Sport, Exercise and Performance Psychology Research Directions To Advance The Field.
Sport, Exercise and Performance Psychology Research Directions To Advance The Field.
Sport, Exercise and Performance Psychology Research Directions To Advance The Field.
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DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197512494.001.0001
Contents
Foreword
Edson Filho and Itay Basevitch
Preface
Contributors
Afterword
Itay Basevitch and Edson Filho
Index
Foreword
Edson Filho and Itay Basevitch
Editors’ Positionality
Know thyself.
—Oracle of Delphi
Philosophical Positionality
The Socratic Method: A Book About Questions
True knowledge exists in knowing that you know nothing.
—Socrates
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Preface
Conclusion
SE and CE research in sport and physical activity has continued to grow
over the four decades since Bandura’s (1977) seminal paper, expanding to
focus on the functional properties of SE, improved analyses of SE and CE,
and how relational efficacy influences performance. To stimulate further
research that contributes to the field, we have presented five broad
questions that expand on theoretical, methodological, and applied issues,
suggesting research approaches that examine the complexities of key
theoretical elements, using more robust experimental methods, newer
sophisticated analytical tools, virtual technologies, and lifespan research
designs.
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2
Attention
Ronnie Lidor and Gal Ziv
Visual Attention
Athletes are usually required to search visually for relevant information in
the sporting environment. However, the ability of humans to visually
process a scene is limited. Therefore, how do athletes find objects in the
environment or perceive stimuli? Wolfe and Horowitz (2017) proposed five
factors that guide our visual attention: (a) top-down guidance—individuals
purposefully search for desired targets; (b) bottom-up salience—the shift in
visual attention toward salient environmental features, even if one is not
purposefully looking for them; (c) scene meaning—guiding attention
toward locations in which one is likely to find certain targets; (d) previous
history of search—in which targets that were searched for previously may
attract more attention in a subsequent search; and (e) relative value of the
targets and distractors—in which being rewarded for finding certain targets
in previous searches will make them more prominent in a subsequent
search.
Understanding how athletes guide their searches can increase knowledge
on how they perceive their sporting environments and why they display
specific search patterns of behavior. For example, athletes might fail to
perceive targets in these environments that are salient to us as an audience.
If the visual search was guided to a certain area (based on a combination of
the aforementioned five factors affecting the search), it can be understood
why another area in the visual field was disregarded—even though
searching that area might have led to a better result. Indeed, the relationship
between gaze and performance is of major importance in sport (for a
review, see Brams et al., 2019).
Three theories on the relationships between gaze and performance have
been proposed (see Gegenfurtner et al., 2011). According to these theories,
certain gaze features may characterize expert performers. The information
reduction hypothesis posits that experts are better than novices at attending
to relevant areas of interest in their visual field and disregarding areas that
are irrelevant to the task at hand (Haider & Frensch, 1999). Based on this
hypothesis, experts make more fixations of longer durations to relevant
areas and fewer fixations of longer durations to distracting areas.
The long-term working memory theory purports that experts have more
context-related information stored in their long-term memory that can be
rapidly retrieved than novices (Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995). Therefore, when
experts need to perform a motor task or make a decision, they can quickly
compare the current environmental information with that stored from
previous experiences. According to this theory, experts can retrieve relevant
information from fewer fixations of shorter durations compared to novices.
This theory may seem to contradict the information reduction hypothesis;
however, a number of studies suggest that these two theories may
complement one another (see Brams et al., 2019).
The holistic model of image perception suggests that visual scanning
starts with a brief glimpse, followed by intentional fixations to relevant
areas based on the information received during that glimpse (Kundel et al.,
2007). Compared to novices, experts can extract more information during
the first glimpse and are then able to more quickly fixate on the relevant
areas (Gegenfurtner et al., 2011). Therefore, eye-tracking data of experts
should show shorter times until the first fixation toward a relevant area in
the visual field.
A recent systematic review examined the relationships between gaze
behavior and expertise in sport and in other domains (Brams et al., 2019).
In this review, support was provided for the long-term working memory
theory, which claims that experts in sport have shorter fixation durations
during the performance of perceptual-cognitive tasks, respective to their
less expert counterparts. In addition, strong support was provided for the
information-reduction hypothesis, which states that compared to
nonexperts, experts make more fixations of longer duration on relevant
areas of interest. It is worth noting that an insufficient number of studies
have examined the holistic model of image perception in the sport domain,
and therefore no conclusion can be drawn regarding the importance of this
model in sport. Five key readings concerning attention (i.e., attentional
instructions and visual attention) and skilled motor performance are
presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Five Key Readings in Attention and Skilled Motor Performance
Authors Methodological Key Findings
Design
Brams Systematic Thirty-six studies examining gaze behavior and expert perceptual-
et al. review of visual cognitive skills in sports were found. Strong support for the
(2019) search and information-reduction hypothesis. Experts make more fixations and
expert dwell longer on relevant AOIs. Experts are also better at ignoring
performance1 irrelevant AOIs.
Park et Narrative This review discusses frequency- and time-domain analysis of EEG in
al. review/ sport. The review suggests that mobile EEG technology offers
(2015) conceptual opportunities to study sport in ecologically valid settings. Certain brain
article on waves and certain EEG potentials known to be related to attentional
mobile EEG processes can therefore supplement our behavioral/performance
and sport measures to provide more robust applied learning strategies.
performance3
Toner & Literature The review draws on empirical evidence and theory to elucidate the role
Moran review and of bodily awareness in facilitating continuous improvement at the elite
(2015) position level of sport. Based on the reviewed evidence, the authors sketched a
statement3 number of theoretical and practical implications of the theory of
“somaesthetics” for research on expertise in sport.
Vater et Systematic Twenty-nine studies examined the role of peripheral vision in sports:
al. review on the basketball (2), soccer (9), squash (2), table tennis (1), volleyball (4),
(2020) role of baseball (1), cricket (1), combat sports (5), other (4). Three main gaze
peripheral strategies for perception were discussed: foveal spot, gaze anchor, and
vision in sport1 visual pivot.
Wulf Narrative A review of the effects of external and internal focus on motor
(2013) review of performance. Generally, external focus of attention is more beneficial to
attentional motor performance and learning than internal focus of attention.
focus effects2
1
Related mainly to visual attention.
2
Related mainly to attentional instructions.
3
Related to both visual attention and attentional instructions.
AOI = area of interest; EEG, electroencephalography.
Conclusion
This chapter discussed the relationship between two aspects of attention
(i.e., focus of attention and visual attention) and performance. After
presenting the main theories related to both aspects of attention, five
questions that could move the field forward were discussed. A few of these
questions are applied in nature and the others are more theoretical. We
suggest that researchers increase the use of current technology (e.g., modern
eye trackers, mobile EEG systems) that can help understand how attention
is related to expert performance—both in theory and in practice.
Specifically, we propose that research should be expanded on (a) foveal and
parafoveal vision and their relationships with performance, (b) gaze
behavior and attention of teams who have a shared goal rather than
individuals within teams, and (c) understanding the neural activity that
supports both individual and team performance. By doing so, we should
also be able to explore the applicability of learning strategies that are based
on attentional processes, and therefore provide evidence-based practical
instructions to practitioners who work with athletes with the goal of
improving performance.
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3
Choking Under Pressure
Christopher Mesagno, Felix Ehrlenspiel, V. Vanessa Wergin, and Peter Gröpel
The pressure of competition helps develop athletes who can focus their
attention well, performing better than normal in big moments. Often,
however, competitive pressure leads athletes to perform worse than normal
(e.g., as displayed in practice), which is known as choking under pressure
(i.e., choking). In this chapter, we first provide a brief, contemporary
summary of the choking literature, which mainly includes choking in
individuals but also incorporates team choking (i.e., collective team
collapse). We then offer unknown questions for future researchers.
Choking Models
Researchers who investigate explanatory theories of choking would agree
that a heightened anxiety is essential for an experience to be labeled
choking (e.g., Baumeister, 1984; Mesagno et al., 2015). Explanations, to
date, focus on attentional changes that occur as a consequence of the
anxiety increase, or antecedents that predispose someone to become more
anxiety stricken. Most research support is focused on the attention-based
consequences of heightened state anxiety through the self-focus and
distraction models of choking (Mesagno & Beckmann, 2017). Self-focus
explanations (e.g., explicit monitoring hypothesis or reinvestment theory)
indicate that, as anxiety increases, explicit attention is allocated to task
execution (see Masters & Maxwell, 2008, for a review on reinvestment
theory). That is, attention shifts from task-relevant information to internal
monitoring of skill-based knowledge in order to consciously control
movement, which decreases smooth, coordinated actions, usually processed
intuitively. Distraction-based explanations indicate that as anxiety increases,
the combined effects of worry and explicit self-instruction exceed a
threshold of attentional capacity, which diminishes high-level performance.
Ultimately, anxiety shifts attention toward threat-based and task-irrelevant
stimuli, reducing available attention to process task-relevant cues and
decreasing performance.
Recently, researchers have proposed theoretical descriptions about the
antecedents of increased state anxiety via self-presentation. The central
premise of the self-presentation model (Mesagno et al., 2011, 2012), which
has limited support to date, is that certain personality characteristics
predispose athletes to being more choking susceptible. When these
characteristics are associated with choking-susceptibility, athletes are
predisposed to higher cognitive state anxiety and self-presentation concerns.
Self-presentation is the process by which people attempt to monitor and
control how they are perceived and evaluated by others (Schlenker, 1980).
People engage in self-presentation behaviors to help create a public identity.
Given that athletes likely have a strong (or exclusive) athletic identity, self-
presentation concerns and behaviors may emerge because athletes want to
create a positive public image to other athletes and supporters to confirm
their own beliefs about themselves. To deal with the cognitive anxiety
increases, attentional shifts occur to control public image and avoid
relational devaluation, which exacerbate performance decrements. The
reader is referred to other reviews (e.g., Christensen et al., 2015; Roberts et
al., 2019) for recent discussions about choking models and theoretical
debates.
Choking Intervention
To ameliorate choking, sport psychologists have developed “theory-
matched” choking interventions (see Gröpel & Mesagno, 2019, for a
review). Distraction-based interventions aim to prevent internal or external
distractions and promote task-relevant attention. These interventions often
include a preperformance routine (PPR), which is a set of cognitive and
behavioral elements that an athlete systematically engages in prior to
performance execution (Cotterill, 2010). Researchers have found that
effective PPRs are individualized and typically consist of (but are not
limited to) a combination of relaxation, mental imagery, cue words, external
focus, and temporal consistency (Mesagno & Mullane-Grant, 2010). Self-
focus-based interventions are used to minimize the conscious, step-by-step
control of skill execution, often applying distal methods or ad hoc
interventions. Distal methods include implicit (or analogy) learning (i.e.,
biomechanical metaphors; hitting a table tennis forehand as if drawing a
triangle) to reduce the likelihood of “reinvestment” occurring (Masters &
Maxwell, 2008). The most effective ad hoc interventions are dual task and
left-hand dynamic handgrip interventions. When performing a dual task,
athletes focus attention toward the dual task rather than skill execution,
which facilitates the smooth skill execution and minimizes reinvestment.
Alternatively, athletes may use a dynamic handgrip and squeeze a soft ball
in their left hand prior to skill execution (Beckmann et al., 2013), which
leads to a state of cortical relaxation and prevents overcontrol (Cross-
Villasana et al., 2015). Finally, acclimatization interventions focus on
reducing the anxiety that leads to distraction or self-focus. These
interventions may include (but are not limited to) practice under mild
anxiety conditions, such as when being videotaped or watched by an
audience, with the goal to familiarize participants with pressure (Oudejans
& Pijpers, 2010).
Conclusion
In summary, researchers who investigate (individual) choking have
increased our understanding since Baumeister’s (1984) first investigations.
Researchers who examine team choking, however, have only begun to
explore the characteristics and antecedents associated with a team’s
catastrophic decline in performance during a competition. There is still
much to be learned about models of team choking, which are largely
grounded in qualitative exploration and need substantiation through
rigorous experimental designs. The “unknown” suggestions we have
provided should give aspiring sport psychology researchers our view on
where the choking literature should develop and also provide insight into
what questions could be investigated based on current choking literature.
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4
Flow and Clutch States
Christian Swann, Scott G. Goddard, Patricia C. Jackman, Matthew J.
Schweickle, and Stewart A. Vella
Conclusion
Optimal experiences and episodes of superior functioning are central to
sport, exercise, and performance psychology. Specifically, this chapter
reviewed the state of the art of research on flow and clutch states. Despite
extensive research, flow states remain rare, elusive, and difficult for
researchers or practitioners to induce purposefully—due primarily to a
number of conceptual issues in the traditional nine-dimensions framework.
We reviewed recent research on the Integrated Model of Flow and Clutch
States, which makes several important contributions (including
testable/falsifiable hypotheses about the occurrence of each state) and may
be able to overcome limitations in the nine-dimensions framework. The
Integrated Model is at an early stage of development and requires further
testing and refinement. We proposed five key questions that we believe can
help guide future research: (a) What is the best way to measure flow and
clutch states? (b) What is the nature of clutch performance? (c) How and
why do flow and clutch states occur? (d) Can individuals maximize flow
and clutch states? and (e) What should flow and clutch state interventions
involve? We hope this chapter helps guide scientific progress in this field,
with the ultimate aims of meaningfully influencing applied practice and
better fulfilling the promise of flow and clutch states in sport, exercise, and
performance psychology.
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1 Note: the dichotomous flow/clutch used in Schweickle et al., (2017) had sound psychometric
properties in that study but has not been exposed to rigorous development and validation processes.
As such, caution is urged regarding that measure until further testing and validation is conducted.
5
Mental Skills
Dave Collins and Hugh Richards
What
Identifying exact objectives for MS interventions is a key stage in design
(Martindale & Collins, 2005), whether these are short-term (e.g., within
sessions based on intentions for impact) or long-term outcomes from a
program. Current debate exists on optimizing balance across elements such
as performance (now or future), well-being, and athletic and/or personal
development. Indeed, as SP becomes more accepted, the scope of
application is likely to broaden. However, it is important that case
conceptualization and subsequent design of MS “packages” be explicitly
considered.
Why
Good practice starts with setting mutually agreed-upon targets and includes
both outcome and process goals, nested into an overall program (cf.
Martindale & Collins, 2007). Interestingly, case conceptualization and
planning are increasingly common requirements of professional SP
accreditation programs (cf. Tod et al., 2017). Despite this positive
development and the increase in published case studies offering
underpinning evolution and rationale, the link between aim and design is still
comparatively unexplored.
How
In contrast to clinical psychology, where clients contract to a series of
sessions to solve a specific problem, SP practitioners commonly form longer
term relationships, often as embedded members of support teams. Reflecting
this, longer term and longitudinal research is required. The significant
change in work timescale necessitates different approaches to evaluating
efficacy, moving beyond simplistic consultant evaluation questionnaires.
Evaluation should enable original case conceptualizations and objectives
to be assessed against eventual impact together with ongoing refinement and
adaptation. Comprehensive triangulation can be achieved by incorporating
data-driven needs analyses with case conceptualization, intervention
approaches, and consideration of alternative options. Such approaches will
also cater to providers’ social constructivism in intervention design and
deployment. On completion or, more likely in the current climate, when a
benchmark is reached, these same measures and planning parameters will
inform thorough evaluations against design, ongoing refinement, and
endpoint outcomes.
What
Once case conceptualization has been accurately completed, the optimum
“blend” of MST must be designed, incorporating aspects such as timing,
sequencing of the skills taught, and how they fit into a nested periodization
approach. Recent research (e.g., Collins et al., 2018) has emphasized the
importance of periodization, for example, tactical periodization for team
sports and emotional periodization in high-risk adventure or action sports. A
key point here is that the many forms of sport present a very wide spectrum
of challenges and contexts.
Why
SP is no longer a young discipline, yet there is still a significant tendency to
draw uncritically on research from the parent discipline of psychology
(Collins & Kamin, 2012). Considering the complex demands and particular
challenges inherent in performance sport means that practitioners require not
just a bespoke set of skills but specific research to underpin them.
How
The overlapping and interacting nature of issues presents significant
challenges, for example, how to achieve an optimum blend of MS in a
complex social setting with multiple interactions and different personalities
with individual needs. An effective solution we believe is to adopt a PJDM
approach. This is significantly different from “off-the-peg recipes”
disseminated in the pop-psych literature and by social media gurus. Instead,
effective SP support is more complicated and time consuming and requires
thorough analysis and bespoke intervention. The major issue is how much
knowledge and experience are required to deliver this approach.
In the final three questions we discuss the integration of the client, the
practitioner, and culture to maximize the effect of MS interventions. As
illustrated in Figure 5.1, the effects of MST are all influenced by this
interaction and research is required to contribute to a sophisticated
understanding to benefit applied practice and SP service. To aid flow, we
have collapsed the what-why-how structure within the three interacting
factors.
Conclusion
As active pracademics (we research it and do it), we hope that our
observations are of interest to both sides of the research-practice divide.
Indeed, and returning to the point made at the start of this chapter, we hope
that we encourage colleagues to erode and eradicate this divide in what is,
after all, an applied discipline. In closing, we would stress how useful
knowledge from outside a domain, in this case SP, can be, so long as it is
critically reviewed and applied. We trust that message has emerged loud and
clear!
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6
Mental Toughness
Robert Weinberg and Joanne Butt
Since the upsurge of interest in mental toughness research that was sparked
by a seminal paper in 2002 (Jones et al.), researchers have learned a great
deal about different aspects of mental toughness. However, despite all this
research attention, there are lots of questions and issues that remain
unanswered (or are controversial), including the stability of mental
toughness, mental versus physical toughness, the relationship between
mental toughness and mental health, different types of mental toughness,
and the measurement and definition of mental toughness. This chapter will
briefly discuss the current state of mental toughness literature, but as the
title of the text implies, the focus will be on discussing the unknown and
potential areas for future research.
Conclusion
Although we have learned a lot about mental toughness from empirical
data, there is still a great deal that needs to be done to better understand the
different aspects of mental toughness. The purpose of this chapter was to
highlight consistent areas of research regarding mental toughness as well as
areas that need further research and clarification. Specific areas for future
study were offered to help move the field forward in terms of both research
and practice. Hopefully, this chapter will stimulate researchers to continue
to study the many aspects of mental toughness that need further clarification
so both researchers and practitioners can better understand the cognitions,
affects, and behaviors that are associated with mental toughness.
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7
Expert Performance
Joe Baker and Brad Young
Where does exceptionality begin? How do we define and measure it? What
is the role of the environment in promoting or inhibiting the development of
expertise? Despite being critical elements of philosophy for at least two
millennia, empirical examinations of the origins and development of human
exceptionality are relatively recent. It was not until Francis Galton’s work
in the mid-1800s that discussions of genius, talent, and, eventually,
expertise evolved from hypothetical and theoretical arguments to well-
defined hypotheses. The rise of empiricism, especially in areas of
measurement, experimentation, and statistics, meant these hypotheses could
now be tested. Sport eventually became a ripe domain for questions related
to precursors, determinants, developmental conditions, and mechanisms
attributed to talented performance.
Conclusion
The past few decades have seen tremendous growth in our understanding of
expert performance. However, key questions remain, from specific
methodological challenges (e.g., how to replicate performance
environments in controlled settings) to broader philosophical questions
(e.g., whether the pursuit of expertise is ethically defendable). Most of the
questions we have reviewed are not new, but recent advances in technology
and theory suggest solutions or at least resolution may be close. This is an
exciting time, as reflected in the growth of work in this area.
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8
Decision-Making
Itay Basevitch and Gershon Tenenbaum
Conclusion
DM has been examined for more than half a century in the sport domain
(Raab et al., 2019), mainly in individual settings. Future research in the
domain must be directed to avenues that will move the field forward and
extend the boundaries of current experts. Specifically, research must be
directed to the applied area and evidence-based training paradigms
developed that can and will likely be used by coaches. Furthermore,
theoretical research examining the mechanisms and processes related to
team performance and to the neurophysiology level of analysis is needed to
expand our understanding of the complexity of team dynamics and brain
processes during the DM process. Research on creativity and improvisation
in natural settings can identify the underlying mechanisms leading to such
rare and unique DM skills and, importantly, provide knowledge on how best
to implement training methods required for developing these skills. Finally,
a shift in research is also needed in the scope of personnel, specifically,
focusing on coaches who play a major role in determining players’ and
teams’ DM and performance.
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9
Mind-Body Interaction in Sport Psychophysiology
Maurizio Bertollo, Marika Berchicci, and Selenia di Fronso
Conclusion
The investigation of mind-body interaction/integration can benefit from
recent psychophysiology and neuroscience developments. From a
methodological point of view, the miniaturization of devices and the
development of new algorithms for studying neurovisceral functional
connectivity can contribute to the creation of new ecological paradigms in
which scholars can study the psychophysiological features underpinning
athletes’ expert behavior by using a holistic approach. From a theoretical
point of view, it is important to understand not only the role played by
heart-brain communication in self-regulation and attentional control but
also the role of interoception in optimal performance experiences. From an
applied point of view, integrated interventions targeting heart-brain
interactions can help athletes learning how to up/down-regulate peripheral
(e.g., HRV) and central (brain rhythms) physiological responses linked to
optimal performance in sports. In conclusion, a better understanding of the
mind-body-behavior communication can advance interventions for
performance optimization in the field of sport psychology. Specifically,
going back to the future, heart-brain integration in sport performance should
be investigated.
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10
Genetics
Sigal Ben Zaken
In the year 1896, Gregor Mandel, the founding father of genetics, was
deceased and terms such as gene, DNA, and chromosomes were
nonexistent. Yet, at the 1896 Olympic Games, humanity admired sport
performance at its finest. Today, more than 120 years later, genetic
knowledge has been vastly developed, the human genome is decoded, and
advanced applications in genetic engineering have been developed. Yet,
many questions regarding the genetic basis of sport, exercise, and
performance remain unanswered.
Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living
organisms. Most human traits, including psychological and behavioral
traits, are heritable and are based on biological mechanisms. The
heritability of traits such as mental toughness, motivation, and self-
regulation, which are important concepts in sport psychology, is
approximately 50% to 60% (Li et al., 2019; Lin et al., 2017; Willems et al.,
2019), meaning that 50% to 60% of the variability seen in these traits may
be attributed to genetic variability. Yet, these heritability estimations are
based on research conducted on the general population and have not
necessarily been applied to sport, exercise, and physical activity. Research
on the heritability of mental toughness, motivation, and self-regulation in
relation to sport and exercise are rare. Heritability studies are common in
the field of behavioral genetics. Behavioral genetics investigate the nature
and origins of individual differences in behavior mainly by using twin and
family research paradigms.
While heritability estimates the proportion of variability attributed to
genetics, molecular genetics is the field that explores the sources of genetic
variability by studying the structure and function of genes at a molecular
level. The study of molecular genetics in the physiological domain of sport,
exercise, and performance has made large progress during the last decades
along with the general progress in molecular genetic methods. However,
parallel progress in the psychological domain of sport and exercise has not
been made. Thus, it is only natural to assume that behavioral genetics and
molecular genetics will meet at the sport, exercise, and performance
domain, which combines both psychological and physiological traits.
However, this integration has not happened yet, leaving many research
questions open. The present chapter will review some of these questions
and possible future directions.
As in every scientific field, genetics has its own language. In this sense it is
important to emphasize the difference between several interrelated terms
such as trait, inheritance, genetic, DNA, and chromosomes. A trait is a
distinct characteristic variant of an organism; it may be internal or external,
physiological or psychological (Violle et al., 2007). Traits can be
categorized in many ways, for example, “body related” versus “mind
related,” or “inherited” versus “acquired.” Two main constructs compose
the field of genetics: (a) heredity/inheritance, the study of passing traits
from parents to offspring, and (b) molecular genetics, which centers on the
genes’ structure and function and on the way genes and genetic variants
result in traits and trait variability.
Other important terms are gene expression and epigenetics. Gene
expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the
synthesis of a functional gene product, mainly protein. Epigenetics is the
study of heritable changes in gene expression (active versus inactive genes)
that do not involve changes to the underlying DNA, which in turn affect
how cells read the genes. When it comes to the discussion about the role of
genetics in sport performance, one must keep in mind the following:
1. Most human traits, including psychological and behavioral traits, are multifactorial traits and
result from the complex combination of genetic factors, environmental factors, and the
interaction between them (Rice & Reich, 1985).
2. Almost every trait, including psychological traits, relies on biological mechanisms (Kosslyn et
al., 2002) and is facilitated by proteins (such as transporters, neurotransmitters, and receptors).
Therefore, genes play a pivotal role in determining the trait, and genetic variability may result
in trait variability, and hence performance variability.
3. Athletic performance–related traits are sport dependent. Agility, for instance, may be critical
in a certain field and irrelevant in another. While the anatomical/biomechanical/motoric
demands vary from one sport to another, mental requirements such as motivation, grit, and
determination pertain to most if not all sports.
4. Adaption to training is characterized by changes at the cellular and molecular levels, and
therefore by changes in protein synthesis. However, adaption to training is characterized not
only by physiological changes but also by the subjective-affective experience of training and
the psychosocially conditioned training motivation (Bryan et al., 2011). Therefore, changes in
gene expression might be expected also in psychological mechanisms related to initiation,
acceptance, and maintenance of training.
Suggested Reading
To fully capture the complexity and multidimensional character of
questions regarding the genetics and psychology of motor performance, I
suggest the readings listed in Table 10.1, although many others might be
enlightening as well.
Table 10.1 Five Key Readings in Genetics in the Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
Domain
Authors Methodological Key Findings
Design
Wang et al. Review; Hypothesis-free genome-wide approaches will provide
(2016) summarizes current comprehensive coverage and in-depth understanding of the
and future biology underlying sports-related traits and related genetic
directions in mechanisms. Large, collaborative projects with sound
exercise genetics experimental designs (e.g., clearly defined phenotypes,
and genomics considerations and controls for sources of variability, and
necessary replications) are required to produce meaningful
results.
Valeeva & Book chapter; To date, 16 psychogenetics-specific genetic markers have been
Rees prospective view of reported to be associated with predisposition to specific sports
(2019) the up-to-date (via case-control designs), and 12 markers have been linked with
genetic personality traits (via genotype-phenotype designs) in athletes.
polymorphisms Future genetic research with large cohorts of athletes, with further
related to validation and replication, will substantially contribute to the
psychological traits discovery of causal genetic variants, which may partly explain the
among athletes heritability of athlete status and related psychological phenotypes.
Johnson et Original research, Though this research is not sport oriented, it provides one of the
al. (2016) association study; first polygenic examinations of behavioral traits. Its main finding
explores relations is that BDNF is related to threat sensitivity, and OPRM1 is related
between genetic to reward sensitivity. The findings support the merit of a
polymorphisms and combined psychological and genetic approach.
behavioral
inhibition
system/behavioral
activation system
(BIS/BAS)
Gottschling Original research, Though this research is not sport oriented, it emphasizes that
et al. twin study; genetic mediation analyses can contribute to our understanding of
(2016) comparison phenotypic mediation in personal and self-regulation, and the
between relationship between neuroticism and stress resistance
monozygotic and
dizygotic twins
Ben-Zaken Book chapter; The chapter contributes to the ongoing nature-nurture debate by
et al. narrative view on emphasizing the role of genetics in expertise development and
(2019) the gene- suggests a dynamic model for the gene-environment paradigm in
environment sport expertise.
paradigm
Questions to Move the Field Forward
1. Theoretical and Applied Question: How Can We Optimize
Personalized Training With the Help of Genetic Knowledge?
The 21st century has been characterized by a constant push toward genetic
knowledge–based personalization in medicine (Hamburg & Collins, 2010)
and nutrition (Drabsch & Holzapfel, 2019). It is just natural to assume that
sport and exercise training will also be part of this paradigm. Evidence has
emerged that large interindividual variation exists regarding the magnitude
and direction of adaption following exercise (Bamman et al., 2007; Hubal et
al., 2005). Yet, only a small number of studies have been conducted to
identify biological/genetic factors responsible for interpersonal variability
in training responses.
The goal of most training programs is to maximize the dose/response
specific to the long-term objective(s). A number of studies have revealed
important aspects of how cells respond to exercise (Neufer et al., 2015), but
very little is known as to how these molecular responses ultimately translate
to the individual’s physiological, metabolic, and behavioral response. This
in turn limits the ability to prescribe the desired dose required for optimal
long-term outcomes. Nevertheless, the variation in psychological aspects
related to training responsiveness is usually ignored, though it is well
established that both cognition and mental factors contribute to
performance. Recently, several research findings indicated that individual
trainability can change during the life course due to external factors such as
nutrition or stress (Mann, Lamberts, & Lambert, 2014). This is where
epigenetics comes into play. Again, epigenetics deals with processes that
alter gene expression patterns without affecting the DNA sequence. Though
individualization is a well-established key principle in periodization of
sports training, to date, this kind of individualization does not incorporate
genetic variables into the individualization procedure. Therefore, future
interdisciplinary work in the field of individualized training will have to
integrate epigenetics, sociology, and psychology into reasonable research
programs.
Therefore, future research in the field of genetically based individualized
training needs to take into account two main aspects: intraindividual
repetition of measurements including the systematic combination of group-
based and individual information and the joint consideration of multiple
explanatory variables including psychological, genetic, and epigenetic
variables. While these two fundamental considerations are based on
statistical principles, their full implementation is beset with many practical
difficulties. Therefore, from an applied perspective, the ways of
implementing personalized training will differ considerably depending on
the specific task and the framework conditions (Hecksteden & Meyer,
2018).
Conclusion
It seems that it is almost impossible to capture the complexity and
multidimensionality of sport performance in a simplified way. Any study on
the genetic basis of motor performance must incorporate the psychological
domain and the complicated interaction between psychological and
physiological traits as well as the continuous interaction with the
environment.
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11
Group Dynamics
Edson Filho and Francisco Miguel Leo
Conclusion
In summary, we believe that future research should explore the antecedents
of key team processes and seek to evolve an integrated and parsimonious
theory of team dynamics and team resilience. Furthermore, we suggest that
novel research using big analytic and psychophysiological monitoring
methods is needed to advance our understanding of physiological and
neural markers of team processes and outcomes. Finally, we propose that
advancing research on multibrain monitoring will allow for the
development of shared (multiperson) bio- and neurofeedback interventions.
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12
Athlete Leadership
Todd M. Loughead, Krista J. Munroe-Chandler, Matthieu M. Boisvert, and
Katherine E. Hirsch
Conclusion
Although the field of athlete leadership is still in its infancy, researchers,
over the last 15 years, have been steadily publishing research findings
utilizing both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. The five questions
forwarded in this chapter are important for advancing our knowledge in this
field and are important for establishing athlete leadership as an emerging
field of inquiry. The use of different methodologies has allowed for the
examination of various research questions. We see this as a strength and
encourage researchers to continue using a combination of methodologies in a
quest to further understand the complexities of athlete leadership. To grow
the field of athlete leadership, it will be important to use fundamentally
sound theoretical frameworks. We have advanced a working framework to
encourage researchers to examine the components of our model but more
importantly stimulate thoughts and ideas on conceptualizing a framework
that is unique to athlete leadership. To assist in the examination of the
relationships contained within our working framework, the development of
an athlete leadership–specific inventory is required. Further, we have
distinguished between a leader and leadership, which can be used to assist
researchers in clarifying the focus of their research questions. Is the focus of
a particular study concerned with the leader or with elements of the
leadership process? Finally, there are relatively few studies examining the
development of athlete leadership. Typically, most interventions have used
face-to-face methods of delivery, which can be limiting in terms of reach. To
provide universal access, the use of online technologies should be examined
to determine their effectiveness. By highlighting questions that require
investigation, we hope this will encourage researchers to critically examine
those questions with the goal of expanding knowledge and application.
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SECTION 2
HEALTH AND WELL-BEING
13
Mental Health
Brad Donohue, Gavin Breslin, and Shane Murphy
Prevalence.
The true prevalence of diagnosable psychiatric disorders in athletes is
undetermined, particularly in youth athletes (Donohue, Gavrilova, &
Strong, 2020). Adult athletes have usually been found to experience about
the same severity of symptoms associated with depression, anxiety, and
eating and substance use disorders relative to the general population (Rice
et al., 2016). However, symptom severity rates vary greatly across studies
due to differences in methodological rigor, population characteristics, study
year, instrumentation, and so on. For instance, rates of symptoms associated
with mood disorders have ranged from 4% (Schaal et al., 2011) to 68%
(Hammond et al., 2013). Thus, well-designed studies specific to athletes’
mental health disorder prevalence are warranted.
Mental health awareness programs.
There is a need to enhance awareness of the continuum of mental health and
its management in athletes, including psychological skills training aimed at
reducing stigma and other barriers associated with the pursuit of mental
health care and improving help-seeking behaviors. Implementation
guidelines and evaluation of mental health awareness programs in nonelite
contexts are especially crucial because they are relevant to the vast majority
of sport participants worldwide. Examples of these programs are
summarized by Breslin and Leavey (2019), who highlighted considerable
program heterogeneity in sports settings, athlete populations, mental health
problems, and evaluations. As reported, awareness programs that are
sensitive to sport culture are recommended. Notable awareness programs
include Ahead of the Game (Liddle et al., 2019), State of Mind Ireland
(Breslin et al., 2019), and online applications (Gulliver et al., 2012; for a
systematic review see Breslin et al., 2017). These programs are innovative
and often incorporate modern technology. For instance, in one program
video, case studies of former student-athletes struggling with mental illness
are utilized to facilitate discussion of mental health (Kern et al., 2017). Van
Raalte et al. (2015) developed an interactive multimedia website
(http://www.supportforsport.org/) to assist athletes in making mental health
referrals and improving their knowledge about mental health.
Implementation of Help Out a Mate (HOAM; Liddle et al., 2019) was
demonstrated to increase youth athletes’ intentions to provide help to other
athlete friends and increase knowledge of the signs of mental illness.
Mental health intervention engagement strategies in collegiate athletes have
also been evaluated in controlled trials (Donohue et al., 2004, 2016;
Gulliver et al., 2012). These programs have assisted in the development of
athletes’ positive perspectives of mental health interventions but have not
significantly improved attendance to mental health intervention. In response
to the emergence of mental health awareness in sport programs, an
international group was established (Breslin et al., 2019) to provide
consensus recommendations for program designers and deliverers,
policymakers, and commissioners with respect to terminology that can be
operationalized when promoting mental health awareness, program design
principles, and methods of evaluation.
Conclusion
Although there has been increased interest in athletes’ mental health,
athletes continue to underutilize mental health care services. To address
poor service utilization, mental health awareness and engagement
interventions have been developed. Several programs have been indicated
to reduce stigma associated with the pursuit of mental health care. Mental
health screening tools and mental wellness assessment measures have been
psychometrically developed in college student and professional athletes,
and sport-specific mental health interventions (exclusively CBT and
mindfulness based) have been found to improve psychiatric symptomology
in college athletes. However, these programs have yet to be implemented in
practice settings.
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1 This scale is included in Table 13.1 due to its model use of psychometric evaluation
methodology.
14
Affective Responses to Exercise
Panteleimon Ekkekakis and Mark E. Hartman
Figure 14.2. Opportunities for interventions to improve affective responses, illustrating the multiple
levels that can be targeted (from cultural and policy shifts to how exercise is implemented).
Figure 14.3. Multiple ways to operationalize the affective response to a bout of exercise, from
averages (during exercise and recovery), to the slope of change, to (positive and negative) “peaks” and
“end.”
Conclusion
Over the past two decades, the study of affective responses to exercise has
made considerable advances from the days of reiterating the “exercise makes
people feel better” mantra. The overhaul of the methodological platform has
enabled researchers to delineate the shape of the dose-response relation
between exercise intensity and affect. In turn, this has opened the door to
investigations and theoretical models that attempt to link the affective
experiences of exercise to subsequent behavior. This line of research has the
potential to reshape not only exercise psychology (by proposing theoretical
models that offer an expanded view of the mechanisms underlying exercise
and physical activity behavior) but also exercise science in general (by
changing the principles that underlie exercise prescriptions and physical
activity recommendations). Certainly, considerable work remains. Hopefully,
the questions we have identified here will inspire a new generation of
investigators to become involved.
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15
Health Behavior and Exercise Adherence
Selen Razon and Michael Sachs
Conclusion
Although the psychology of exercise must be considered to gain a greater
understanding of the human experience of exercise, including response to
exercise and associated outcomes, investigation and application of this
knowledge are still in a bourgeoning stage. From a broader perspective,
while there is a general understanding in terms of how the psychological
and biological interact to influence each other over the course of exercise,
there are still many questions we have to address. We are confident that
through the habit of scientific inquiry and an evidence-based mindset,
researchers and practitioners will come to address these questions and help
advance the understanding of the psychology of exercise.
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16
Mindfulness in Exercise Psychology
Sarah Ullrich-French and Anne E. Cox
Conclusion
The potential for applying mindfulness in the exercise context for
enhancing positive outcomes is clear, but there is a lot of work yet to be
done. Gaps in our knowledge include what modes of exercise, for whom,
and how is mindfulness best applied to exercise. Employing rigorous study
designs, applying the appropriate level and mode of assessment, and
identifying moderators will increase the precision of conclusions made,
particularly for identifying mechanisms for the effects of mindfulness and
the application of effective interventions. The questions identified
previously serve as a starting place and demonstrate the breadth of
theoretical, methodological, and applied issues that have yet to be
systematically pursued.
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17
Exercise and Aging
Michel Audiffren and Nathalie André
Conclusion
The positive effect of chronic exercise on cognitive aging is no more
debated in the scientific and medical literature. It can be viewed as a far-
transfer effect of exercise on cognitive functions, and more particularly on
executive control. What needs to be improved in the future is the
understanding of the synergistic effects of the different mechanisms leading
to these positive effects in order to propose more effective exercise
programs and magnify their effects at the behavioral level. In addition, it
seems crucial to identify moderators of this causal relationship in order to
tailor these exercise programs to individual characteristics. Finally, theory-
driven behavioral change techniques based on cognitive processes must be
elaborated to increase compliance and adherence of the older participants to
the exercise programs.
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18
Youth Sport
Daniel Gould and Michael Mignano
Conclusion
Helping children gain the many physical, psychological, and social benefits
of sport participation is one of the most important areas of research in the
field of sport and exercise psychology. Youth sport offers a unique
opportunity to positively influence millions of children across the globe. To
do this, however, researchers must ask questions that will have major
impact and use the most appropriate and advanced methods for addressing
those questions. We hope this chapter will help both current and future
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19
Career Transitions and Change
Roy David Samuel
Over the last decade, the athlete’s career transition literature has shifted
from a deterministic (or linear) to a probabilistic (nonlinear) perspective.
Athletes’ careers can be perceived as a roller coaster ride, shaped by
transitions, change-events, appraisals, decision-making, coping, and
environmental influences. Transitions are turning phases in athletes’ career
development, associated with a set of specific demands. They can be
classified as normative, nonnormative, and quasi-normative. Change-events
are distinct events or longitudinal processes that disrupt the athletic
engagement status quo and create emotional and cognitive imbalance and
initiate a demand for change (Stambulova & Samuel, 2020).
Athletes can enjoy a fruitful and meaningful career as long as they
positively adapt to the various transitional periods and changes
encountered, potentially creating multiple career pathways. Furthermore,
research has expanded to additional sport performers, such as e-sport and
extreme sports athletes, coaches, and referees. Finally, the lives of sport
performers have considerably changed in the past decade as a result of the
globalization process, social media, and migration, requiring career
researchers to modify existing conceptualizations. This chapter, therefore,
provides a critical examination of the recent developments in the career
transition and change literature, mainly focusing on critical questions to be
asked and a prospective view of this field.
Conclusion
This chapter critically reviewed the recent developments in the area of
career transitions and change in sport. Although many of these
developments are attuned to the global human developments we witness
nowadays (e.g., globalization, dual careers), researchers still are challenged
to identify the complex contexts within which athletes are developing their
careers. Considerable conceptual and empirical efforts are required to
portray the careers of athletes (and other sport performers) and how
transitions and change-events play a significant role in shaping career
pathways. Both researchers and practitioners should be more critical when
evaluating adaptation and coping in the context of transitional experiences.
Finally, it is critical to acknowledge that as this field moves forward, so do
the lives of sport performers; they have unique characteristics and
“psychological worlds” that need to be carefully considered to effectively
support them in their career pathways.
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20
Fatigue, Overtraining, and Burnout
Robert C. Eklund and J. D. DeFreese
Conclusion
Overall, this chapter presents a synthesis and roadmap for the next decade
of sport science research with the goal to advance the scope of knowledge
on these three important sport psychology topics. The concepts of fatigue,
overtraining, and burnout are conceptually complex, but that complexity
provides sport science scholars with many exciting opportunities to be
innovative on applied, theoretical, and methodological accounts. It will take
interdisciplinary scholarship to continue to define and differentiate these
constructs. The use of relevant theory and appropriate designs to understand
the shared and unique components of their development should be revealing
in ways that will allow successful intervention and meaningful evaluation to
promote athlete health and well-being. We feel recovery science represents
a conceptual framework that, along with relevant theory and extant athlete
burnout research, could provide a valuable guide for the use of the
prospective, longitudinal, and theoretically informed interventions best
suited for answering these complex questions. Ultimately, we hope this
chapter provides a useful guide to researchers who, like ourselves, are
interested in furthering knowledge on these important topics of fatigue,
overtraining, and burnout in sport.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge and thank the members of the recently created Burnout in
Sport Network for their gracious and thoughtful suggestions on topical
ideas for this chapter.
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21
Injury and Concussion
Leslie Podlog, Stefanie Podlog, and Jeffrey G. Caron
Rehabilitation
In examining factors influencing rehabilitation, scholars have consistently
used Wiese-Bjornstal and colleagues’ (1998) integrated model of response
to sport injury. The central assumption of the model is that the same
individual and situational variables that influence injury risk also influence
athletes’ postinjury responses. In particular, a host of personal (e.g., injury-
specific, psychological, demographic, physical) and situational (e.g., sport
types, social, environmental) factors are posited to influence cognitive (e.g.,
goals, self-perceptions, injury attributions), emotional (e.g., frustration,
grief), and behavioral responses to injury (e.g., adherence to rehabilitation,
malingering) in a cyclical fashion, all of which are suggested to influence
recovery outcomes (i.e., physical and psychological). In support of the
model, numerous personal (e.g., self-motivation, pain tolerance, self-
efficacy) and situational variables (e.g., social support, patient-practitioner
rapport) have been associated with athletes’ cognitive, emotional, and
behavioral responses throughout the rehabilitation time frame (Brewer &
Redmond, 2017). For instance, Caron and colleagues (2013) described the
deleterious implications of repeated concussion on former National Hockey
League players’ cognitive, emotional, and behavioral/interpersonal
functioning. Athletes articulated feelings of alarm and distress associated
with the physical symptoms of concussion (e.g., vision impairments,
headaches), experiences of isolation and withdrawal, profound emotional
upheaval (e.g., anxiety and depression), and changing self-perceptions
during their transition out of professional sport. The importance of
situational factors, namely social support, in coping with concussion and
retirement was also described (Caron et al., 2013).
Psychological interventions such as imagery, relaxation, goal setting, and
written emotional disclosure have been shown to improve emotional
response, rehabilitation adherence, pain, and functional ability (Brewer &
Redmond, 2017). Recent interdisciplinary efforts focused on understanding
the mechanisms of intervention effects demonstrate that interventions such
as imagery or relaxation may expedite the recovery process through
neurophysiological changes, such as increased motor-force generation in
the cortex and improved programming and planning in the motor system
(Clark et al., 2014). For example, in their experimental study, Clark et al.
(2014) found that mental imagery training attenuated the loss of muscle
strength and voluntary activation (the nervous systems ability to fully
activate muscle) by ∼50% (23.8 ± 5.6% and 12.9 ± 3.2% reductions,
respectively). Scholars have also found that interpersonal interventions
focused on social support and positive patient-practitioner rapport can
improve athlete rehabilitation adherence and well-being (Brewer &
Redmond, 2017). Additional well-powered, experimental studies are
needed, however, to support efficacy claims for various interventions such
as imagery (Zach et al., 2018), social support, and emotional disclosure.
Return to Sport
The return-to-sport time frame refers to the period when athletes transition
from rehabilitation to sport-specific training and competition. Evidence
suggests that intrinsic or personally valued reasons for returning to sport
(e.g., a love of the game) predict a greater likelihood of return to sport,
more positive return-to-sport outcomes (e.g., greater sport appreciation,
increased mental toughness), and more positive appraisals and emotions
regarding an upcoming return to sport (Ardern et al., 2013; Podlog &
Eklund, 2010). Substantial research also highlights the fact that competence
(e.g., reinjury anxieties, worries about postinjury performance), autonomy
(e.g., pressures to return to sport, a lack of control over rehabilitation
progress), and relatedness (e.g., feelings of isolation from one’s teammates)
issues are pertinent as athletes’ re-enter the competitive arena (Ardern et al.,
2013). For instance, a key competence-based concern—reinjury anxiety—
has been shown to delay or prevent a return to sport, increase attentional
distraction, and adversely impact athletes’ postinjury performances (e.g.,
Ardern et al., 2013; Gray, 2015). Gray (2015) found experimental evidence
that injured expert position baseball players (n = 10) who received medical
clearance to return to sport but had not yet begun playing competitively
performed significantly worse on a simulated batting task compared to
noninjured experts (n = 10). Moreover, comparisons between injured and
noninjured experts on a secondary judgment task involving perceptions of
one’s knee angle while swinging the bat revealed that injured experts were
more aware of their knee angles while at bat compared to their noninjured
counterparts. The latter finding indicated that injury induced an internal
focus of attention, which may have in part accounted for performance
decrements on the simulated batting task.
Although there is evidence of greater interdisciplinary collaboration,
traditionally, research on the psychosocial aspects of sport injury has been
siloed and/or limited in focus. We believe there are several explanations for
this. First, pragmatic considerations such as the need to obtain a particular
sample size for statistical analyses and the challenges inherent in
objectively assessing performance across a variety of sports (e.g., effective
postinjury performance in swimming may be different than in rugby) have
typically led researchers to retrospectively examine whether one perception
(e.g., motivations to return to sport) correlates with another perception (e.g.,
postinjury performance). In doing so, researchers have ultimately limited
the types of postinjury outcomes (e.g., objective performance, movement
patterns, reinjury rates) that have been examined and precluded the need for
interdisciplinary collaboration. Limited and competitive funding for
research focused on injured athlete populations has also restricted the
likelihood that researchers examine the types of questions that necessitate
interdisciplinary methods, for example, examining the influence of
psychological factors (e.g., cognitive or emotional response to injury) on
physiological (e.g., hormonal) or motor performance behaviors. A final
explanation for siloed research in this area may pertain to interest in
collaborating across disciplinary lines. While caution is warranted in
making broad generalizations, researchers in the physical sciences (e.g.,
physiology, biomechanics) have traditionally viewed nonexperimental
approaches—such as qualitative and cross-sectional designs typically
employed in the psychology of sport injury—as “soft science” and may,
therefore, be less interested in working with psychology of sport injury
researchers. Despite these challenges, theoretical, methodological, and
practical advances in sport injury research may be gained through further
interdisciplinary research. In the next section, we articulate five questions
spanning the three phases—preinjury, rehabilitation, and return to sport—
that are best addressed from an interdisciplinary perspective. An
interdisciplinary approach is one in which the expertise of scholars from
different disciplines is brought to bear on the research problem in question.
Table 21.1 Five Key Readings in Psychosocial Aspects of Sport Injury
Authors Methodological Key Findings
Design
Caron et Qualitative—a National Hockey League players described how concussion
al. focus on the symptoms adversely affected their professional careers, personal
(2013) rehabilitation and relationships, and quality of life.
retirement phases
Clark et Experimental—a Imagery can reduce muscle weakness and mitigate voluntary
al. focus on the activation. The neocortex may have an important impact on muscle
(2014) rehabilitation strength.
phase
Gray Experimental—a Injury induces an internal focus and results in diminished motor
(2015) focus on the performance.
return-to-sport
phase
Ivarsson Meta-analysis—a Stress is a consistent predictor of increased injury risk. Psychosocial
et al. focus on the interventions can mitigate injury risk.
(2017) preinjury phase
Podlog Experimental—a Greater self-determination in the return to competition resulted in
& focus on the more positive appraisals (increased desirability, reduced threat,
Eklund return-to-sport unfairness, ego damage) and enhanced positive affect (greater
(2010) phase happiness and excitement).
Conclusion
In this chapter, we have reviewed research focused on the psychosocial
aspects of musculoskeletal injury and sport-related concussion. Our review
synthesized scholarship spanning three phases of the injury experience,
namely psychological antecedents, rehabilitation, and the return to sport
following rehabilitation. In examining this body of work, we argued that
research on the psychology of sport injury has traditionally been siloed
from other disciplines. In articulating five questions pertaining to sport
injury, our goal has been to inspire further interdisciplinary work. By
utilizing interdisciplinary teams, researchers may better understand nuanced
interactions and connections between mind and body that influence injury
risk, recovery, and return to sport. Ultimately, such understanding can
inform evidence-based practice and clinical intervention with injured
athletes.
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22
Moral Behavior and Doping
Vassilis Barkoukis and Anne-Marie Elbe
Conclusion
In conclusion, our chapter illustrates that there are numerous unanswered
research questions regarding moral behavior and doping that pertain to
theoretical, methodological, and applied aspects. It is our hope that by
researching these questions a contribution to a deeper understanding of the
relationship between morality, ethics, and doping and an accurate
assessment of doping prevalence can be made. This knowledge could then
be applied when developing educational interventions aimed at tackling one
of the greatest threats of modern sports.
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SECTION 3
CULTURAL AND PROFESSIONAL ISSUES
23
Ethics
Jack C. Watson II, Brandonn S. Harris, and Megan Byrd
Conclusion
A paucity of literature focused on the assessment of ethical issues in SEPP
existed prior to the turn of the 21st century. More recently the literature
written on this topic has focused primarily upon the provision of practical
suggestions to help practitioners address ethical issues while working in the
field, with very few empirically based studies focused on ethics. In most
cases, the practical suggestions in the literature stemmed from reviews of
SEPP ethical standards that have been derived from the parent field of
psychology. As suggested by Aoyagi and Portenga (2010), a stronger focus
upon positive and virtue ethics within the profession could have the added
benefit of encouraging students and practitioners to strive to find the best
practitioner versions of themselves.
Ethics research in SEPP has also suffered from several methodological-
and sampling-related issues. For instance, consistently low response rates
within research focused on ethical issues often limit the generalizability of
the findings. Thus, the suggestions within this chapter focused on the
development of a more empirically based study of ethics in the field and
identified suggested modifications to the research methodologies used.
There is also a need to empirically understand the internal and external
structural issues within the field that are commonly associated with ethical
concerns, the common ethical beliefs and behaviors of practitioners, and the
methods used by practitioners to make ethical decisions from a variety of
methodological designs. These research questions are essential to the
development of a better understanding of the ethical issues impacting
professional behavior in SEPP. With an improved understanding of
important and common ethical issues and how experienced practitioners
navigate these issues and the factors that impact their decisions, we will be
in a much better position to educate future practitioners relative to their
ethical practices and behaviors.
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24
Cross-Cultural, Multi-Cultural, and Intercultural
Issues
Thierry R. F. Middleton, Robert J. Schinke, Brennan Petersen, and Cole E. Giffin
Conclusion
Our aim in this chapter has been to highlight five unknowns related to
cultural, cross-cultural, and intercultural issues in sport. The first of these is
the need for further theoretical frameworks that enable researchers to
recognize and explore the impact of athletes’ multiple, intersecting
identities. One proposal is for an exploration of how quantitative and
qualitative methods may provide complementary knowledge in research
examining how appreciating and empowering of athletes’ diverse identities
may contribute to their holistic development. Second, recognizing that
researchers and practitioners also have diverse life stories, we encourage
them to undertake a reflective/reflexive approach to understanding their
position in relation to the athletes they are working with so that cultural
differences may be acknowledged and brought to the fore through
discussion. Third, conducting research in a reflexive manner can aid
researchers in ensuring that their work is meaningful to the athletes they
work with, which, fourth, may require researchers to critically interrogate
how they represent their findings in a manner that is relevant and accessible
to the athletes they work with. Presenting these methods in a transparent
manner will help qualitative sport and exercise psychology researchers
continue to develop innovative representation methods. Finally, ensuring
that our work is grounded in the needs and desires of the athlete requires
engaging in context-driven practices. Developing the skills needed to work
with athletes from diverse cultural backgrounds in a reflexive and
contextually-driven manner can help reposition the athletes we work with
as partners in the research process. This is important as it recognizes
athletes as experts of their own needs and desires, which should be a key
determinant of the foci and approaches to research. Following the theme of
the book, we encourage researchers and practitioners to take the unknowns
we have posed as a starting point as they transfer our suggestions to their
own practice and research. We look forward to the development and sharing
of new creative methods through which we may best learn from those we
work with.
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25
Supervision
David Tod, Martin Eubank, Hayley E. McEwan, Charlotte Chandler, and Moira
Lafferty
Conclusion
The supervisor-supervisee relationship can be a rewarding vehicle to ride
when running smoothly. Both parties can learn about themselves, about
each other, and about how to help athletes. They can also find time to enjoy
the scenery as they navigate the twists and turns in the road. If, however, the
fan belt breaks, a tire blows out, or oil levels drop to critical, then the
individuals can lose their way, their momentum, and their goodwill towards
each other. When learning how to drive, maintain, or even restore a car,
drivers can often locate help from a manual tailored to their vehicle. In
comparison, few manuals on sport psychology supervision exist.
Nevertheless, helpful studies have been published that shine their headlights
on avenues of future research. We present some avenues that, if upgraded
into highways, would allow trainees and their professional elders to access
the larger supervision territory. Increased access to the territory would pave
the way for a well-maintained supervision superhighway or autobahn.
Sound running supervision will lead to trainees with the skills, insights, and
competencies to assist clients and benefit the wider profession.
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Afterword
Furthermore, the book consists of 125 essential literature outputs, and the
majority, 62%, have been published within the past 5 years (Figure A.2). The
literature outputs are varied with 77 research articles and 48 review articles
or book chapters (i.e., meta-analyses, systematic reviews, or narrative
reviews), as illustrated in Figure A.3.
Figure A.2 Number of literature outputs found in the book by year published.
Figure A.3 Percentage of literature output types represented in the book.
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Index
For the benefit of digital users, indexed terms that span two pages (e.g., 52–53) may, on occasion,
appear on only one of those pages.
Tables and figures are indicated by t and f following the page number
Facebook, 344
fatigue
decision-making and, 125
differentiating from burnout and overtraining, 279–80, 281, 285–86
heart-brain connection and, 125–26
interventions, evaluation of, 284–85
interventions for, 283–84
key readings in, 282t
markers of, 285, 286, 287–88
monitoring of, 278–79, 287–88
psychobiological model of, 129
recovery science and, 281–82, 287–88
research designs for, 288–89
state of the art on, 278–79
Federer, Roger, 96–97
feedback. See also Biofeedback; Neurofeedback
from coaches, 113–14, 258–59
flow and, 48, 54
as leadership behavior, 162–63
in mental skills training, 68
self-efficacy and, 4
feminist scholars, 340
fencing, 109
fidelity, 64
field hockey, 109
Filho, E., 150t
First Tee life skills–based golf program, 251
Flanker test, 129
flexibility, measurement, 113
flow
clutch states, integrated model with, 48–50, 49f, 57–58
framework, traditional, 47, 57–58
interventions for, 56–57
key readings on, 50t
maximization of, 55–56
measurement of, 48, 52
occurrence, how and why of, 54–55
overview of, 46–48
physiological marker of, 56
psychophysiological effects of, 56
state of the art on, 47–48
transitions between clutch states and, 48–50, 55, 56
types of, 48–50
Flow State Scale-2 (FSS-2), 48, 52
fluency, measurement, 113
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), 109–10, 233
focused concentration, 76–77
focus groups, 41
Fogaca, J.L., 353t
Foltz, B.D., 353t
football players, 301, 304
Fosbury jump technique, 112
foveal spot, 24–25
foveal vision, 24, 28–29
Fransen, K., 164t
FRLM (full range leadership model), 165–66
FSS-2 (Flow State Scale-2), 48, 52
full range leadership model (FRLM), 165–66
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 109–10, 233
habits, 246
Hadlow, S.M., 107t
handgrip intervention, 35–36, 40
hardiness, 78–79, 85–86
Hardy, L., 80t
Harris, B.S., 325t
Hatfield, B.D., 120t
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., 339t
health-enhancing behaviors, 14–15, 256–57, 301–2
health psychology, 78–79
heartbeat-evoked potentials (HEPs), 122, 124, 125, 126–27
heart-brain interactions
arousal-emotion-attention-performance linkage and, 123–24
interoception and, 124, 125–26
neuromuscular fatigue and, 125–26
neuro-visceral-cognitive interventions and, 128–29
overview of, 118, 120
performance optimization and, 126–27
psychophysiological measures on, 122–23
self-regulation and, 123–24
heart rate variability (HRV), 122, 123–24
Help Out a Mate, 177–78
Hemphill, D., 310t
heredity, 135, 137. See also Genetics
heritability studies, 133–34
HEROES, 316–17
high school athletes, 170, 178–79
holistic model of image perception, 21
homeostatic regulation, 125–26, 194–95
Horsburgh, V., 80t
Host Community Acculturation Scale, 336–37
Houge Mackenzie, S., 50t
human agency, 8–9
Human Genome Project, 144
Hunt, M., 227t
Hutter, R.I.V., 353t
hyperbrain methodologies, 156–57
narcissism, 32–33
narrative analysis, 358–59
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), 188–89
National Hockey League, 294–95
nature versus nurture, 92–93, 134, 137. See also Genetics
neural markers, 149
neurofeedback, 27, 119–20, 127, 128
neuroimaging, 233
neuromuscular fatigue, 125–26
neurophysiological measures
of attentional processes, 26–27, 28–29
choking under pressure and, 34–35, 39–40
on heart-brain relationship, 122–23
perceptual-cognitive processes, 106–7
technology for, 27, 109–10, 127
neurophysiological status, 243
neuroticism, 229
NeuroTracker, 128–29
neurotrophic factors, 240, 242–43
neurotrophic hypothesis of aging, 240, 242–43
neurovisceral integration model, 124
newcomers, integration, 336–40, 343–44
nonlinear relationships, 5, 10
normative ethics, 324–25
norms, 299, 337–38
novices, attentional focus of, 21, 23
Ntoumanis, N., 310t