Seismic method in HC

exploration
Applied Geophysics

(MSc course, 2020)

edited by G. PETHŐ
 Seismic exploration method
 Elastic body waves( longitudinal and transversal)
 Wave propagation (wavefronts and ray paths) in
homogeneous half-space
 Direct wave, reflected wave, refracted (head) wave.
 Physical-geological condition for reflection and refraction
measurements
 Reflection travel-time curve for two-layer half-space
 Corrections needed to get seismic reflection section
 Determination of depth section from seismic reflection
section (VSP)
 Seismic stratigraphy
 Bright spot, AVO analysis
 3D and 4D seismic exploration
 Problems can be solved by seismic exploration method
 Definition of elastic moduli (Sharma,1997)
  2
VP 


VS 


For rocks Young’s ,shear, bulk modulus are between 1010-1011N/m2, Poisson’s ratio has no dimension.
Young’s modulus: the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal
strain (the initial gradient defined on stress and stain curve). A stiff
material (diamond) has a high Young modulus, a flexible one has a
low value (rubbers)
Poisson ratio: the ratio of relative contraction to relative expansion.
When a sample of material is streched in one direction then it tends
to be thinner in the other two directions.
It expresses compressibility, the value has to be between 0-0.5
 2   2 In the knowlegde of density and elastic
  wave velocities we can determine the
t 2
 shear and bulk modulus
  2
VP 


 2  
 
t 2


VS 

The shear modulus (  )describes how difficult it is to deform a cube of
the material under an applied shearing force (left).
The bulk modulus (right) describes the ratio of the pressure applied
to the sphere to the amount of volume change that the sphere
undergoes. If K is very large, then the material is very stiff, meaning
that it doesn't compress very much even under large pressures. If K is
small, then a small pressure can compress the material by large
amounts.
 Basic terms of wave propagation
 The wavelength (λ) is the distance between two adjacent points
on the wave that have similar displacements, one wavelength is
the distance between two successive crests
 Amplitude (A) of the wave is the maximum displacement of the
particle motions
 Time period (T) is the time for a wave crest to transverse a
distance equal to one wavelength.
 The cycle of seismic waves or repetitions in a given unit of time is
called frequency (f). Frequency and time period are related by
reciprocal relationship:
f = 1 / T [unit: hertz (Hz) or 1/s]
 The speed in which the wavefront travel can be determined if the
time the wavefront takes to reach a known distance is also known:

V = distance / time [unit: m/s]

Or if wavelength and frequency are known:

V= λ/T= λf

wikipedia
 Seismic body wave types (longitudinal and shear waves)
Seismic body waves are
elastic disturbances that are
Direction of wave propagation (x)  propagated from point to
u (u , v, w)
point inside a medium.
 2u   2  2u P-wave is an elastic body
 wave in which particle
t 2
 x 2 motion is in the direction of
P   2 wave propagation. These
VP  pressure waves represent a

change in volume.
 2v   2v S-wave is also a body wave
 in which the particles’
t 2
 x 2 motion is perpendicular to
SH the direction of wave
 propagation.
VS 
 A shear wave causes no
volume change, because the
2w  2w dilatation is zero. We can
 make difference between
SV t 2
 x 2 SH and SV waves.
 P and S wave velocities
  2 
VP  VS 
 
Material P wave Velocity (m/s) S wave Velocity
(m/s)

 Air 330
 Water 1400-1500
 Petroleum 1300-1400
 Steel 6100 3500
 Concrete 3600 2000
 Granite 5500-5900 2800-3000
 Basalt 6400 3200
 Sandstone 1400-4300 700-2800
 Limestone 5900-6100 2800-3000
 Sand (unsaturated) 200-1000 80-400
 Sand (saturated) 800-2200 320-880
 Clay 1000-2500 400-1000
 Glacial Till (sat.) 1500-2500 600-1000

Schön, 2004
In case of homogeneous half-space if a seismic source is treated as a
point source the wavefronts are hemispheres.
A wavefront is a surface over which the phase of the travelling wave
disturbance is the same.
A ray path is a line which shows the direction that the seismic wave is
propagating. In this situation a raypath could be any radial line drawn
from the source.
At any point of the wave propagation they are perpendicular to each
other.
http://www.mines.edu/fs_home/tboyd/GP311/MODULES/SEIS/main.html
 Reflection and refraction
sin  v
Snell’s law
1
 1
An incident body wave generates
sin  2 v2 two reflected and two refracted
waves. In the figure there is a
longitudinal incident wave and the
angle of the reflected longitudinal
and that of refracted longitudinal
wave can be determined by Snell’s
icic law. Increasing the angle of
incident wave there is a situation
when  2 will be equal to 900. This
situation is realized in the case
when the elastic wave velocity in
the lower layer is greater than that
of the upper one. In case of critical
refraction the sin of the angle for
the incident wave equals v1/v2.

sin ic v1 v1
 sin ic 
sin 90 0 v2 v2
 Huygens’ principle

Huygens’ principle states that every point on a wavefront can be

regarded as a new source of waves (the fig. is modified from Sharma,
1997). The refracted wave travelling along the boundary (here along
the path of AB) is refracted back to the first layer at the same angle
as ic and re-emerges with a raypath such as BG. Here t=0 denotes the
instant when the incident ray strikes the boundary at point A.
Seismic reflection

(2h)2  SG   (S T G)2

2

(2h) 2 / v12  SG  / v12  ( S T G ) 2 / v12  t 2

2

2 2
x 4h
t2  2
 2
v1 v1

The travel time or arrival time (t)

versus distance (x) is a hyperbola.
The right part of the reflection
hyperbola can be seen on the
figure.
The seismic trace is the convolution of reflectivity function and the input pulse. The
task is the reconstruction of the reflectivity function from the measured seismic
trace. In the knowledge of the velocity function and the reflectivity function the
physical parameters in the function of depth and finally the geological section ( on
the left) can be determined. Because the input pulse has a finite length the
reflections overlap each other on the seismogram. In practice the seismogram will
be further complicated by multiply reflections, refracted waves, direct waves, etc..
 Seismic sources

Explosive Sources(right):
Explosive sources can impart a
large amount of seismic energy
into the ground given their
relatively small size. These
sources can vary in size and type
from small blasting caps and
shotgun shells to larger, two-
phase explosives. All explosive
sources are triggered remotely by
a devise called blasting box. The
blasting box has to be connected
to both the explosive and the
recording system.

http://www.mines.edu/fs_home/tboyd/GP311/MODULES/SEIS/main.html
 GEOPHONE
„The active element of the
geophone consists of a
mass hanging on a spring.
When the ground moves,
the mass (due to its
inertia) wants to remain
motionless. If you were
watching the seismometer
as the ground moved, it
would look like the mass
itself was moving. But, in
reality, you are moving
with the ground, and the
mass is remaining
motionless.”

The induced voltage in the

function of time measured
on coil is proportional to
the soil motion with
respect time.

http://www.mines.edu/fs_home/tboyd/GP311/MODULES/SEIS/main.html
 Seismic sources (vibrator)

Vibrator is used to generate controlled seismic wavetrain

with continuously varying frequency during a sweep period
lasting up 32 sec. The hydraulic system is remote
controlled, the frequency range is between 6-200Hz.
 Vibroseis seismic system

a: conventional seismic trace with the use of impulse source.

b: linear frequency sweep of vibroseis source
c, d, e: the reflected signals from the three layer boundaries
f: the resultant signal (what we measure)
g: cross-correlation of the source signal (b) and the resultant signal (f) . The
result is the conventional seismogram.
h: zero time determination by the auto-correlation of the input signal ( b)
 Reflection seismic method
The aim is to process seismic reflection data to provide
seismic reflection sections in function of depth which
reflect the real geological situation. For this reason
 Automatic gain control (AGC) in the field
 static correction,

 common depth point stacking,

 dynamic ( or NMO) correction,

 deconvolution and other filterering are applied.

 Migrated time section is constructed.

 The transformation of seismic section into depth

are made .
 Automatic gain control (AGC)
The energy of the elastic wave decreases with depth as e-r/r. This attenuation can be
experienced in both directions (upward and downward). In the case of a boundary one
part of the energy is reflected, the other part of it is refracted. The deeper the
boundary is, the less the amplitude of the reflected signal will be.
The aim is to receive a seismic section with reflections of similar amplitudes.
In order to have this kind of section, it is obvious that for reflections by deeper
boundaries are applied increased amplification to compare with near-surface reflected
signals.
In the course of automatic gain control the instant amplitude of the seismic signal is
used for automatic control of the gain of an amplifier.

http://seismo.berkeley.edu/~rallen/teaching/F04_GEO594_IntroAppGeophys/Lectures/L14
_SeismicReflectionI.pdf
 Static correction
Surface
G

S
Weathering
or Low
Velocity Zone

Consolidated Rock

S* G Datum
*

Reflection Boundary

In order to obtain a seismic section accurately showing the subsurface

structure a horizontal datum level has to be selected below the
weathering or low velocity zone. Instead of evaluating measurements
on surface (with topographycal changes), we determine the reflection
arrival times which would have been observed if both the sources and
geophones had been on the reference level.
Horizontal stacking; common midpoint method
In order to improve
the signal to noise
ratio multiply
coverage is applied.
The same subsurface
part is sampled
several times. A
boundary that dips
does not have a
common reflecting
point opposite to a
horizontal reflector.

Common depth point

stacking ( CDP) and
common midpoint
method

Sharma 1997
Common midpoint method and CDP

Field procedure resulting in

a six-fold CDP coverage
with a single-ended 12-
channel array moving
along the survey profile.

KEAREY ET.AL., 2002

 Dynamic correction
2
x 2 4h
t  2  2
2

v1 v1
2
x 2 4h 1 2
t  ( 2  2 )  t0
v1 v1

A horizontal reflector is assumed.

Usually the source-receiver distances
are small compared with the reflector
depth. The travel-time curve is a
hyperbola reflecting the effect due to
the increasing source-receiver
separations. To get rid of the
geometrical effect of the array dynamic
correction is applied.
If ∆t is determined for each offset and this value is subtracted from the
TWT (two-way time value) at each offset, then instead of a hyperbola we
shall receive a horizontal straight line. This constant value corresponds to
the vertical TWT at any geophone. It is the situation when the source and
the geophone had been at the same point.
 Deconvolution filtering
It is an
inverse
filtering to
restore a

reflexivitás- függvény

Source signal
waveshape to

measured
the form it
had before it
underwent a
linear filtering
operation.

The measured seismic trace is the convolution of the reflectivity function and
the input pulse. By the deconvolution of the seismic trace we can „receive”
the reflectivity function versus time. The main task of this procedure is to
remove the smoothing effect of the geology on the input pulse with
compressing every occurrence of the source signal on a seismic trace into a
spike output in order to reproduce the reflectivity function.
Deconvolution It improves the vertical
resolution by compressing
or shortening reflection
wavelets. It can
attenuates ghosts,
reverberations , multiply
reflections and other
noises (including
instrumental ones).

After deconvolution the

seismic section has sharp
reflections, a lot of noise
in the original seismic
section has been
attenuated considerably.

Parasnis 1986
 MIGRATION
It is a process resulting in better resolution. If after static
and dynamic correction there are dipping and/or curved
reflectors on the seismic section, then migration is applied.
The aim of it is to move the dipping and/or curved reflectors to
the real position on the seismic time section. Because each
reflection event is mapped directly beneath the common shot-point
geophone- point, it can result in correct solution in the case of
horizontal reflectors. This vertical ray path assumption is bad if the
reflectors are different from horizontal ones.
 Migration in the case of a dipping reflector
If the reflection event is plotted
beneath the common mid-point
of the appropriate CMP gather in
the case of a dipping reflector, it
is a mistake. In the common mid-
point X we can receive reflection
from any point situated on the
surface of the hemisphere with
radius XZ. Looking for the joint

tangent plane of all hemispheres with radii of the appropriate TWT, the
dashed line (CD) will be repositioned into the continuous straight line
(AB).
Migration over a syncline structure
If there is a common shot-point
geophone -point situation, then three arrivals
can be recorded from the curved surface of
the syncline (a).

Assuming 10 shot points the different ray

paths are presented in the middle figure (b).

All reflection events are mapped directly

beneath the common shot-point
geophone-point resulting in an unmigrated
seismic section (c).

If the interpreter encounters these features

(similar to a bow-tie), then a syncline can
be assumed.

Mussett&Khan, 2000
Unmigrated (bow-tie) and migrated synthetic sections
Seismic section before migration
 Seismic section after migration
Distance along profile

TWT

Migrated seismic section derived from the earlier one. It provides the real positions of the
reflectors on the seismic time section
Diffraction-hyperbola method
If there is a diffractor point in a
homogeneous half-space, then the
recorded time section will be a single
hyperbola. This method applies
sampling hyperbolae. The sampling
hyperbola is placed with its apex on the
first, second, … etc. sampling point of
trace A. In all situations the sampling
hyperbola cuts the the diffractor-point
hyperbola only once.
This procedure is repeated for every trace. The result on the output section (lower
figure) will be the same, except for the case when the sampling and the diffractor
hyperbola are coincident. The real position of the diffractor point is determined.
Parasnis, 1986
 The same method can be applied for the
determination of the depth-position of a
dipping reflector. At early times the
sampling hyperbola cuts the reflection
signal only once on the input (original)
section, however, as the apex of the s. h.
moves downwards the s.h. will be
tangential to the reflection signal. The
number of common points (amplitudes)
are summed and plotted to the t0 time for
trace 0 on the output section. This
procedure is repeated for every trace. For
example on the right there are 5 common
points of the s.h. and the dipping reflector
on the input section. This result (in term of
amplitudes) is plotted on the output
section. Each output trace is built up
similarly because the maximum
amplitudes can be found at the apices of
the sampling hyperbolas that are tangent
to the reflector on the original section. All
curved reflectors can be approximated by
Parasnis, 1986
small dipping line segments.
Stacked section with a syncline
at 1.41 sec. This is the result of
horizontal stacking without
migration.

Parasnis, 1986, based on Prakla Seismos

Migrated section (carried out by

FD method).
SUMMARY ABOUT
•Kirchhoff Migration
•Stolt Migration
•Gazdag migration
•Finite Difference migration
•FX Migration

CAN BE FOUND:
http://www.xsgeo.com/course/mig.htm
Migration for structure complicated as 2D

6. profile

Synthetic section for the 6.

profile over the 3-D structure
above.
2D migration is applied to raw
data.

3D migration applied for the

seismic section
 Time-Depth transformation, velocity survey
Earlier traditional seismocarottage was used to make velocity approximation in function of depth.
The geophone seperation was between 50-100m. Explosion was made close to the borehole
usually from two directions. A depth –time relationship was determined by extrapolation. In the case
of velocity survey (VELOCITY CHECK) only the first break times are measured. Here the velocity
function (versus depth) is the reciprocal value of the slope of the tangent. If we know the (interval )
velocity of the layers and the reflection arrival times from the boundaries then the depth of the
boundaries can be calculated.

TWT/2

Depth of geophones
 VSP (Vertical Seismic Profiling)
The knowledge of the interval
velocity is needed to carry out
time-depth transformation of
seismic section. Borehole
geophones with fixed
separation (10-40m) are
lowered to the bottom of a
borehole. A seismic source
generates a signal at the
surface.The received signals
by the borehole geophones
are recorded. After the first
measurement the borehole
geophone set is raised to the
next depth interval.
Usually geophones are aligned vertically. The VSP can be done in cased
hole, however, acoustic coupling has to be present between the casing and
the rock.
 .

Zero offset VSP: if the source is close to the well head; Walkaway VSP: the
surface source moves, while the geophones remains stationary in the
borehole; Offset VSP: if the source is a significant distance from the well
head; Deviated VSP: the borehole geophones are in a deviated hole and the
source moves so as it is vertically above them. Reversed VSP: source is in
the borehole and the geophones are at the surface (Sheriff, 2006).

F.B. Poletto, F. Miranda (2004)

 VSP
In the case of VSP the borehole
MÉLYSÉG geophones record the whole
waveform and it is the superposition
of the downgoing and upgoing
seismic events (see the figure). Depth
increases from right to left. The first
break ( denoted by blue arrow) is used
for velocity analysis. The geometry of
I VSP and velocity survey is the same,
D however, better resolution and whole
Ő waveform records are provided by
VSP (besides the first breaks). In the
course of VSP processing the
upgoing and downgoing events are
separated. After this separation
corridor stacking is applied to retain
only the primary reflection events in
the upgoing vertical seismic profile.
The main aim of corridor stacking is
to remove the multiply reflections
Forrás: Somfai, 1988 from the upgoing VSP.
Somfai, 1988
 TIME-DEPTH TRANSFORMATION, VSP

VSP RAY PATHS

DIRECT ARRIVAL and UPGOING WAVES

Bacon et. al. 2007

zero-offset UPGOING VSP gained by deconvolution; after

subtraction of downgoing waves
SYNTHETIC SEISMOGRAM SUPERPOSED on
SEISMIC SECTION at the WELL LOCATION
In the borehole acoustic and density logs can
be measured, from which synthetic
seismogram can be derived. The knowledge of
layer thicknesses is supposed as well. Apart
from the middle part there is a very good fit
between the seismic trace along the well
location and the synthetic seismogram gained
by well logging. Bacon et. al. 2007,
http://petrowiki.org/Seismic_profiling
Vertical resolution
Resolution means an ability to
separate two features that are
close together.
Vertical resolution can be
characterized with the minimum
layer thickness that can be
determined.
It depends upon the frequency
and the velocity of the elastic
wave in the formation. The
higher the frequency is, the less
the wavelength will be, resulting
in a better vertical resolution.
If we cannot separate the
reflection by the upper and lower
boundary of the sandwished
layer, then we cannot say
anythig about its layer thickness.
Horizontal resolution, Fresnel zone
The horizontal portion of a reflector (w)
from which the the reflected energy can
reach the common source point-
geophone point within one-half
wavelength of the first reflected energy.
This central first Fresnel zone is a circle
for zero offset. The energy reflected by
this zone interferes constructively,
because the arrivals have phase leg not
greater than one-half wavelength.

z 2  w 2  z   / 4
2 2

w  2z
 Seismic stratigraphy
The aim is to reconstruct the depositional circumstances based
on seismic reflection data to make conclusion for the presence of
potential HC reservoir. The main steps of the procedure are:
• Seismic sequence analysis (for the separation of depositional sequences from
each other)
• Seismic facies analysis (for the separation of facies within a depositional sequence)
• Reconstruction of relative sea-level changes, deposition, tectonics
The solution of these problems is based upon high resolution seismic reflection
method, however it requires the co-operation with experts of other fields (geology,
well-logging, etc.)
 Seismic sequence analysis

Seismic sequence is the series of reflection devired from layers forming in the
course of the same depositional cycle. Seismic sequence analysis is based on the
identification of stratigraphic units in which the upper and lower boundaries of the
depositional sequences are unconformities or their correlative conformities.
erosional truncation
The termination of strata against an overlying erosional surface.
downlap
The geometry of steeper-dipping seismic reflections that terminate against
reflections with shallower dip is called downlap.
onlap
The termination of shallowly dipping, younger strata against more steeply
dipping, older strata, or the termination of low-angle reflections in seismic
data against steeper reflections.
toplap
Termination of strata against an overlying surface mainly as a result of non
deposition (sedimentary bypassing) with perhaps only minor erosion.
 Seismic sequence analysis

In order to delineate a seismic sequence the seismic sequence

boundaries have to be determined. These boundaries correspond to
reflections caused by lateral terminations of strata. There are four
types of seismic sequence boundaries: erosional truncation, toplap,
onlap and downlap. Mitchum et. al. 1977
Sediments are being supplied by a river
In the case of constant sea level each bed forms
over and beyond the previous one, showing a
progradation feature.

If the sea level rises steadily, there is a deposition

on the top of the earlier layer and beyond the
previous one as well, resulting in a nearly paralell
layer sequence. The reflection terrminations close
to the coastline form on lap.

The accumulation of sequences by deposition in which

beds are deposited successively basinward because
sediment supply exceeds accommodation. Thus, the
position of the shoreline migrates into the basin during
episodes of progradation.

The accumulation of stratigraphic sequences by

deposition that stacks beds atop each other, building
upwards during periods of balance between
sediment supply and accommodation.

Mussett et al. 2000

 Seismic facies
analysis

The properties of the

reflections derived
from the inside part of
the same seismic
facies are very similar
(the configuration of
reflections, the
continuity of them,
their amplitudes,
phase widths, interval
velocity, etc. are
constant)

(Somfai 1988)
 Seismic facies analysis

Seismic facies units can

be distinguished within a
seismic sequence. Some
of them are presented in
the figure.

(Somfai, 1988)
 Possible reservoir occurrences in different formations
Lowstand system tract
Transgressive system tract
Shelf-margin system tract
Highstand system tract
Vail (1987)
 Some examples for structural, stratigraphic and combination trap

Mussett et al. (2000)

 Direct seismic indications for HC

GOC, GWC, OWC can be determined

Due to the greater differences in the acoustic impedance of the formations in contact,
reflections with increased amplitudes can be recorded on the surface. The change of
the sign of the reflected signal (derived from the same reflector) is caused by the
opposite variation in acoustic impedance of the formation beneath the boundary.
Bacon et.al.(2007)
 Bright spot
Gas This method can be used
Oil for gas exploration. Along
Water the shale and the reservoir
formation boundary a 1800
phase shift can be
observed over the gaseous
zone (physically after
compression the
Shale and gaseous sand boundary presence of gas results in
GOC rarefaction seismic event
OWC
on the surface). There is a
velocity decrease in the
gaseous zone, for this
reason we can get
reflection arrival from the
GOC later and the
horizontal GOC does not
appear to be horizontal on
the seismic time section.
Meskó Attila (1989)
Bright spot
 Dim spot

Bacon et.al.2007
MODE
CONVERSIONS
ZOEPPRITZ EQUATION
 sin  v
 1
sin  v2

RP, TP amplitudes on the left; RS, TS amplitudes on the right versus angle
of incident. There is a velocity increase in this situation.
 R( )  R0  G sin 2 

In the Shuey equation ( it contains three or two terms) R0 is the reflection

coefficient for the PP reflection belonging to incident P wave with zero
degree of incident, which wave reflects back itself. R0 is controlled by the
contrast in acoustic impedances. G (or B), often referred to as the AVO
gradient, describes the variation of reflection amplitudes at intermediate
offsets. The Shuey equation can be further simplified by assuming that the
angle of incidence is less than 30 degrees: R( )  R0  G sin 2 
How do we present a series of
reflections provided by the
same boundary with one pont
in the co-ordinate system of
R(0) and G?
Solution: at first we constract
the amlitude –offset response.
After extrapolation we can
receive the intersept, and by
interpolation we can construct
the amplitude response in
the function of offset ( it is
actually the sin2 of the offset ).
In this way we can have good
chance to get a constant value
for the gradient (see Shuey
equation with two terms)
.
 Class I: there is an
increase in impedance
for this reason downward, for this
reason there is a
positive R0, and there
is a decrease in the
amplitude with
increasing angle of
incidence.
Class II: has small
normal incidence
amplitude, however,
the AVO effect leads
to high negative
amplitudes at far
offsets.

Class III: relative great and negative normal incidence amplitude, which
increases with increasing angle of incidence.
Class IV: can occur in very unconsolidated sands, or where soft sands
are found below a non-clastic hard layer. The amplitude does not show
significant variation with increrasing offsets.
Bright spot belongs to AVO Class III,
Class I responses are characteristic of deep, well-consolidated formations
 The presence of different fluid fills
affects value of G and R0. Sand A
belongs to class II, if it is
+ saturaded by brine or oil. However,
for gas it is class III. Sand B has
negative R0 and positive G
independent of the fluid fill. Sand C
has positive R0 and negative G, it is
the member of class I.
+

G - R0 crossplot for a top of a sand.

Points representing different fluid fills
and porosity increases to the left. The
presence of oil results in more
negative values of G and R0.

Bacon et al., 2007

Fluid effects
 AVO (amplitude versus offset) analysis
The objective of this analysis is to make
conclusion for the saturation values of the
formation based on seismic reflection
measurements (with both longitudinal and
transversal waves, Ostander, 1984).
The value of Poisson ratio can be correlated
with the fluid content of the formation.
Measurement with different offsets are
needed to get shear wave reflection. Besides
P wave and S wave reflectivity section fluid
factor section are also provided. The fluid
factor is proportional to the ratio of the
velocities of the two waves. The four figures
show that the migrated section is not enough
to detect the HC bearing zone, the fluid factor vP 2
section yields the most convincing result. ( )  2(1   ) /(1  2 )
vS

Furniss (2002)
3D seismic measurements and their data presentation

The 3D seismic reflection survey samples a

part (volume) of the subsurface instead of
an area contained in a vertical plane. The
figure shows the different ways of slicing a
seismic data cube. The data can be
presented in vertical planes (similarly to the
2D situation, where the vertical plane was
perpendicular to the structural strike). The
seismic data distribution can be given for
horizontal planes belonging to constant
reflection time (time slices), or can be
displayed the results of arbitrary lines as
well. The results of seismic sections and
time slices can be presented
simultaneously, too.

Bacon et.al.2007
Seismic reflection presentation

Gasperini , Stanghellini 2009

Combination of 3d seismic data presentation

Bacon et.al.2007
Reservoir map and GPS imaging of the surface

Bacon et.al.2007
 3D SEISMIC RESULTS with COMBINED VISUALISATION

Seismic data with top reservoir map and the well trajectories. Bacon et.al.2007
Tracking of bright amplitudes outside the data cube.
Bacon et.al.2007
DATA DISPLAY in TRANSPARENCY MODE. Bacon et.al.2007
The same seismic
section in different
forms.
 Seismic section
perpendicular to the
strike (above) and
parallel to the strike
(lower part).

Bacon et.al.2007
 TIME SLICE

It can be used for

channel systems,
but it could not
show the dipping
features of the
reflectors.

Time slice: the display of the data belonging to a horizontal plane

belonging to a constant reflection time (within the 3D data cube).

Bacon et.al.2007
Timeslice
t=976ms.
GES LTD.
Upper Pannonian
sediments, channel
system. It can not
be seen in the
seismic section.
 Horizon slice

HORIZON SLICE with

structural uplifts and
reflection coefficient
distribution on the upper
boundary of the potential
reservoir. If the top of
the uplift can be
characterized with
higher amplitude, then
gas occurrence is
possible. Why?

GES

Horizon slices: the display of the data on the same picked reflecting
boundary with an arbitrary relief.
 Porosity distribution in 3D

It is based on the empirical relationship

between porosity and acoustic impedance.
This relationship depends on the fluid
filling the pores. The sonic well logs are
also involved into the interpretation
because impedance sections are
determined at first. The extracted layer can
be seen on the right.

A. E. Mussett et.al. 2000

Reservoir thickness monitoring.

Mussett et. al. 2000.

Changes in the physical parameters in the vicinity of a producing well

Bacon et.al.2007
 Changes in the physical parameters in the vicinity of an injection well

Bacon et.al.2007
 Time-lapse seismic: rezervoar monitoring, 4D seismics

Three snapshot sections: starting point (1993), the effect of oil

production (1999), (2000). The extension of gas cap till the producing
well and coning have to be avoided.
Bacon et.al.2007
 Questions
 What is the geological-physical condition for the application of seismic
reflection method?
 What are the most important elastic moduli? What are needed to
determine them?
 What are the aim of static and dynamic corrections?
 What is the aim of the migration procedure? When is it applied to a
seismic section?
 What do you mean by acoustic impedance and reflection coefficient?
 What do you know about VSP methods?
 What kind of problems can be solved by seismic reflection method?
 What is the essence of bright spot?
 What do you know about AVO analysis? What do you know about
AVO classes?
 What are the main features of seismostratography?
 What is the difference between a time slice and a horizon slice?
 What do you mean by horizontal resolution?
 What do you mean by vertical resolution?
 What can the 4D seismic method used for?