Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

8.1 Transport system in mammals

Learning objectives :
(a) describe the structure of a mammalian heart;
(b) define systole and diastole, and explain the sequence of events in a cardiac cycle including
changes in pressure and volume in aorta, left atrium and left ventricle;
(c) describe the initiation and regulation of heart beat;
(d) explain hypertension, atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis and myocardial infarction, and state their
causes and preventions;
(e) describe the lymphatic system in relation to the blood circulatory system;
(f) determine the direction of fluid movement at the arterial and venous ends of the capillaries by
calculating the differences between osmotic pressure/solute potential and hydrostatic pressure.

8.2 Transport system in plants

Learning objectives ;

(a) explain the uptake of water and mineral ions from the soil by the root hairs involving water potential;

(b) describe the apoplast, symplast and vacuolar pathway of water movement through the root tissues;

(c) describe the root pressure, cohesion-tension theory and transpiration pull in relation to water
movement from the roots to leaves;

(d) explain translocation using the mass flow, electro-osmosis, cytoplasmic streaming and peristaltic
waves hypotheses;

(e) explain the concept of source and sink, and phloem loading and unloading in translocation
according to pressure flow hypothesis.
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

8.1a) Describe the structure of a mammalian heart

Mammalian heart and blood circulation

The main transport system in mammals

is the circulatory system consisting of the
heart and the flow of blood through a
network of blood vessels.

Heart is muscular organ in the thoracic

cavity, between the lungs.

The function is to pump blood to all parts

of the body.

The cardiovascular system is a

circulatory system where by the blood
circulate from the heart to the tissues and
back to the heart again.

8.1 The structure of a heart

Structure Function

1 Chambers Permits the separation of oxygenated from deoxygenated blood.

The heart has four chambers.
 two thin-walled atria (left and
right)
 two lower thick-walled
ventricles (left and right)

2 Ventricles functions : as two pumps with different pressure systems

(The left ventricle is thicker and more
muscular than the right ventricle)  right ventricle, pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
 Left ventricle, pumps oxygenated blood to other parts
of the body.

o The left ventricle has to produce higher pressure so that blood

can be pumped around the body.
o The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs which are nearer to
the heart.

The blood in the pulmonary artery flows at a much lower pressure

than the blood in the aorta. This gives more time for gaseous
exchange

3 Atrium o The atrium plays a role to collect blood before entering ventricle
(right and left atrium) o right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from two main vena
o The left and the right atrium are made cava which are vena cava posterior and vena cava anterior
up of thin cardiac muscle o left atrium receives oxygenated blood from pulmonary artery

To prevents the wave of excitation passing directly from the atria

4 A septum to the ventricles.
( separates the right chambers from the o The delay prevents the atria and ventricles contracting at almost
left) the same time
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

o and allows blood from the atria to flow in to the ventricles.

5 Myocardium composed mainly of cardiac They are myogenic

muscles o can generate their own excitatory impulses without
o They are myogenic stimulation from the nervous system.
o do not fatigue because of the long refractory period.

Protect the heart from mechanical injury

6 The heart is covered by pericardium o There is pericardial fluid secretion between the
( a double layer of tough inelastic membranes.
membrane ) o It reduces friction between the heart wall and surrounding
tissues
o prevents the heart from being overstretch during heart beats

5 VALVES

a) Atrio-ventricular valves. o prevents backflow of blood into the atria

o Tricuspid
o Bicuspid o Their flaps are pushed together to closed the valves when
ventricular pressure is higher than atrial pressure.
.

b) Semilunar valves
o Pulmonary o Prevent the backflow of blood into the heart, keeping the
o Aortic blood flowing in one direction.

Blood vessel

a) Venae cavae o carry deoxygenated blood from the body (except the
lungs) to the right atrium of the heart
(superior vena cava and inferior vena
cava)

b) Pulmonary arteries o carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs

c) Pulmonary veins o carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of
the heart

d) Aorta o Carries oxygenated blood from the heart to other parts of

the body.

e) Coronary arteries o Carry oxygenated blood to the heart muscles.

 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

Different thickness of blood vessels – artery, vein and cappilary

Sino-atrial node (SAN) o Acts as a pacemaker and

- is specialised tissue, located in the wall of o initiates the generation of impulses for the rhythmic
the right atrium near the point where the contraction
superior vena cava enters the heart

Atrio-ventricular node (AVN), o Delay the electrical impulse or excitatory wave (0.1s)
o is specialised tissue, located in the wall from atria to spread into the ventricular wall
between the left and right atria
o These tissues form a relay point o The electrical impulses are then conducted from the
AV node, the bundle of His, the Purkinje fibres to the
Bundle of His and Purkinje fibres. muscles to stimulate ventricular contraction.
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

8.1 The events of cardiac cycle

Define systole and diastole, and explain the sequence of events in a cardiac cycle
including changes in pressure and volume in aorta, left atrium and left ventricle

Cardiac cycle

Is the sequence of events that makes up one beat

Three stages ; atrial systole, ventricular systole and atria and ventricular diastole
Cardiac cycle is
the term referring
to
Systole and diastole

 Systole is the contraction phase ; occurs when the heart muscle contracts. … all or any of
the events related
2 types , i.e atrial systole and ventricular systole
to the flow of blood
that occur from the
 Diastole is the relaxation phase ; occur when the heart muscle relaxes. beginning of one
2 types , i.e atrial diastole and ventricular diastole heartbeat to the
beginning of the
next
 The sequence of events in one heartbeat are;

a) atrial systole = 0.1 seconds

b) ventricular systole = 0.3 seconds 1 cardiac cycle = 0.8 sec
c) atrial and ventricular diastole = 0.4 seconds

THE EVENTS of CARDIAC CYCLE

 The unique characteristics of the heart is it

ability to contract and relax alternately in a non-
stop rhythmic pattern.

 Each cycle of contraction and relaxation of the

heart is called one beat of the heart
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

THE EVENTS of CARDIAC CYCLE

Each beat of the heart begins with the contractile action of the heart muscle or systole, followed by relaxation or
diastole

1. ATRIAL SYSTOLE (and VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE) - .( 0.1sec) It has been proven

Cardiac cycle is initiated in the sinoatrial node (SAN). that sinoatrial
node is responsible
A wave of excitation triggered by the sinoatrial node (SAN),
for stimulating the
spreads throughout the both atrial`s wall , causes atria to contract heartbeat and
the pressure in both atria increase, until higher than ventricular pressure controlling its rate
The high pressure forces the opening of the atrio-ventricular valves ( rhythm)

Blood flows from atria into the ventricles.

The pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves remain closed , ( PA > PV )

2. VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE (and ATRIAL DIASTOLE) -0.3 sec

(Is the contraction of the left and right ventricles and the relaxation of atria)

A wave of excitation from atria reaches the atrioventricular node (AVN).

From AVN the excitation wave spreads to the bundle of His, Purkinje fibres
and ventricular `s wall
Causes both ventricles to contract from apex upwards
The pressure in the ventricles increase and
becomes greater than the pressure in the atria
causes atrio-ventricular valves (bicuspid and tricuspid valves) to be closed
producing the first sound of heartbeat `lub`
The pressure in the ventricle increases until higher than the pressure in that of arteries ( PV > PA )
forces semilunar valves to open and
the blood starts to flow into the aorta (from the left ventricle ) and into pulmonary artery
(from right ventricle) .
Ventricular systole last for 0.3 sec

3. ATRIAL and VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE - (0.4sec)

The relaxation of the atria and the ventricles

The pressure in the ventricles decrease, until become less than the pressure in the aorta and
pulmonary artery)
When pressure in the aorta and pulmonary artery become higher than the pressure in the ventricles
the semilunar valves closed, produces the second sound of the heartbeat `dup`
The ventricular wall remains relaxed and the atrioventricular valves remain closed.
No blood flows in and out of the ventricles at this time
Meanwhile, blood from vena cavae and pulmonary veins
continue to flow into both right and left atria
The next excitation wave from SAN triggers the atrial systole of the next cardiac cycle

Describe the initiation and regulation of heart beat

 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG)
Definition of Electrocardiogram -
o ECG is a record or display of a person's heartbeat produced MedicineNet
by electrocardiography.
An ECG is a simple, noninvasive
o It is a record of electrical wave caused by atrial systole (P), ventricular procedure. Electrodes are placed
systole (QRS) and the start of ventricular diastole (T).The cardiac muscle on the skin of the chest and
contracts as a result of electrical stimulation . connected in a specific order to a
machine that, when turned on,
o Certain heart defects produce a modified trace and this makes the measures electrical activity all over
ECG a useful diagnostic tool the heart. Output usually appears
on a long scroll of paper that
displays a printed graph of activity
on a computer screen

Electrocardiogram Interpretation - The Basics

 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

Normal ECG

(c) Describe the initiation and

8.1c Control of heartbeat
regulation of heart beat

1 The contraction of the cardiac muscle is stimulated and controlled by a specialised nodal tissues in the wall
of the right atrium of the heart called the sinoatrial node (SAN). Therefore, the cardiac muscle is myogenic,
as the nodal tissues trigger and control the strength and the speed of contraction

2. The second nodal tissue is the atrioventricular node (avn ), located in the centre of the heart, between the atria
and ventricles.

3. Connected to the AVN is AV bundle and AV bundle is than connected to the left and right bundles of His
which then continue to form Purkinje fibres that stretches across the base of ventricular septum and penetrate
the entire ventricular wall .***
Sinoatrial
node (SAN) …
4. Electrical impulses from the SA node first spread rapidly through the walls is specialised
of the atria, causing both atria to contract. tissue, located
in the wall of
5. During atrial contraction, the electrical impulses originating at the SA node reach other the right
specialised autorhythmic tissue located in the wall between the left and right atria. atrium near
the point
These tissue form a relay point called the atrioventricular node (AVN). Here the where the
impulses are delayed for about 0.1 second before spreading to the heart apex superior vena
This delay allows the atria to empty completely before the ventricles contract. cava enters
the heart
Act as
6. Then the impulses/excitation wave from the AVN are conducted to the heart apex and throughout pacemaker
the ventricular walls by specialized muscle fibers called bundle of His and Function –
Purkinje fibers in the the inter-ventricular septum. The excitation is passed to the generates
electrical
apex of the heart and then through the ventricle walls. signals (wave
of excitation)
7. This causes the ventricles to contract from the base upwards ensuring that the blood and timing at
which all the
is forced up and out in the vessels(pulmonary artery and aorta ) leaving the heart.
cardiac
muscle cells
contract
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

Figure 42.9 The control of heart rhythm. The sequence of electrical events in the heart is shown at the top; red highlights
specialized muscle cells involved in the electrical control of the rhythm. The corresponding components of an
electrocardiogram (ECG) are highlighted at the bottom in yellow. In step 4, the portion of the ECG to the right of the “spike”
represents electrical activity that reprimes the ventricles for the next round of contraction

Regulation of heatbeat

*SAN or pacemaker sets the tempo (rhythm) for the entire heart (70-80 beats per min) but it also is
influenced by a variety of physiological cues such as nervous system and hormones

1. The rate of the heartbeat can be affected by nervous system or hormonal control thro` the control centre,
located in the medulla of the brain. The centre is called a cardiovascular centre.

2. The cardiovascular centre divided into two region ,

a) cardiac inhibitory centre – inhibit / slows down the heartbeat

b) cardiac accelerator centre – increases the heartbeat

3. The cardiac inhibitory centre – connected to the SAN (heart) by parasympathetic nerve (vagus) .
and cardiac acceleratory centre – connected to the SAN (heart) by sympathetic nerve
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

Cardiovascular centre
(in medulla of the brain)

4. The sinoartriol nodes (SAN) that initiate the heartbeat on its own rhythym but the heart rate may be modified
by extrinsic factors such as the nervous system
.
5. The sympathetic nerve speeds up the pacemaker (SAN) , increases the heart rate and the stroke volume
by releasing noradrenaline, as a result of receiving impulse from the stretch receptors of the vena cava

Example ;
 When we exercise or under emergency condition/angry/ frightened
 more blood is sent back to the heart
 stretching the receptors in the vena cava, impulse sent to cardiac accelerator centre,
 sympathetic nerve transmit impulses to SAN, increase the rate of the heartbeat
 this adaptation /activity enables the circulatory system to provide the additional O2 needed by the muscles
that are powering the activity / condition

6. The parasympathetic (vagus) nerve slows down the heart rate and lowers the strength of contraction
(by releasing the acetylcholine), as a result from stimulation of stretch receptors in the aorta and carotid
arteries. happens after exercise or emergency condition when the heartbeat already increased. It restore
the heartbeat to the normal resting state.

 also inhibit adrenals directly to stop epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine ( noradrenaline)

7. Hormones
Certain hormones secreted into the blood by specific glands also influence activity of SAN ( pacemaker)

Example ;

(a) Adrenaline (epinephrine ) – the` fight and flight` hormone., secreted by the adrenal gland, increases
the heart rate . (This hormone is produced when we exercise or under stress)
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

(b) thyroxin – secreted by thyroid gland, increases the basal metabolic rate of the body especially
when in cold

8. Temperature
SAN is also affected by the rise in body temperature

Example ;

An increase of only 1°C of body temperature , raises the heart rate by about 10 beats per minute.
This is the reason your heart beats faster when you have a fever.

.
d) Explain hypertension, , atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis and, and state their causes and preventions;

Cardiovascular diseases ..

All diseases related to the heart and the circulatory system of human.
The major causes of death in many countries
Causes of hypertension
The diseases are hypertension, arteriosclerosis, angina pectoris, myocardial infarction..
i. In short term, it occurs because of
Hypertension
contraction of smooth muscle in the wall of
arteries and arterioles. This may happen
o because
is a condition
of anwhen arterial
increase blood
in the pressure is
concerntration
persistently
of elevated
the hormone abovein140/90
adrenaline at rest
the blood

o ii. Blood pressure

atheroma of a normal
- narrowed personHeart
arteries. is 120/70
pump( systolic
pressure/diastolic pressure)
blood forcefully to maintain blood flow . The
blood pressure exerted on the artery walls
o builds
Hypertension
up. can result in arteries rupture.

iii. a) higher
hardeningrisk of
of the
getting haemorrhaging
artery wall – loose stroke – i.e
bursting of cerebral arteries
elasticity. Result in higher blood resulting in paralysis of
pressure
the body or may cause the death for a serious stroke.
exerted on the artery wall Excesses smoking
b) heart attack /myocardial infarction
iv. Alcohol consumption
- if occurs the coronary artery
- heart muscle will be deprived of oxygen supply
v. - cause
Salt diediet
in the if serious

vi. cholesterol-rich food consumption

c) Higher risk of getting arteriosclerosis
vii. genetic factor
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

PREVENTION

 Avoiding high calorie, high salt food, smoking,

alcohol
 Maintaining healthy life style.

Artherosclerosis and Arteriosclerosis

Artherosclerosis is a thickening of the inner layers of arterial walls

 with deposits of cholesterol, fibrous tissue, dead muscle cells and blood platelets
 these deposits are reffered to as artheromatous plaque or artheroma. It then becomes calcified and
hardened .
 The deposition on the surface of the artery walls causes the lumen to become narrow
As an artheroma enlarges, it bulges into the lumen of the vessel, causing it to narrow and so reducing the blolod
flow. The heart has to pump blood more forcefully through the arteries and therefore the patient gets tired easily
 If the plaque breaks the inner lining wall of the artery and penetrates into the lumen – triggers the formation of
blood clot or thrombus. The large blood clot can block the blood in the artery
 If coronary artery is affected, supplying blood to the heart muscle may be blocked, causes fatal heart attack or
myocardial infarction.

Arteriosclerosis

 Is the hardening of the arteries by accumulation of fatty deposits

 Developed from artherosclerosis
 The plaque may be is hardened by the deposit of Ca2+
 is commonly accompanied by hypertension and if not treated can cause heart attacks due to a lack of supply of
blood to the heart

Myocardial infaction - Is a form of heart attack in which coronaryThe otherismain

artery function
blocked is that ofdeath of a part
resulting
of heart tissue as no oxygen is sent there. defense in the immune system. Lymph
is very similar to blood plasma: it
contains lymphocytes and other white
blood cells. It also contains waste
(e) Describe the lymphatic system in relation to the blood products circulatory
and cellularsystem
debris together
with bacteria and proteins. Associated
organs composed of lymphoid tissue
are the sites of lymphocyte production.
The lymphatic system in relation to the blood circulatory system Lymphocytes are concentrated in the
lymph nodes. The spleen and the
The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system and a vital part of the immune system,
thymus comprising
are also lymphoida organs
network of of
lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph (from Latin, lympha meaning thewater) directionally
immune towards
system. The tonsilsthe
are
heart. lymphoid organs that are also
associated with the digestive system.
Lymphoid tissues contain lymphocytes,
and also contain other types of cells
for support. The system also includes
all the structures dedicated to the
circulation and production of
lymphocytes (the primary cellular
component of lymph), which also
includes the bone marrow, and the
lymphoid tissue associated with the
digestive system.
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

The human`s lymphatic system

TYPE OF LYMPHATIC VESSELS

VESSEL FUNCTION

Thoracic Drain most lymph fluid

duct from the lower
extremities, the
abdomen,the left arm,
the left side of the head
and the neck to the
subclavian vein

Right Drain lymph fluid from

lymphatic right arm and head to
duct the subclavian vein

Lymphatic Takes up fluid which has

capillary diffused from interstitial
fluid which has not been
reabsorbed by the blood
capillaries

Interstitial fluid
FUNCTIONS
 Fluid that filters out of capillaries into spaces
1. To returns of tissue fluid back to the between tissue cells is called interstitial fluid.
circulatory system (blood) in the form
of lymph  It is a liquid that surrounds all cells, substances
like carbon dioxide and are exchanged through it.
2. Lymph nodes found along the ducts
produce lymphocytes and filter  It has a similar composition to blood, except for
bacteria and other foreign bodies to larger proteins which are too big. A basic outline
prevent them from entering the blood of the capillary is shown below along with the
pressure changes through it.
3. To absorbed fatty acids and glycerol
from villi of the small intestine by  Interstitial fluid enters lymph capillaries and is
lacteals called lymph; vessels called lymphatics return
lymph to the blood.
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

The Relationship Between the Cardiovascular

and Lymphatic Systems

Determine the direction of fluid movement at the arterial and venous ends of
the capillaries by calculating the differences between osmotic pressure/solute
potential and hydrostatic pressure.
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

 A positive net filtration pressure

refers to a condition that favors
the movement of fluid out of the
capillary lumen and into the
surrounding interstitial fluid (i.e.,
fluid filtration out of the capillary)

 A negative net filtration pressure

refers to a condition that favors
the movement of surrounding
interstitial fluid into the capillary
lumen (i.e., fluid absorption into
the capillary)

Example :

Filtration pressure = Net hydrostatic pressure + net osmotic pressure

Filtration pressure = 13mmHg + (-20mmHg)

= -7mmHg

( * the fluid move from interstitial fluid into the blood capillary )

Eg Calculate the net filtration pressure at the arterial end and venous end.
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

i) Calculate the net filtration pressure at the arterial end and venous end.

ii) State the conclusion of the exchange of fluid across capillary at the arterial end and at venous end. [2m]

Arterial end :
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Venous end :
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

b) State the functions of lymphatic capillary in the diagram. [2m]

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………....................................................................

c) i) Name the structure that allows the mixture of lymph fluid and blood plasma. [1m]

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………...............…………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii) Describe one characteristic of lymphatic capillary. [1m]

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…...............
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………...............
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………..………....
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

8.2 : TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN PLANTS

Transport system in plants

Learning outcome ;
(a) explain the uptake of water and mineral ions from the soil by the root hairs involving water potential;
(b) describe the apoplast, symplast and vacuolar pathway of water movement through the root tissues;
(c) describe the root pressure, cohesion-tension theory and transpiration pull in relation to water movement from
the roots to leaves;
(d) explain translocation using the mass flow, electro-osmosis, cytoplasmic streaming and peristaltic waves
hypotheses;
(e) explain the concept of source and sink, and phloem loading and unloading in translocation according to
pressure flow hypothesis

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN PLANTS

a) Transport of water and mineral

b) Transport of organic substances

Explain the uptake of water and mineral ions from the soil by the root hairs involving
water potential

Route of Water Movement in Plant

Tissues
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

3. Transpiration –creates
transpiration pull which pull
water up to the shoot

2. Movement of water upwards in

the xylem – adhesion and
cohesion properties of water –
formation of water column

1. uptake of water and mineral

ions from soil by the root hairs –
creates root pressure

1. Absorption of water by root hairs, epidermis and transport through the cortex

Much of absorption occurs

near the root tips where the
epidermis is permeable to
water and where root hairs
provide a large surface
area per volume ratio for the
absorption of water and
minerals.

Cross section of a plant root

1. Water is absorbed from the soil by root hairs and other epidermal cells through osmosis

 Water is absorbed into the root hairs through osmosis as a result of different water potential between two
regions. The root hair has a lower water potential compared to the water molecules in the soil solution due
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

to the higher concentration of dissolved substances such as sugars and other metabolites ( from leaves
photosynthesise ) .

 Therefore, water molecules move from soil solution into the cell vacuoles
 From the root hairs, water enters and pass through the root cortex which comprises of parenchyma cells

2. Water route from the cortex to the xylem vessels .

Water movement in the cortex may occur by the three routes

a) The apoplast pathway

b) The symplast pathway
c) The vacoular pathway

a) Apoplast pathway

o Water moves across spaces between the cellulose fibres of the cell wall from one cell to another
o until reaches the endodermis
o The cohesive forces between water molecules enable the stream of water to be pulled along the apoplast
pathway

b) symplast pathway

o Water diffuses from cytoplasm of one cell to cytoplasm of another cells by osmosis
o Through the plasmodesmata
o down a water potential gradient

c) vacoular pathway

o Water moves from a sap vacuole of one cell to a sap vacuoles of another cell
o through the plasma membrane and also through plasmodesmata
o Down a water potential gradient (by osmosis ) to reach the xylem vessel

A - The apoplast pathway

B - The symplast pathway
C - The vacoular pathway

* Continuous discharge of water from the cells of the cortex into the xylem vessels of the root produces an osmotic
gradient, which is needed for water to be absorbed from one parenchyma cell to the next in the root

3. Water route from the cortex to the xylem vessels

 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

[ Osmotic pressure created in leaves due to transpiration produces a suction power, called transpiration pull

This pulling force causes water to be sucked into xylem vessels

Root pressure also known to be responsible for pushing water upwards along the stem ]

o Water crosses the endodermal cells which lie next to the parenchyma cells on the inner side of the cortex
o The endodermal cell has a special feature called the Casparian strip, a lining that is made of suberin
(waterproof waxy material) around the radial and horizontal walls of the cell which is impermeable to water
and ions.
o It blocks the water passing along the cell walls (apoplast pathway) and thus water has to move through the
cytoplasm (symplast pathway) in the endodermis
o water has to cross over actively from the parenchyma cortical cells into the xylem vessels through the
cytoplasm of the endodermal cells – symplast pathway.
o Water from root cells are drawn into the xylem, and produces a hydrostatic pressure known as root pressure
o This pulling force causes water to be sucked into xylem vessels
o Root pressure also known to be responsible for pushing water upwards along the stem
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

4. Movement of water upwards in the xylem

The upward movement of water through the

xylem vessels can be explained by

a) the root pressure

b) the cohesion-tension theory of transpiration
c) the transpiration pull

 In plants, capillarity is due to the adhesive and cohesive

forces.

 The adhesive forces between water molecules and the

hydrophilic surface of the cellulose cell walls of narrow
xylem vessels

 The cohesive forces holding the water molecules to

each other in the water column ( hydrogen bond )

 With the cohesion, water molecules form continuous water

column in the xylem vessel

 Adhesion between water molecules and the hydrophilic

xylem walls prevent water column from moving down

 Continuity of the water column formed will not break unless

overcome by gravitational pull

 Whenever water in the mesophyll cells of , leaf cells will absorb water from the vascular tissues in the veins of
the leaf

 This will cause negative pressure in the water inside the xylem, and thus more water is continuously pulled into
the mesophyll cells to replace the water lost

 This pulling force is known as transpiration pull

Adhesion and
cohesion
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

Evaporation by leaf
creates transpiration
pull

Cohesion-Tension or Transpiration-Cohesion
Theory.
Transpiration pull
This explains that the upward movement of water is
mainly due to the creation of a negative force or
tension attributed to the continuous evaporation of
water at the surfaces of leaves in the process of
transpiration.

As molecule after molecule of water evaporates

through the stomata, it creates a pulling action on
the next molecules of water in the transpiration
stream.

This pulling force, otherwise called transpiration

pull, is strong enough to overcome the force of
gravity which is responsible for the tendency of
water to move downward.

The transpiration pull is similar to the suction force

Root pressure
when drinking some fluid from a bottle or glass with
a straw. Water can also be sucked into a pippette
with the use of an ordinary rubber aspirator or with a
common medicine dropper.
a. transpirational pull
 depends on negative pressure
 water evaporates from mesophyll cell into intercellular space
 water vapor in intercellular spaces diffuses into atmosphere by transpiration through stomata
 lost water vapor is replaced by evaporation from other mesophylls cells, this reduced water potential in
mesophyll cell
 this tension causes water to be pulled from xylem through mesophyll, towards surface film on cells bordering
the stomata
 bulk flow of water through xylem cells occurs as molecules evaporate from leaf; therefore, as one water
molecule evaporates from leaf, it pulls all the other water molecules up along behind it // it creates
transpirational pull in xylem

b. cohesion and adhesion of water

 allows for transpirational pull to occur
 cohesion between water molecules due to H-bonding allows
 one cell to pull “chain” of cells behind it
 adhesion of water (via H-bonding) to hydrophilic cell walls of xylem cells also helps pull against gravity
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

 small diameter of tracheids and vessels is important to adhesion results in capillary action
 movement of liquids in narrow tubes
 capillary action makes small contribution unless coupled with transpirational pull
 upward pull of sap causes tension in xylem, decreases Ψ, and allows passive flow soil to stele
 flowing water via capillary action forms a meniscus in xylem
 Water vapor diffuses from the moist air spaces of the leaf to the drier air outside via stomata. Evaporation
from the water film coating the mesophyll cells maintains the high humidity of the air spaces. This loss of
water causes the water film to form menisci that
 become more and more concave as the rate of transpiration increases. A meniscus has a tension that is
inversely proportional to the radius of the curved water surface.
 Thus, as the water film recedes and its menisci become more concave, the tension of the water film
increase. Tension is a negative pressure, a force that pulls water from locations where
 hydrostatic pressure is greater. The tension of water lining the air spaces of the physical basis of
transpirational pull, which draws water out of xylem.
 actively flowing water in xylem tissues never forms
 meniscus because there is continuously flowing water

a) Explain translocation using the mass flow, electro-osmosis,

TRANSLOCATION.
cytoplasmic streaming and peristaltic waves hypotheses;

b) Explain the concept of source and sink, and phloem loading and
unloading in translocation according to pressure flow hypothesis.

Is a process by which organic substances such as sucrose is transported from source (leaves) to the other
parts of plant or sink by phloem sieve tubes

Translocation is the movement of organic solutes e.g. sucrose and amino acids from the leaves (source) to the
sieve tubes to be carried to other parts of the plant (sink)

SOURCE…

A source is a region in the plant where photosynthesis occurs and organic solutes are synthesised
• E.g. green leaves of plants, tuber (carrot, potato), paddy
• Organic solutes for example sucrose and amino acids are then loaded into the sieve tubes

SINK …

A sink is an area where organic solutes is unloaded from the sieve tube
• Examples of sink are growing shoot and root regions, developing flowers, fruits, and storage organs such
There are as
fourtubers
hypothesis for the mechanism of translocation ;
and bulbs

1. Mass flow hypothesis /pressure flow hyphothesis

2. Cytoplasmic streaming hypothesis
3. Electro osmosis hypothesis
4. Peristaltic wave hypothesis
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

1) Mass flow hypothesis or Pressure flow hypothesis.

o Organic solutes (e.g. sucrose) are actively transported from mesophyll cells of the leaves by companion cell
into the sieve tube elements of phloem

o Hydrogen ions are pumped out of sieve tube, producing a proton gradient that drives the uptake of sugar
through specific channels by cotransport of proton back into sieve tube

o The solute (sugar) therefore accumulates in the sieve tube at the source, decreasing the water potential of
the sieve tubes.

o As a result, water move by osmosis from the xylem vessels (leaf ) into the sieve tubes, along the water
potential gradient

o The increase in hydrostatic pressure( becomes turgor pressure) at source drives the phloem sap down the
pressure gradient (passive mass flow of water and solutes) from the source to the sink where turgor
pressure is lower there

o This is known as pressure flow or mass flow

o At the sink (e.g. roots), sugar is unloaded by active transport into the tissues for cellular respiration, the
synthesis of cellulose cell wall or the change into starch of storage

o With the loss of sugar, the water potential in the sieve tube increases

o Therefore, water moves out of the sieve tube by osmosis and into surrounding ( mostly into xylem
vessel) where the water potential is more negative

o From xylem , water is transported upward assist by transpiration pulls from shoot

Alternative hypothesis

 The mass flow hypothesis is not enough to explain translocation in phloem

 The hypothesis cannot explain the two-way translocation in phloem, but instead advocates one-way
translocation
 The sieve plate is a hindrance to mass flow
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

Overall processes

Transpiration pull
Source

Sink
Pressure flow

2. Electro-osmosis hypothesis

 Potassium ions are actively transported from the companion cell into sieve tube against its concentration
gradient
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

 As a result, potassium accumulates in the sieve tube and increases the positive charge in the sieve tube.
Potassium ions from one side of sieve plate of the sieve tube then are secreted on the other side.

 An electrochemical potential difference is created across the sieve plate . The potential difference causes the
positive charged potassium ions to move across the sieve plate .

 As the positive ions move across, so water and dissolved sucrose which are attracted by the positive ions
( water is bipolar molecule) together move across the sieve pores into the adjacent sieve tube. Acct water
move by osmosis

 Positive ions easily pass from the upper cell to the lower one through the sieve plate However negative ion
tend to accumulate in the upper side of the sieve plates

 When the concentration of negative ions reach a certain critical value, potassium ion are transported actively
from companion cells into the sieve tube

 This result in the movement of negative ions across the sieve plate into the cell below then the potassium
ion transported back into the companion cells and the process is repeated.

Also unaccepted because :

~ cannot explain the diff. rates of diff subs. In the same time
~ This process only observed in a certain plant

B) In Electro-Osmosis Mechanism:
 potential diff develops across sieve plate
 by companion cell (actively transport K+ into sieve tube).
 K+ accumulate at one end of sieve plate 
 creates a potential diff between sieve plate.
 caused K+ speed across sieve plate
 water + dissolved sucrose follow (attracted by +ve charge).
 water in phloem moves by osmosis 
 accumulation of K+ lower the water potential in sieve tube compared to next cell.
 The potassium ion are actively transported back into companion cell.

3. Cytoplasmic streaming hypothesis

 Suggested that solutes (sucrose) might be transported by streaming along the cytoplasmic strands and
the energy provided by the sieve tubes or the companion cells
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

 involves a circular movement of water and dissolve substances in sieve tube element in one direction

 the solution diffuse passively through the cytoplasmic strand from one sieve tube to the neighbouring sieve
tube down the concentration through the sieve pore

 Also can flows from one sieve tube to another against concentration by actively transport through
cytoplasmic streaming

 Energy needed is supplied by companion cells

 This hypothesis explain the both way flow of substances event at the same times.

Unaccepted because ;
o Only observed in a certain plant / cannot be observed in mature sieve tube.
o Cannot explain the different rates of the different substances within the sieve tube in the
same times the flow is very slow, takes several days to transport from leaves to roots

Munch's "Pressure Flow" model (1927):

Mass or pressure flow hypothesis proposed by Munch has enjoyed wider acceptance. The general
agreement with this view is due to certain experimental evidences.

 A membranous bag a filled with a lot of sucrose or other organic compounds and another
membranous bag B-filled with just water are interconnected with a narrow bent glass tube.

 The bags are immersed in two interconnected troughs filled with water. As soon as the bag A is
immersed in water, water from the trough rushes into the membranous bag A and push the liquid
from A towards B for bag A is filled with water only.

 Munch's model best describes the movement in the phloem. His model suggests that there is a
turgor-pressure gradient that drives the directional mass flow of the solutes and water through sieve
4. Peristaltic wave hypothesis
tubes of the phloem
 Sieve tube element is filled with fine cytoplasmic strands. Continuous from one sieve tube to the next and
passing through the pores of sieve plate
In Peristaltic Wave Mechanism:
 The cytoplasmic strands contain phloem sap (dissolved
substances) .  sieve tube is filled with fine
cytoplasmic filaments
 In the peristaltic mechanism, the stands constrict and  continuous from sieve tube to the
relax alternately , pushing the phloem sap from one sieve next
to the next.  thru pores of sieve plate.
 At first constriction, solute / phloem sap is pushed  contain phloem sap tube constrict +
forwards. In second constriction, the phloem sap is relax alternately
pushed forwards further and the first point constriction  pushing sap from one sieve tube to
relaxes. the next.
 constriction + relaxation/peristaltic
 the rhythmic constriction and relaxation produces movement form a pattern of wave =
peristaltic waves and facilitate the movement of phloem peristaltic wave
sap (solutes) in phloem sieve tube.  can be at diff speed + in

 The constriction use metabolic energy , ATP

 It has
 been
This cansuggested that the subs
be demonstrated move
with an in different
osmometer speed and
permeable direction
only with
to water thewith
filled same sieve tube
a high
concentration of solutes in one arm as shown below.
 This hypothesis explains movement of substances at different rate in opposite direction
 When the osmometer is put in distilled water, the water potential is less than that of surrounding
water in the one arm, and water will enter by osmosis which the generates a turgor pressure,

 The solutes are carried by bulk flow when the water moves in. Eventually this process will stop
when the pressure throughout equalizes.

 http://www2.mcdaniel.edu/
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

SAMPLE OF QUESTION

1. a) Describe how the lymphatic system complements the blood circulatory system. [7]

b) Explain the concept of pressure flow in transport system of vascular plants. [8]

(a) Describe how the lymphatic system complements the blood circulatory system.
 Chapter 8 : Transport in Animals and Plants

1. Blood plasma is forced out into the interstitial space at the arteriole capillary junction.
2. The blood plasma then forms the tissue fluid.
3. A large amount of the tissue fluid is reabsorbed at the venule end and returns to the blood flow
4. However a small amount of the tissue fluid diffuses into the lymphatic capillaries and is
transported as lymph
5. the lymph is transported along the lymphatic vessels, lymphatic duct and finally to the subclavian
veins
6. at the subclavian vein lymph is emptied into the blood circulatory system
7. Upon digestion fat soluble nutrients such as fatty acids, glycerol, Vitamins A, D, E & K diffuse into
the lacteal
8. Lacteal is a lymphatic capillary/ Nutrients are transported by the lymphatic system
9. These nutrients are returned to the blood circulatory system at the subclavian vein.
10. Lymph nodes in lymphatic system trap and filter the lymph from pathogen
11. Lymph nodes are rich with lymphocytes that help destroy the pathogen
12. This helps the blood circulatory system to maintain health and prevent infections

Explain the concept of pressure flow in transport system of vascular plants.

1. Glucose is synthesized during photosynthesis in the mesophyll cells of green leaves.

2. Some glucose is converted into sucrose.

3. The sucrose is actively transported to the companion cells of the phloem tissue

4. The sucrose diffuses through the plasmodesmata from the companion cells to the sieve tube
elements.

5. As concentration of sucrose increases, water diffuses by osmosis from the nearby xylem

6. This increases the hydrostatic pressure of the sieve tube elements.

7. Hydrostatic pressure moves the sucrose through the sieve tube cells, towards a sink.

8. The phloem sugar is removed by the cortex of root, and is used for cellular respiration or
converted into starch for storage

9. Osmotic concentration of the contents of phloem decreases.

10. As a result, water diffuses out of the sieve tube cells by osmosis into nearby xylem vessels,
lowering the hydrostatic pressure within them.

11. So a pressure gradient is established due to the diffusion of sugars into the sieve tube
elements at the source and removal of sucrose at the sink.