between ventricle contractions.
• Capillaries carry blood through tissues and have permeable walls to allow
exchange between tissue cells and the blood.
• Veins carry blood at low pressure from the tissues to the atria of the
heart.
• Valves in veins and the heart prevent back-flow.
• There is a separate circulation for the lungs.
• The sinoatrial node initiates heart beat
• The SA node is made of specialized muscle cells in the right atrium which
act as a pacemaker.
• The sinoatrial node sends out an electrical signal which is propagated
through the walls of the atria and ventricles.
• The heart rate is controlled by impulses brought to the heart through two
nerves from the medulla of the brain.
• Epinephrine (adrenalin) increases the heart rate.
Skills
Outline your knowledge of William Harvey’s
discovery of the circulation of the blood with the
heart acting as the pump.
Interpret pressure changes in the left atrium, left

ventricle and aorta during the cardiac cycle.
Link causes and consequences of occlusion

of the coronary arteries.
Identify arteries, capillaries or veins from

the structure of their walls.
Recognise the four chambers and valves of the

heart and the blood vessels connected to it in a
dissected heart or in diagrams of heart
structure.
The cardiovascular system
Consists of blood, heart to pump it and blood vessels

There are two separate circulations
1) Pulmonary- to and from the lungs (Deoxygenated blood returns

from the body (via vena cava) to the RIGHT side of the heart It is pumped (by right atrium / right
ventricle) to the lungs via the pulmonary artery)
2) Systemic- to and from all other organs, including

wall of heart itself. (Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs (via pulmonary vein)
to the LEFT side of the heart It is pumped (by left atrium / left ventricle) to the body via the aorta)
~55%
leukocytes Thrombocytes
≥1 %
erythrocytes
~45%
• 6.2.1 William Harvey and the circulation of blood
# William Harvey’s discovery of the circulation of the blood with the heart acting as the pump #
Harvey was an English physician who was the first to describe accurately how blood
was pumped around the body by the heart.
He first revealed his findings at the College of Physicians in 1616, and in 1628 he
published his theories in a book entitled 'Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et
Sanguinis in Animalibus' ('An Anatomical Study of the Motion of the Heart and of the
Blood in Animals'), where he explained how the heart propelled the blood in a circular
course through the body
He proposed
1. Arteries and veins were part of
a single connected blood network
(he did not predict the existence
of capillaries however).
2. Arteries pump blood from the
heart (to the lungs and body
tissues).
3. Veins return blood to the heart
(from the lungs and body tissues).
• 6.2.2 Overturning ancient theories in science
#Theories are regarded as uncertain: William Harvey overturned theories developed by the ancient Greek
philosopher Galen on movement of blood in the body#
Galen proposal
Blood is formed in the liver and is pumped to and from between the liver and the right
ventricle of the heart. A little blood passes into the left ventricle, where it meets air from
the lungs and becomes “vital spirits”. The vital spirits are distributed to the body by the
arteries. Some of the vital spirits flow to the brain, to be converted into “animal spirits”,
which are then distributed by the nerves to the body
The circulatory system from Galen to Harvey

6.2 The blood vessels. Structure & Function
There are 3 main types of blood vessels. Arteries, Capillaries and veins
6.2.3 Arteries
# Arteries convey blood at high pressure from the ventricles to the tissues of the body#
Function It is a blood vessel that pumps blood at HIGH pressure FROM the heart
ventricles to the tissues of the body and lungs.
Thick muscular wall and fibrous outer

layer of collagen help the artery to
withstand high pressure and not
rupturing.
tunica externa – a tough outer layer of
connective tissue
tunica media – a thick layer containing
smooth muscle and elastic fibres made
of the protein elastin
tunica intima – a smooth endothelium
forming the lining of the artery.
6.2.3 Arteries
Muscle fibres. help to form a rigid arterial

wall that is capable of withstanding the high
blood pressure without rupturing.
They can also contract to narrow the lumen,
which increases the pressure between
pumps and helps to maintain blood pressure
throughout the cardiac cycle
Elastic fibres stretch and expand to

increase or decrease the lumen with each
pulse of blood. After the pulse of blood
passes the fibres recoil decreasing the lumen
size and therefore helping to maintain a high
blood pressure . The elastic recoil helps to
push the blood forward
6.2.3 Arteries
6.2.3 Arteries
6.2.3 Arteries
• The blood entering an artery from the heart is at high pressure. The peak pressure
is called the systolic pressure. It pushes the wall of the artery outwards, widening
the lumen and stretching elastic fibres in the wall.
• At the end of each heartbeat the pressure in the arteries falls sufficiently for the
stretched elastic fibres to squeeze the blood in the lumen. This mechanism saves
energy and prevents the minimum pressure inside the artery, called the diastolic
pressure, from becoming too low.
• blood flow in the arteries is relatively steady and continuous although driven by a
pulsating heart.
• The circular muscles in the wall of the artery form a ring so when they contract, in a
process called vasoconstriction, the circumference is reduced and the lumen is
narrowed. Vasoconstriction increases blood pressure in the arteries.
Vasoconstriction of arterioles restricts blood flow to the part of the body that they
supply and the opposite process, called vasodilation, increases it.
6.2.3 Arteries
According to the American Heart Association the desired blood pressures for adults of 18
years or older measured in this way are:
systolic 90-119 mmHg
diastolic 60-79 mmHg
LINK SIMULATOR Bioninja
6.2.4 Capillaries
• # Blood flows through tissues in capillaries with permeable walls that allow exchange of materials
between cells in the tissue and the blood in the capillary.#
Function to exchange materials between the cells in tissues and blood travelling at
low pressure (<10mmHg). Are the smallest blood vessels
The capillary wall consists of one layer of

very thin endothelium cells, coated by a
filter-like protein gel, with pores between
the cells. The wall is thus very permeable
and allows part of the plasma to leak out
and form tissue fluid, which contains
oxygen, glucose and all other substances
in blood plasma apart from large protein
molecules, which cannot pass through the
capillary wall. The fluid flows between the
#Two exceptions are the tissues of the cells in a tissue, allowing the cells to
lens and the cornea in the eye which absorb useful substances and excrete
must be transparent so cannot contain waste products. The tissue fluid then
any blood vessels.# re-enters the capillary network
6.2.4 Capillaries
Link to video
6.2.4 Capillaries
Some
The capillary wall capillaries
may are sinusoidal
be continuous with and have open
endothelial cells spaces
held together by between cells
tight junctions to and be
limit permeability of permeable to
large molecules large
molecules and
cells (e.g. in
In tissues specialised for absorption (e.g. liver)
intestines, kidneys), the capillary wall
may be fenestrated (contains pores)
6.2.5 Veins
Function Veins collect blood at low pressure from the tissues of the body and
return it to the atria of the heart
- Thin wall so that nearby

muscles can help push blood
back towards the heart
- Wide lumen to accommodate
for large volumes of blood at
low pressures
- one-way valves to prevent
backflow of blood
- Thin layer with a few circular
elastic and muscle fibres as
blood does not flow in pulses
6.2.5 Veins
• Valves in veins and the heart ensure circulation of blood by preventing backflow
Blood is at very low pressure in the

veins which can make it difficult for the
blood to move against the downward
force of gravity.
Veins typically pass between skeletal
muscle groups. When the skeletal
muscles contract, they squeeze the vein
and cause the blood to flow from the
site of compression
6.2 Comparison of blood vessel structure
6.2.6 Heart Structure
# Recognition of the chambers and valves of the heart and the blood vessels connected to it in dissected
hearts or in diagrams of heart structure.#
ACTIVITY LABELLING THE HEART

(50’)
The heart has two sides, left and right. The heart has 4 chambers in total, two atria
(singular = atrium) – smaller chambers near top of heart that collect blood from body
and lungs & two ventricles – larger chambers near bottom of heart that pump blood
to body and lungs.
Each side of the heart has two types of valves. Atrioventricular valves – bicuspid valve
on left side ; tricuspid valve on right side. Semilunar valves (between ventricles and
arteries) – aortic valve on left side ; pulmonary valve on right side.
Vena cava (inferior and superior) feeds into the right atrium and returns deoxygenated
blood from the body Pulmonary artery connects to the right ventricle and sends
deoxygenated blood to the lungs
Pulmonary vein feeds into the left atrium and returns oxygenated blood from the
lungs. Aorta extends from the left ventricle and sends oxygenated blood around the
body.
# The left ventricle pumps blood around the entire body and so has a
noticeably thicker myocardium than the right ventricle #
6.2.7 The double circulation
# There is a separate circulation for the lungs #
The lungs used by mammals for gas exchange are supplied with blood by a
separate circulation.
Blood capillaries in lungs cannot withstand high pressures so blood is pumped
to them at relatively low pressure. After passing through the capillaries of the
lungs the pressure of the blood is low, so it must return to the heart to be
pumped again before it goes to other organs. Humans therefore have two
separate circulations:
1. The pulmonary circulation, to and from the lungs.

2. The systemic circulation, to and from all other organs, including the heart
muscles.
The heart is therefore a double pump, delivering blood under different

pressures separately to the two circulations.
6.2.7 The path of blood through the heart
1. Deoxygenated blood comes from body through superior and
posterior vena cava.
2. Enters right atrium.
3. Goes through atrioventricular valve.
4. Enters right ventricle, pumped into pulmonary artery.
5. Passes through semilunar valve.
6. Gets oxygen from lungs.
7. Enters left atrium via pulmonary veins.
8. Goes through atrioventricular valve.
9. Enters left ventricle, pumped into aorta.
10. Passes through semilunar valve.
11. Blood goes to rest of the body.
6.2.8 The heart beat
# The heartbeat is initiated by a group of specialized muscle cells in the right atrium called the sinoatrial
node # The sinoatrial node acts as a pacemaker #
The heart is able to contract its muscles without stimulation

from motor neurons (without brain signal). The contraction is
called myogenic, meaning that it is generated in the muscle
itself.
Beating of the heart is due to myogenic muscle contractions
Within the wall of the right atrium are a specialised cluster of
cardiomyocytes (heart muscle cells) which are the origin of
the contraction of heart muscle tissue
• This cluster of cells are collectively called the sinoatrial
node (SA node or SAN) (pacemaker) and they are in charge
of control the rate of the heart beat
# Because the sinoatrial node initiates each heartbeat, it sets the pace for the beating
of the heart and is often called the pacemaker #
The electrical conduction of a heart beat occurs according to the
following events:
1. The sinoatrial node sends out an electrical impulse that stimulates

contraction of the myocardium (heart muscle tissue).
2. This impulse directly causes the atria to contract and stimulates
another node at the junction between the atrium and ventricle.
3. This second node – the atrioventricular node (AV node) – sends
signals down the septum via a nerve bundle (Bundle of His).
4. The Bundle of His innervates nerve fibres (Purkinje fibres) in the
ventricular wall, causing ventricular contraction.
This sequence of events ensures there is a delay between atrial and ventricular contractions,
resulting in two heart sounds.
This delay allows time for the ventricles to fill with blood following atrial contractions so as to
maximise blood flow.
The heart beat

6.2.8 An artificial pacemaker
• If the sinoatrial node becomes defective, its output may be regulated or even
replaced entirely by an artificial pacemaker. This is an electronic device, placed
under the skin with electrodes implanted in the wall of the heart that initiates each
heartbeat in place of the sinoatrial node.
Link
6.2.9 The heart rate
# The heart rate can be increased or decreased by impulses brought to the heart through two nerves
from the medulla of the brain #
The sinoatrial node that sets the rhythm for the beating of the heart responds to
signals from outside the heart.
Nerve Signalling
Signals from branches of two nerves originating in a region in the medulla of the
brain called the cardiovascular centre. Signals from the sympathetic nerve cause the
pacemaker to increase the frequency of heartbeats, Signals from the
parasympathetic nerve decrease the rate.
• Low blood pressure, low oxygen concentration and low pH (high levels of carbon
dioxide) all suggest that the heart rate needs to speed up, to increase the flow
rate of blood to the tissues, deliver more oxygen and remove more carbon
dioxide.
• High blood pressure, high oxygen concentration and high pH are all indicators
that the heart rate may need to slow down.
6.2.9 The heart rate
# Epinephrine increases the heart rate to prepare for vigorous physical activity #
The sinoatrial node that sets the rhythm for the beating of the heart responds to
signals from outside the heart.
Hormonal Signalling
The sinoatrial node also responds to hormonal signalling in the blood, by increasing
the heart rate. This hormone, the Epinephrine, is also sometimes called adrenalin
and is produced by the adrenal glands. The secretion of epinephrine is controlled by
the brain and rises when vigorous physical activity may be necessary because of a
threat or opportunity.
6.2.10 The Cardiac Cycle
# Pressure changes in the left atrium, left ventricle and aorta during the cardiac cycle #
The cardiac cycle describes the series of events that take place in the heart, It is
comprised of a period of contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole), over the
duration of a single heart beat.
CARDIAC CYCLE SIMULATOR

The cardiac cycle describes the series of events that take place in the heart, It is
comprised of a period of contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole), over the
duration of a single heart beat.
1 Deduce when blood is being pumped

from the atrium to the ventricle. Give both
the start and the end times. [2]
2 Deduce when the ventricle starts to
contract. [1]
3 The atrioventricular valve is the valve
between the atrium and the ventricle. State
when the atrioventricular valve closes. [1]
4 The semilunar valve is the valve between
the ventricle and the artery. State when
the semilunar valve opens. [1]
5 Deduce when the semilunar valve closes.
[1]
6 Deduce when blood is being pumped
from the ventricle to the artery. Give
both the start and the end times. [2]
7 Deduce when the volume of blood in the
ventricle is:
a) at a maximum [1]
b) at a minimum.
1 From 0 to 0.1
2 At 0.1
3 At 0.1
4 At 0.15.
5 At 0.4
6 At 0.15 to 0.4
7 Deduce when the volume of blood in the
ventricle is:
a) at a maximum 0.1
b) at a minimum.0.4
6.2.12 Atherosclerosis
# Causes and consequences of occlusion of the coronary arteries #
Coronary Arteries are the blood vessels that surround the heart and nourish
the cardiac tissue to keep the heart working.
Atherosclerosis is the hardening and narrowing of the arteries due to the
deposition of cholesterol (Atheroma). If these arteries become occluded, the region
of heart tissue nourished by the blocked artery will die and cease to function.
The causes of atherosclerosis are not yet fully understood but these are the main
factors associated with an increased risk of atheroma
1. High blood concentrations of LDL (low density lipoprotein).

2. Chronic high blood glucose concentrations, due to overeating, obesity or
diabetes
3. Chronic high blood pressure due to smoking, stress or any other cause.
4. Consumption of trans fats, which damage the endothelium of the artery.
5. Infection of the artery wall with Chlamydia pneumoniae.
6. Production of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) by microbes in the intestine.
Causes of Coronary Occlusion
1. Atheromas (fatty deposits) develop in the arteries and significantly reduce the
diameter of the lumen (stenosis).
2. The restricted blood flow increases pressure in the artery, leading to damage to
the arterial wall (from shear stress).
3. The damaged region is repaired with fibrous tissue which significantly reduces
the elasticity of the vessel wall.
4. As the smooth lining of the artery is progressively degraded, lesions form
called atherosclerotic plaques.
5. If the plaque ruptures, blood clotting is triggered, forming a thrombus that
restricts blood flow.
6. If the thrombus is dislodged it becomes an embolus and can cause a blockage
in a smaller arteriole.
# Causes and consequences of occlusion of the coronary arteries#
Consequences of Coronary Occlusion
1. Atherosclerosis can lead to blood clots, and if these clots occur in myocardial
tissue, we call it coronary heart disease.
2. A myocardial infarction occurs if a coronary artery becomes completely blocked
3. Coronary muscle tissue dies as a result of a lack of blood and oxygen.
Risk Factors in Coronary Heart Disease

Genetic Some people are predisposed to high cholesterol / high blood pressure.
Age The older the greater the risk / less elasticity in the arteries.
Gender Men are at greater risk than women.
Smoke It constricts blood vessels / increases blood pressure / heart rate / decreases
oxygenation of heart muscle / increases fibrinogen and platelets in the blood
which leads to more clotting.
Diet Rich in fats / raises cholesterol / LDL in the blood / leads to the formation of
plaques in the arteries.
Exercise Lack of exercise increases risk due to weakened circulation
Obesity Increased blood pressure / leads to plaque formation in arteries.
Stress has been linked to the increase of the hormone cortisol in the blood, which
increases atherosclerosis.
Outline how the contraction and relaxation of muscles in the heart causes different
pressures of blood in different chambers leading to blood flow and valve movements
in this heart [4]
The atria muscles are contracting increasing the pressure of the blood in the atria.
The high blood pressure in atria causes the atrio-ventricular valves to open.
The blood is flowing from the atria into the ventricles where the blood pressure is lower
Low pressure in the ventricles results in the semi-lunar valves being closed.

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6 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

Body functions are carried out by specialized organ

The blood system continuously transports substances

to cells and simultaneously collects waste products

Interpret pressure changes in the left atrium, left

Link causes and consequences of occlusion

Identify arteries, capillaries or veins from

Recognise the four chambers and valves of the

Consists of blood, heart to pump it and blood vessels

1) Pulmonary- to and from the lungs (Deoxygenated blood returns

2) Systemic- to and from all other organs, including

The circulatory system from Galen to Harvey

Thick muscular wall and fibrous outer

Muscle fibres. help to form a rigid arterial

Elastic fibres stretch and expand to

The capillary wall consists of one layer of

- Thin wall so that nearby

Blood is at very low pressure in the

ACTIVITY LABELLING THE HEART

1. The pulmonary circulation, to and from the lungs.

The heart is therefore a double pump, delivering blood under different

The heart is able to contract its muscles without stimulation

1. The sinoatrial node sends out an electrical impulse that stimulates

The heart beat

CARDIAC CYCLE SIMULATOR

1 Deduce when blood is being pumped

1. High blood concentrations of LDL (low density lipoprotein).

Causes of Coronary Occlusion

Risk Factors in Coronary Heart Disease

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