PROCESS CONTROL

FINAL CONTROL
Prepared by: Prof M N Bhusavalwala

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1.INTRODUCTION
In a typical process-control application, the measurement and evaluation of some process variable are carried out by a low-energy analog or digital representation of the variable. The control signal that carries feedback information back to the process for necessary corrective action is expressed by the same low level of representation. In general, the controlled process itself may involve a high-energy condition, such as the flow of thousands of cubic meters of liquid or several hundred thousand Newton hydraulic forces, as in a steel rolling mill. The function of the final control element is to translate low-energy control signals into a level of action commensurate with the process under control. This can be considered an amplification of the control signal, although in many cases the signal is also converted into an entirely different form.

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INTRODUCTIONCONTD
In this chapter, the general concepts to implement the final control element function are presented together with specific examples in several areas of process control. A sensor used to measure some variable in a process-control application should have negligible effect on the process itself. It follows that sensor selection is based mainly on required measurement specifications and necessary protections (of the sensor) from harmful effects of the process environment. In sensor selection, the process-control technologist need not have intimate knowledge of the mechanisms of the process itself. The process-control technologist should have sufficient background on the final control element and its associated signal conditioning to know how such devices interface with preceding process controllers and transducers.

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2.FINAL CONTROL OPERATION

Final control element operations involve the steps necessary to convert the control signal (generated by a process controller) into proportional action on the process itself. Thus, to use a typical 4-20 mA control signal to vary a large flow rate from, say, 10.0 m3/min to 50.0 m3/min certainly requires some intermediate operations. The specific intermediate operations vary considerably depending on the process control design, but certain generalizations can be made regarding the steps leading Fig.1 Elements of final control operation from the control signal to the final control element. For a typical process-control application the conversion of a process-controller signal to a control function can be represented by the steps shown in Figure 1. The input control signal may take many forms, including an electric current, digital signal, or pneumatic pressure
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2.FINAL CONTROL OPERATION contd.

Signal conversions
This step refers to the modifications that must be made to the control signal to properly interface with the next stage of control, that is, the actuator. Thus, if a valve control element is to be operated by an electric motor actuator, then a 4-20 mA dc control signal must be modified to operate the motor. If a dc motor is used, modification might be current-to-voltage conversion and amplification.

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2.FINAL CONTROL OPERATION CONTD.

Actuators
The results of signal conversions provide an amplified and/or converted signal that is designed to operate (actuate) a mechanism that changes a controlling variable in the process. The direct effect is usually implemented by something in the process such as a valve or heater that must be operated by some device. The actuator is a translation of the (converted) control signal into action on the control element. If a valve is to be operated, then the actuator is device that converts the control signal into physical action of opening or closing the valve.

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2.FINAL CONTROL OPERATION CONTD.

Control operation
Finally , we get to the final control element itself. This device has direct influence on the process dynamic variable and is designed as an integral part of the process. If flow is to be controlled, then the control element, a valve, must be built directly into the flow system. If temperature is to be controlled, then some mechanism or control element that has a direct influence on temperature must be involved in the process. This could be a heater/cooler combination that is electrically actuated by relays or a pneumatic valve to control influx of reactants.

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2.FINAL CONTROL OPERATION contd.

Fig.2 A process control system

showing the final control operation
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2.FINAL CONTROL OPERATION contd.

Control operation
In Figure 2, a control system is shown to control the degree of baking of, say, crackers, as determined by the cracker color. The optical measurement system produces a 4-20 mA conditioned signal that is an analog representation of cracker color (and, therefore, proper baking). The controller compares the measurement to a set point and outputs a 420 mA signal that regulates the conveyer belt feed motor speed to adjust baking time. The final control operation is then represented by a signal conversion that transforms the 4-20 mA signal into 50-100 volt signal as required for motor speed control. The motor itself is the actuator, and the conveyer belt assembly is the control element.

Fig.2 A process control system

showing the final control operation
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3. SIGNAL CONVERSIONS
The principal objective of signal conversion is to convert the low-energy control signal to a high-energy signal to drive the actuator. Controller output signals are typically in one of three forms: (1) electrical current, usually 4-20 mA, (2) pneumatic pressure, usually 3-15 psi, (3) digital signals, usually TTL level voltages in serial or parallel format. There are many different schemes for conversion of these signals to other forms depending on the desired final form and evolving technology. You should always be receptive to the advances of technology and the new subsequent methods of signal conditioning and conversion.
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3.1 ANALOG ELECTRICAL SIGNAL

Many of the methods of analog signal conditioning are used in conversions necessary for final control. The following paragraphs summarize some of the more common approaches. Relays A common conversion is to use the controller signal to activate a relay when simple on/off or two-position is sufficient. In some cases, the low-current signal is insufficient to drive a heavy industrial relay, and an amplifier is used to boost the control signal to a level sufficient to do the job. Amplifiers High-power ac or dc amplifiers often can provide the necessary conversion of the low-energy control signal to a high-energy form. Such amplifiers may serve for motor control, heat control, light-level control, and a host of other industrial needs.
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3.1 ANALOG ELECTRICAL SIGNAL

Motor control
Many motor control circuits are designed as packaged units that accept a low- level dc signal directly to control motor speed. If such a system is not available, it is possible to build circuits using amplifiers and SCRs or TRIACs to perform this control.

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EXAMPLE:1

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EXAMPLE:1

Fig.3 An op Amp circuit to provide the signal conditioning requirements of example.1

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3.2 DIGITAL ELECTRICAL SIGNALS

On/off control
There are many cases in process control where the control algorithm is accomplished by simple commands to outside equipment to change speed, turn on (or off), move up, and so on. In such cases, the computer can simply load a latched output line with a 1 or 0 as appropriate. Then it is a simple matter to use this signal to close a relay or activate some other outside circuit. DAC When the digital output must provide a smooth control, as it does in valve positioning, the computer must provide an input to a DAC that then determines an appropriate analog output. When a computer must provide outputs to many final control elements, a data output module or system such as that described in Chapter 3 can be employed. These integrated modules contain channel addressing, DAC, and other required elements of a selfcontained output interface system.

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EXAMPLE :2

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3.2 DIGITAL ELECTRICAL SIGNALS:DIRECT ACTION

As the use of digital and computer techniques in process control becomes more widespread, new methods of final control have been developed that can be actuated directly by the computer. Thus, a stepping motor, to be discussed later, interfaces very easily to the digital signals that a computer outputs. In another development, special integrated circuits are made that reside within the final control element and allow the digital signal to be connected directly.

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3.3 PNEUMATIC SIGNALS

The general field of pneumatics covers a broad spectrum of applications of gas pressure to industrial needs. One of the most common applications is to provide a force by the gas pressure acting on a piston or diaphragm. we are interested in pneumatics as a means of propagating information, that is, as a signal carrier, and how that signal can be converted to other forms of signals. In a pneumatic system, information is carried by the pressure of gas in a pipe. If we have a pipe of any length and raise the pressure of gas in one end, this increase in pressure will propagate down the pipe until the pressure throughout is raised to the new value. The pressure signal travels down the pipe at a speed in the range of the speed of sound in the gas (say, air), which is about 330 m/s(1082 ft/s)
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3.3 PNEUMATIC SIGNALS

If a transducer varies gas pressure at one end of a 330-meter pipe (about 360 yards) in response to some controlled variable, then that same pressure occurs at the other end of the pipe after a delay of approximately 1 second. For many process-control installations, this delay time is of no consequence, although it is very slow compared to an electrical signal. This type of signal propagation was used for many years in process control before electrical/electronic technology advanced to a level of reliability and safety to enable its use with confidence.

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3.3 PNEUMATIC SIGNALS

Pneumatics is still employed in many installations either because of danger to electrical equipment or as a carryover from previous years, where conversion to electrical methods would not be cost effective. In general, pneumatic signals are carried with dry air as the gas where signal information has been adjusted to lie within the range of 3-15 psi. In SI unit systems, the range of 20-100 kPa is used.

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3.3 PNEUMATIC SIGNALS:AMPLIFICATION

A pneumatic amplifier, also called a booster or relay, raises the pressure and/or air flow volume by some linearly proportional amount from the input signal. Thus, if the booster has a pressure gain of 10, the output would be 30150 psi for an input of 315 psi. This is accomplished via a regulator that is activated by the control signal. A schematic diagram of one type of pressure booster is shown in Fig.4. As the signal pressure varies, the diaphragm motion will move the plug in the body block of the booster. If motion is down, the gas leak is reduced and pressure in the output line is increased. The device shown is reverse acting because a high-signal pressure will cause output pressure to decrease. Many other designs are used.
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Fig.4 A pneumatic amplifier or booster converts the signal pressure to a higher pressure or the same pressure but with greater gas volume. 21

3.3 PNEUMATIC SIGNALS: NOZZLE / FLAPPER SYSTEM

A very important signal conversion is from pressure to mechanical motion and vice versa. This conversion can be provided by a nozzle/flapper system . A diagram of this device is shown in Fig.a. A regulated supply of pressure, usually over 20 psig, provides a source of air through the restriction. The nozzle is open at the end where the gap exists between the nozzle and flapper, and air escapes in this region. If the flapper moves down and closes off the nozzle opening so that no air leaks, the signal pressure will rise to the supply pressure. As the flapper moves away, the signal pressure will drop because of the leaking gas. Finally, when the flapper is far away, the pressure will stabilize at some value determined by the maximum leak through the nozzle.
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3.3 PNEUMATIC SIGNALS: NOZZLE / FLAPPER SYSTEM

Figure b shows the relationship between signal pressure and gap distance. Note the great sensitivity in the central region. A nozzle/flapper is designed to operate in the central region where the slope of the line is the greatest . In this region, the response will be such that a very small motion of the flapper can change the pressure by an appreciable magnitude.

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3.3 PNEUMATIC SIGNALS: I TO

The current-to-pressure converter, or simply I/P converter, is a very important element in process control. Often, when we want to use the low-level electric current signal to do work, it is much easier to let the work be done by a pneumatic signal. The I/P converter gives us a linear way of translating the 4-20 mA current into a 3-15 psig signal. There are many designs for these converters, but the basic principle almost always involves the use of a nozzle/flapper system.

P CONVERTER

Fig.6 Principles of a current-to-pressure converter.

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3.3 PNEUMATIC SIGNALS: I TO

P CONVERTER

Fig.6 illustrates a simple way to construct such a converter. Notice that the current through a coil produces a force that will tend to pull the flapper down and close off the gap. A high current produces a high pressure so that the device is direct acting. Adjustment of the springs and perhaps the position relative to the pivot to which they are attached allows the unit to be calibrated so that 4 mA corresponds to 3 psig and 20 mA corresponds to 15 psig. Fig.6 Principles of a current-to-pressure
converter.

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4. ACTUATORS
If a valve is used to control fluid flow, some mechanism must physically open or close the valve. If a heater is to warm a system, some device must turn the heater ON or OFF or vary its excitation. These are examples of the requirement of an actuator in the process-control loop. Notice the distinction of this device from both the input control signal and the control element itself (valve, heater, and so on, as shown in Fig.1). Actuators take on many diverse forms to suit the particular requirements of process-control loops. We will consider several types of electrical and pneumatic actuators.

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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS

In the following slides a short description of several common types of electrical actuators is given. Only the essential features of the devices are presented here . Types of electrical Actuators 1. Solenoids 2. DC motors 3. AC motors 4. Stepper motors

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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS: Solenoid

A solenoid is an elementary device that converts an electrical signal into mechanical motion, usually rectilinear, that is, in a straight line. As shown in Fig.7, the solenoid consists of a coil and plunger. The plunger may be free-standing or spring-loaded. The coil will have some voltage or current rating and may be dc or ac. Solenoid specifications include the electrical rating and the plunger pull or push force when excited by the specified voltage. This force may be expressed in Newton or kilograms in the SI system and in pounds or ounces in the English system. Some solenoids are rated only for intermittent duty because of thermal constraints. In this case, the maximum duty cycle (percentage on to total time) will be specified. Solenoids are used when a large sudden force must be applied to perform some job.

Fig.7 A solenoid converts an electrical signal to a physical displacement.

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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS: Solenoid

Fig.8

A solenoid used to change gears. A solenoid is used to change the gears of a twoposition transmission. An SCR is used to activate the solenoid coil.
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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS: Electrical motors

Electrical motors are devices that accept electrical input and produce a continuous rotation as a result. Motor styles and sizes vary as demands for rotational speed (revolutions per minute or rpm), starting torque, rotational torque, and other specifications vary. Electrical motors are employed as actuators in process control. Probably the most common control situation is where motor speed is driving some part of a process and that speed must be controlled to control some variable in the process; the drive of a conveyor system, for example. There are many types of electrical motors, each with its special set of characteristics. We will simply discuss the three most common varieties: the dc motor, ac motor, and stepper motor.

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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS: DC motors

In its simplest form, a dc motor uses a permanent magnet (PM) to produce a static magnetic field across two pole pieces. Between the poles is connected a coil of wire that is free to rotate (the armature) and that is connected to a source of dc current through a switch mounted on the shaft (a commutator). The system is shown schematically in Fig.9a. Fig. 9 Permanent magnet dc motor
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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS: DC motors

For the condition shown, the current in the coil will produce a magnetic field with a north/south orientation like that shown in Fig.9b. The repulsion of the PM south and the coil south (and the norths) will cause a torque that will rotate the coil as shown. If the commutator were not split, the coil would simply rotate until the PM and coil north and south poles were lined up and then stop, but because of the commutator, the coil finds that when rotated around the current direction through the coil reverses so that the condition shown in Figure 9c occurs.
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Fig. 9 Permanent magnet dc motor

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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS: DC motors

Thus, the rotational torque is again present, and the coil continues to rotate. From this simple model you can see that the coil will continue to rotate. The speed will depend on the current. Actually, the armature current is not determined by the coil resistance because of a counter emf produced by the rotating wire in a magnetic field. Thus, the effective voltage, which determines the current from the wire resistance and Ohms law, is the difference between the applied voltage and the counter emf produced by the rotation.
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Fig. 9 Permanent magnet dc motor

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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS: DC motors

Many dc motors use an electromagnet instead of a PM to provide the static field. The coil used to produce this field is called the field coil. The current or this field coil can be provided by placing the coil in series with the armature or in parallel (shunt). In some cases the field is composed of two windings, one of each type. This is a compound dc motor. The schematic symbols of each type of motor are shown in Fig.10. Characteristics of dc motors with a field coil are as follows:
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Fig. 10 Configurations dc motor

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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS: DC motors

Series field: This motor has large starting torque but is difficult to speed control. Good in applications of starting heavy, no mobile loads and where speed control is not very important, such as quick-opening valves. Shunt field: This motor has a smaller starting torque but very good speed control characteristics by varying armature excitation current. Good in applications where speed is to be controlled, such as conveyor systems. Compound field: This motor attempts to obtain the best features of both of the two previous types. Generally, starting torque and speed control capability fall predictably between the two pure cases.
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Fig. 10 Configurations dc motor

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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS: AC motors

There are many types of ac motors. A synchronous ac motors speed of rotation is determined by the frequency of the ac voltage that drives it. Its primary application is in timing because of the high stability of the power-line frequency. Operation of this type of motor can be seen from a simple example shown in Fig.11. The rotor is a PM, and the field is provided by coils driven from the ac line. Because of the inertia of the PM, the starting torque is not very high, but once rotation is started the PM will rotate in-phase with the field reversals caused by the oscillations of the ac line voltage. It is clear then that the rate of rotation is determined by the ac line frequency.
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Fig.11 Simple ac motor with a PM motor

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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS: AC motors

An induction motor replaces the PM with a very heavy wire coil, into which is induced a current from the changing field of the ac excited field coils. Fig.12 illustrates this motor. As before, once rotation is started the rotor will continue rotation in-phase with the line frequency- induced changes of field coil excitation. The difficulty with these motors is that they are not self-starting and special modifications are necessary to get them to begin rotation. Clearly then, the starting torque is very low. One method of providing self-starting is to drive the motor with two or more phases of ac excitation. In general, however, ac motors do not have a high starting torque or convenient methods of speed control.

Fig.12 The induction motor depends on a rotor field induced by the ac field coils (not shown).

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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS :Stepper motors

The stepping motor has increased its importance in recent years because of the ease with which it can be interfaced with digital circuits. A stepping motor is a rotating machine that actually completes a full rotation by sequencing through a series of discrete rotational steps. Each step position is an equilibrium position in that, without further excitation, the rotor position will stay at the latest step. Continuous rotation is achieved by the input of a train of pulses, each of which causes an advance of one step. Not really continuous rotation, but discrete, stepwise rotation. The rotational rate - determined by the number of steps per revolution and the rate at which the pulses are applied.
A driver circuit is necessary to convert the pulse train into proper driving signals for the motor.
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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS :Stepper motors

The operation of a stepping motor can be understood from the simple model shown in Fig. 13, which has 90 per step. In this motor, the rotor is a PM that is driven by a particular set of electromagnets. In the position shown, the system is in equilibrium and no motion occurs. The switches are typically solid- state devices, such as transistors, SCRs, or TRIACs.

Fig.13 An elementary stepper motor

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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS :Stepper motors

The switch sequencer will direct the switches through a sequence of positions as the pulses are received. The next pulse in Fig. 13 will change S2 from C to D, resulting in the poles of that electromagnet reversing fields. Now, because the pole north/south orientation is different, the rotor is repelled and attracted so that it moves to the new position of equilibrium shown in Fig. 14b. as shown in next slide

Fig.13 An elementary stepper motor

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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS :Stepper motors

With the next pulse, S1 is changed to B, causing the same kind of pole reversal and rotation of the PM to a new position, as shown in Fig. 14c. Finally, the next pulse causes S2 to switch to C again and the PM rotor again steps to a new equilibrium position, as in Fig.14d. The next pulse will send the system back to the original state and the rotor to the original position. This sequence is then repeated as the pulse train comes in, resulting in a stepwise continuous rotation of the rotor PM.

Fig.14 The four positions of the elementary stepper.

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4.1 ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS :Stepper motors

Although this example illustrates the principle of operation, the most common stepper motor does not use a PM, but uses instead a rotor of magnetic material (not a magnet) with a certain number of teeth. This rotor is driven by a phased arrangement of coils with a different number of poles so that the rotor can never be in perfect alignment with the stator. Fig.15 illustrates this for a rotor with 8 teeth and a stator with 12 poles. One set of four teeth are aligned, but the other four are not. If excitation is placed on the next set of poles (B) and taken off the first set (A), then the rotor will step once to come into alignment with the B set of poles. The direction of rotation of stepper motors can be changed by just changing the order in which different poles are activated and deactivated.
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Fig.15 Cross section of a stepper with 8 rotor teeth and 12 stator poles. Note that the rotor lines up with the A poles. With the next step, the rotor will line up with the B poles.

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EXAMPLE :3

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4.1 PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS

The actuator often translates a control signal into a large force or torque as required to manipulate some control element. The pneumatic actuator is most useful for such translation. The principle is based on the concept of pressure as force per unit area. If we imagine that a net pressure difference is applied to a diaphragm of surface area A, then a net force acts on the diaphragm given by F = (p1 p2)A [2] Where P1 P2 = pressure difference (Pa) A = diaphragm area (m2) F = force (N)
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4.1 PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS

If we need to double the available force for a given pressure, it is merely necessary to double the diaphragm area. Very large forces can be developed by standard signal pressure ranges of 315 psi (20100 kPa). Many types of pneumatic actuators are available, but perhaps the most common are those associated with control valves. We will consider these in some detail to convey the general principles.

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4.1 PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS

The action of a direct pneumatic actuator is shown in Fig.16. Fig. 16a shows the condition in the low signal pressure state where the spring S maintains the diaphragm and the connected control shaft in a position as shown. The pressure on the opposite (spring) side of the diaphragm is maintained at atmospheric pressure by the open hole H. Increasing the control pressure (gauge pressure) applies a force on the diaphragm, forcing the diaphragm and connected shaft down against the spring force.

Fig.16 A direct pneumatic actuator for converting pressure signals into mechanical shaft motion.

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4.1 PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS

Fig.16b shows this in the case of maximum control pressure and maximum travel of the shaft. The pressure and force are linearly related, as shown in Equation (2), and the compression of a spring is linearly related to forces . The shaft position is linearly related to the applied control pressure. x=(A/k ) p [3] Where x=shaft level (m) p = applied gauge pressure (Pa) A = diaphragm area (m2) k = spring constant (N/m)
Fig.16 A direct pneumatic actuator for converting pressure signals into mechanical shaft motion.

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4.1 PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS

A reverse actuator, shown in Fig. 17, moves the shaft in the opposite sense from the direct actuator, but obeys the same operating principle. Thus, the shaft is pulled in by the application of a control pressure.
Fig.17 A reverse pneumatic actuator.

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EXAMPLE :4

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4.3 HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

We have seen that there is an upper limit to the forces that can be applied using gas as the working fluid. There are many cases when large forces are required. In such cases, a hydraulic actuator may be employed. The basic idea is the same as for pneumatic actuators except that an incompressible fluid is used to provide the pressure, which can be made very large by adjustment of the area of the forcing piston A1.
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Fig.18 A hydraulic actuator converts a small force F1 into an amplified force F.

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4.3 HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

The hydraulic pressure is given by [4] pH= F1/A1 where pH = hydraulic pressure (Pa) F1 = applied piston force (N) A1 = forcing piston area (m2) The resulting force on the working piston is [5] Fw = pHA2 where FW = force of working piston (N) A2 = working piston area (m2) Thus, the working force is given in terms of the applied force by FW = (A2/A1)F1 [6]
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Fig.18 A hydraulic actuator converts a small force F1 into an amplified force F.

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EXAMPLE :5

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4.3 HYDRAULIC servos

Fig.19 A hydraulic servo system. The process-control system provides the set-point of the servo system.

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4.3 HYDRAULIC servos

In some cases it is desired to control the position of very large loads as part of the control system. This often can be done by using the lowenergy controller output as the set-point input to a hydraulic control system. This concept is illustrated fig.19. In this system, high-pressure hydraulic fluid can be directed to either side of a force piston, which causes motion in either direction. The direction is determined by the position of a control valve piston in the hydraulic servo valve.

Fig.19 A hydraulic servo system. The process-control system provides the set-point of the servo system.

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4.3 HYDRAULIC servos

The position of this valve piston is controlled by a linear motor driven by the output of an amplifier and error detector. The inputs to the error detector are the process controller output, which forms the set-point of the hydraulic servo, and a feedback from the force piston shaft. The amplifier will drive the hydraulic servo until the feedback matches the set-point input.
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5. FLUID VALVES
The chemical and petroleum industries have many applications requiring control of fluid processes. Many other industries also depend in part on operations that involve fluids and the regulation of fluid parameters. The word fluid here represents either gases, liquids, or vapors. Many principles of control can be equally applied to any of these states of matter with only slight corrections. Many fluid operations require regulation of such quantities as density and composition, but by far the most important control parameter is flow rate. A regulation of flow rate emerges as the regulatory parameter for reaction rate, temperature, composition, or a host of other fluid properties. We will consider in some detail that process control element specifically associated with flow - the control valve.

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5. FLUID VALVES: Control valve principles

Flow rate in process control is usually expressed as volume per unit time If a mass flow rate is desired, it can be calculated from the particular fluid density. If a given fluid is delivered through a pipe, then the volume flow rate is Q = Av where Q = flow rate (m3/s) A = pipe area (m2) v = flow velocity (m/s) A control valve regulates the flow rate in a fluid delivery system. In general, a close relation exists between the pressure along a pipe and the flow rate so that if the pressure is changed, then the flow rate is also changed. A control valve changes flow rate by changing the pressure in a flow system because it introduces a constriction in the delivery system.
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5.Control valve principles (CONTD.)

The placement of a constriction in a pipe introduces a pressure difference across the pipe. We can show that the flow rate through the constriction is given by Q=KP where K = proportionality constant (m3/s/Pa1/2) P = P2 P1 pressure difference (Pa)

Flow rate through a restriction in a line is a function of the pressure drop across the restriction.
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5.Control valve principles (CONTD.)

The constant K depends on the size of the valve, the geometrical structure of the delivery system, and to some extent, on the material flowing through the valve. Now the actual pressure of the entire fluid delivery (and sink) system in which the valve is used (and, hence, the flow rate) is not a predictable function of the valve opening only. But because the valve opening does change flow rate, it provides a mechanism of flow control.
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5.CONTROL VALVE TYPES

The different types of control valves are classified by a relationship between the valve stem position and the flow rate through the valve. This control valve characteristic is assigned with the assumptions that the stem position indicates the extent of the valve opening and that the pressure difference is determined by the valve alone. Correction factors allow one to account for pressure differences introduced by the whole system. Fig .shows a typical control valve using a pneumatic actuator attached to drive the stem and, hence, open and close the valve.
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5.CONTROL VALVE TYPES

There are three basic types of control valves, whose relationship between stem position (as percentage of full range) and flow rate (as a percentage of maximum) is shown in Figure . 1. 2. 3. Quick opening Linear Equal percentage

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5.CONTROL VALVE TYPES :Quick opening

This type of valve is used predominantly for full ON/full OFF control applications. The valve characteristic of Fig. shows that a relatively small motion of valve stem results in maximum possible flow rate through the valve. Such a valve, for example, may allow 90% of maximum flow rate with only a 30% travel of the stem.

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5.CONTROL VALVE TYPES :LINEAR

Linear type of valve, as shown in Fig., has a flow rate that varies linearly with the stem position. It represents the ideal situation where the valve alone determines the pressure drop. The relationship is expressed as Q/Qmax=S/Smax where Q = flow rate (m3/s) Qmax = maximum flow rate (m3/s) S = stem position (m) Smax = maximum stem position (m)

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5.CONTROL VALVE TYPES : Equal percentage

Equal percentage, a very important type of valve employed in flow control has a characteristic such that a given percentage change in stem position produces an equivalent change in flow, that is, an equal percentage. Generally, this type of valve does not shut off the flow completely in its limit of stem travel. Thus, Qmin represents the minimum flow when the stem is at one limit of its travel. At the other extreme, the valve allows a flow Qmax as its maximum, open valve, flow rate. For this type, we define rangeability R as the ratio R = Qmax/ Qmin The curve in Fig. shows a typical equal percentage curve that depends on the rangeability for its exact form. The curve shows that increase in flow rate for a given change in valve opening depends on the extent to which the valve is already open. This curve is typically exponential in form and is represented by Q = QminRS/Smax where all terms have been defined previously.
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5.Control valve sizing

Another important factor associated with all control valves involves corrections to equation Q=KP because of the non-ideal characteristics of the materials that flow. A standard nomenclature is used to account for these corrections depending on the liquid, gas, or steam nature of the fluid. These correction factors allow selection of the proper size of valve to accommodate the rate of flow that the system must support. The correction factor most commonly used at present is measured as the number of U.S. gallons of water per minute that flow through a fully open valve with a pressure differential of 1 pound per square inch. The correction factor is called the valve flow coefficient and is designated as Cv. Using this factor, a liquid flow rate in U.S. gallons per minute is
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5.Control valve sizing

Using this factor, a liquid flow rate in U.S. gallons per minute is Q=Cv (P/SG) where P =pressure across the valve (psi) SG = specific gravity of liquid Typical valves of Cv for different size of valves are shown in Table 7.1. Similar equations are used for gases and vapors to determine the proper valve size in specific applications.

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5.Control valve sizing

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EXAMPLE :6

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EXAMPLE :7

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EXAMPLE :8

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EXAMPLE :9

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