December 2022

Exploring Software
Defined Radio
(featuring Raspberry Pi Projects)
 Table of Contents

04 CHAPTER - 1 Introduction

04 CHAPTER - 2 What are RF & Wireless Communications?

06 CHAPTER - 3 Introduction to Software Defined Radio

07 CHAPTER - 4 SDR and RF with the Raspberry Pi

10 CHAPTER - 5 Other SDR Development Platforms

13 CHAPTER - 6 SDR Projects with Raspberry Pi

14 CHAPTER - 7 How to Make a Coat Hanger Antenna

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 Introduction to SDR

element14 is a Community of over 800,000 makers, professional engineers, electronics enthusiasts, and
everyone in between. Since our beginnings in 2009, we have provided a place to discuss electronics, get
help with your designs and projects, show off your skills by building a new prototype, and much more. We
also offer online learning courses such as our Essentials series, video tutorials from element14 Presents,
and electronics competitions with our Design Challenges.

Today’s modern devices have become smarter, with communications capabilities that are becoming
increasingly advanced. Many devices offer wireless connectivity. This eBook will explore topics related
to RF and wireless communications, such as antennas and Software Defined Radio, featuring projects
utilizing the Raspberry Pi.

element14 Community Team

https://community.element14.com/learn/publications/ebooks/ 3
CHAPTER - 1 Introduction

RF and wireless communications is an area that is becoming more prominent in the maker community.
This may have to do with the popularity of emerging wireless devices. Technologies such as the
Internet of Things (IoT), software-defined radio (SDR), and Bluetooth have spawned a large number
of development boards that have made it very simple to begin exploring the complex topic of RF and
wireless communications.

In this eBook, we will review RF and introduce SDR, as well as explore some hardware options that
allow users to begin tinkering in the wireless space. Finally, we will dive into some examples of SDR
projects with the Raspberry Pi.

CHAPTER - 2 What are RF & Wireless Communications?

Radio frequency (RF) refers to wireless signals that propagate over the air in the form of electromagnetic
waves. These waves oscillate at a specific rate which is known as the frequency of the signal. RF
technologies utilize a vast array of frequencies from 3KHz to 300GHz. Hertz [Hz] is the unit of measurement
which defines the oscillation rate of the wave. For example, 1Hz refers to 1 cycle per second, whereas 1MHz
refers to 1 million cycles per second. RF signals are used for wireless communications, radar technology,
medical devices, and more. In fact, light and colors in general are a form of electromagnetic waves that
propagate at specific frequencies.

The frequency of a signal can offer many advantages and disadvantages. Generally speaking, higher
frequencies do not travel as far as low-frequency signals; however, operating at higher frequencies can allow
for larger amounts of data throughput. In addition, the desired frequency of operation of a communication
system will affect the overall size of the antenna needed, as we will see later.

Figure 1. RF spectrum bands allocation. Image Source: www.nasa.gov

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 Primary
Secondary
SERVICE
FIXED
MOBILE

current status of U.S. allocations.

AMATEUR

SATELLITE
SATELLITE

Mobile
FIXED
ACTIVITY CODE
AERONAUTICAL

BROADCASTING

BROADCASTING
AERONAUTICAL
AERONAUTICAL

EXAMPLE
FIXED SATELLITE

FEDERAL EXCLUSIVE
RADIONAVIGATION
MOBILE SATELLITE

AMATEUR SATELLITE

EARTH EXPLORATION

NON-FEDERAL EXCLUSIVE

JANUARY 2016
Capital Letters
DESCRIPTION
MOBILE
MARITIME

Office of Spectrum Management

SATELLITE
SATELLITE

SATELLITE

ALLOCATION USAGE DESIGNATION

LAND MOBILE
LAND MOBILE
INTER-SATELLITE

METEOROLOGICAL
METEOROLOGICAL

MOBILE SATELLITE
RADIONAVIGATION

1st Capital with lower case letters

MARITIME MOBILE
MARITIME MOBILE

NTIA. As such, it may not completely reflect all aspects, i.e. footnotes and recent changes made to the Table
of Frequency Allocations. Therefore, for complete information, users should consult the Table to determine the
This chart is a graphic single-point-in-time portrayal of the Table of Frequency Allocations used by the FCC and
RADIO SERVICES COLOR LEGEND

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Facsimile: (202) 512-2250 Mail: Stop SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-0001

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov Phone toll free (866) 512-1800; Washington, DC area (202) 512-1800
FEDERAL/NON-FEDERAL SHARED
SATELLITE

National Telecommunications and Information Administration

STATES

RADIOLOCATION

SPACE RESEARCH

AND TIME SIGNAL

SPACE OPERATION
RADIONAVIGATION
RADIO ASTRONOMY
UNITED

THE RADIO SPECTRUM

RADIODETERMINATION

STANDARD FREQUENCY

TIME SIGNAL SATELLITE

RADIOLOCATION SATELLITE
ALLOCATIONS

STANDARD FREQUENCY AND

FREQUENCY

RADIONAVIGATION SATELLITE
30.0 3.0 300.0 30.0 3.0 300 0
MARITIME FIXED MOBILE AERONAUTICAL
FIXED - MOBILE - RADIONAVIGATION RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation FIXED MOBILE 30.56 MOBILE (R)
SATELLITE SATELLITE 3.1 3.025

and
(Earth-to-space) (Earth-to-space) 328.6 AERONAUTICAL

Satellite
0 kHz
Space research FIXED

Time Signal
Earth
31.0 RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation LAND MOBILE

3MHz

(active)
AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION

satellite
MOBILE (OR)

(space-to-Earth)
exploration-

3 GHz
MARITIME

Standard Frequency
FIXED MOBILE (active) 335.4

30GHz
Aeronautical
3.155

300 kHz
(radiobeacons)
(radiobeacons)
Radionavigation

30 MHz
3.3 32.0

3GHz
SPACE EARTH
31.3 FIXED MOBILE MOBILE

300 MHz
RADIONAVIGATION
RADIO except aeronautical mobile (R)
FIXED
RESEARCH EXPLORATION -

BY
ASTRONOMY (passive) SATTELLITE (passive) Radiolocation Radiolocation 399.9 FIXED MOBILE 3.23 325
Amateur MOBILE SATELLITE Maritime AERONAUTICAL
31.8 RADIONAVIGATION SATELLITE Aeronautical
SPACE RESEARCH (Earth-to-space) 33.0 Radionavigation RADIONAVIGATION
(deep space) (space-to-Earth) RADIONAVIGATION 3.5 400.05 Mobile
AERONAUTICAL (radiobeacons) (radiobeacons)

mathematically as shown below:

32.3 STANDARD FREQUECY AND TIME SIGNAL - SATELLITE 335

mobile
RADIONAVIGATION

FIXED
RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation (400.1 MHz) FIXED LAND MOBILE

** EXCEPT AERONAUTICAL MOBILE

(ground based)

MOBILE
400.15

Radiolocation
RADIONAVIGATION INTER-SATELLITE 3.6

except aeronautical
AERONAUTICAL MET. AIDS MOBILE SPACE RES. Space Opn. MET. SAT.

* EXCEPT AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)

FIXED-SATELLITE (Radiosonde) SAT (S-E) (S-E) (S-E) (S-E)
RADIONAVIGATION RADIOLOCATION 3.4

JUNE 1, 2011
33.0 (ground based) (space-to-Earth) Radiolocation 401.0 34.0
MET-SAT. EARTH Met-Satellite
RADIONAVIGATION 3.65 MET. AIDS SPACE OPN. EXPL Earth Expl Sat AERONAUTICAL
33.4 FIXED-SATELLITE (Radiosonde) (S-E) (E-S) SAT. (E-S) (E-S) (E-S) FIXED MOBILE MOBILE (R)
RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation MOBILE** (space-to-Earth) FIXED 402.0
3.7 MET. AIDS MET-SAT. EARTH EXPL Met-Satellite Earth Expl Sat 35.0 3.5
34.2 (Radiosonde) (E-S) SAT. (E-S) (E-S) (E-S)
Space research
(deep space) Radio- SPACE RESEARCH RADIO- 403.0
(Earth-to-space) location (deep space) (Earth-to-space) LOCATION METEOROLOGICAL AIDS (RADIOSONDE) FIXED
34.7 406.0 LAND MOBILE

DELMON C. MORRISON
RADIOLOCATION MOBILE SATELLITE (Earth-to-space)

Mobile
Radiolocation 406.1
35.5 36.0

(radiobeacons)
Earth EARTH RADIO

AERONAUTICAL

Aeronautical
FIXED MOBILE

AMATEUR
RADIONAVIGATION
exploration - EXPLORATION -

THIS CHART WAS CREATED

(active)
SPACE
RADIO
ASTRONOMY

Radio

Space
LOCATION

(active)
location
RESEARCH
SATTELLITE (active) 410.0 FIXED MOBILE

research
sattellite (active)
SPACE EARTH EXPLORATION -
36.0 SPACE RESEARCH
FIXED MOBILE (space-to-space) 37.0
FIXED MOBILE RESEARCH SATELLITE 420.0

FIXED
(passive) (passive)
LAND MOBILE
37.0 37.5
SPACE RESEARCH
MOBILE FIXED Radio astronomy LAND MOBILE

(space-to-Earth)
(space-to-Earth) RADIOLOCATION Amateur 38.0

FIXED-SATELLITE
37.5 RADIO ASTRONOMY
SPACE RESEARCH FIXED-SATELLITE MOBILE FIXED 4.0
MOBILE FIXED (space-to-Earth) 38.25
(space-to-Earth) 450.0 FIXED MARITIME MOBILE 405
38.0 LAND MOBILE FIXED MOBILE 4.063 Aeronautical Mobile RADIONAVIGATION
454.0 39.0

NOT ALLOCATED
MOBILE FIXED FIXED-SATELLITE FIXED LAND MOBILE LAND MOBILE 415
(space-to-Earth) 455.0 40.0
38.6 4.2 LAND MOBILE 456.0 AERONAUTICAL MARITIME
MOBILE FIXED-SATELLITE FIXED FIXED LAND MOBILE
(space-to-Earth) 460.0 FIXED MOBILE RADIONAVIGATION MOBILE
39.5 AERONAUTICAL LAND MOBILE FIXED
462.5375 435
FIXED-SATELLITE MOBIL-ESATELLITE

MOBILE
FIXED RADIONAVIGATION LAND MOBILE

MARITIME
(space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth)
MOBILE 462.7375 42.0
40.0 LAND MOBILE FIXED
467.5375
Earth exploration EARTH EXPLORATION

Satellite
satellite SATELLITE
4.4 LAND MOBILE

FIXED-
SPACE

MOBILE
467.7375

SATELLITE

SATELLITE
4.438

RESEARCH
Meteorological
(Earth-to-space)

(space-to-Earth)
(space-to-Earth)

(space-to-Earth)
(Earth-to-space)
(space-to-Earth)
40.5 FIXED MOBILE LAND MOBILE FIXED FIXED LAND MOBILE
4.5 470.0
BROADCASTING- MOBILE FIXED
BROADCASTING

MOBILE-
except aeronautical mobile (R)

SATELLITE
SATELLITE 43.69

(space-to-Earth)
(space-to-Earth)
FIXED-SATELLITE
Mobile
41.0 4.65

ISM - 40.68 ± .02 MHz

Maritime
Aeronautical

FIXED
(TELEVISION)
spectrum real estate; there is only so much

BROADCASTING
FIXED- BROADCASTING- AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)

Radionavigation

LAND MOBILE
BROADCASTING

FIXED
SATELLITE SATELLITE LAND MOBILE 4.7

Fixed FIXED
MOBILE

Mobile MOBILE
(space-to-Earth)

(space-to-Earth)
512.0

FIXED-SATELLITE
42.0 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
BROADCASTING SATELLITE BROADCASTING MOBILE FIXED 4.8 4.75
42.5 46.6 MOBILE
FIXED-SATELLITE FIXED
RADIO ASTRONOMY (Earth-to-space)
MOBILE** FIXED FIXED MOBILE FIXED MOBILE except aeronautical mobile (R) 495
43.5 4.94 47.0 4.85
MOBILE-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space)
MOBILE (distress and calling)
FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) FIXED MOBILE**
45.5 FIXED MOBILE 505
RADIONAVIGATION- 4.99
MOBILE-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) MOBILE MARITIME MOBILE
of spectrum to specific purposes. As wireless

SATELLITE RADIO ASTRONOMY Space Research (passive) LAND MOBILE 510

RADIO- 46.9 5.0 4.995
NAVIGATION- MOBILE-SATELLITE RADIONAVIGATION-SATELLITE STANDARD FREQUENCY AND TIME SIGNAL (5 MHz)
MOBILE FIXED AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION 5.005 AERONAUTICAL 9
SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) (Earth-to-space) MARITIME MOBILE
47.0 5.01 49.6 FIXED RADIONAVIGATION
AMATEUR AMATEUR-SATELLITE AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION
RADIONAVIGATION-SATELLITE (ships only)
47.2 (space-to-Earth)(space-to-space) FIXED MOBILE 5.06 (radiobeacons)
FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) MOBILE FIXED 5.03 50.0
525
available, governments tend to allocate chunks

48.2

(TELEVISION)
FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space)

BROADCASTING
MOBILE FIXED AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION
technologies have advanced, the allocation has

50.2 MOBILE AERONAUTICAL

mobile
SPACE RESEARCH EARTH EXPLORATION- 5.15 RADIONAVIGATION

FIXED

MOBILE
(passive) SATELLITE (passive) AERONAUTICAL FIXED-SATELLITE (radiobeacons)

except aeronautical
50.4 (Earth-to-space)
RADIONAVIGATION 535
to companies within the cell phone industry. The

MOBILE-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) 5.25 5.45

AMATEUR

FIXED
Since there is only a finite number of frequencies

MOBILE
available, and some real estate is more attractive

FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) 608.0

Earth
RADIOLOCATION LAND MOBILE 54.0

(active)
51.4

(active)
EARTH
(medical telemetry and
AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)

SATELLITE
exploration-
MOBILE FIXED RADIO ASTRONOMY

Radiolocation
medical telecommand)

satellite (active)
Space research

SPACE RESEARCH
52.6 614.0 5.68
changed, and some have even been auctioned off

EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (passive) SPACE RESEARCH (passive) 5.255

SPACE RESEARCH
54.25 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
(passive) INTER- SATELLITE EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (passive)
5.73
real estate happens to be in the VHF to SHF range

55.78

Earth
RADIOLOCATION

(active)
EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (passive)

(active)
(active)

EARTH
INTER- MOBILE

exploration-
RADIONAVIGATION

SATELLITE
MOBILE FIXED

Radiolocation
Space research
satellite (active)
SPACE RESEARCH (passive)
except aeronautical mobile (R)
SATELLITE 5.35 5.59
EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (passive)
56.9
(10MHz to 10GHz), with most of it being in the UHF

INTER-
SPACE RESEARCH (passive)

Earth
SATELLITE

(active)
(active)
BROADCASTING

(active)
EARTH
exploration-

SATELLITE
57.0

AERONAUTICAL
RADIOLOCATION
Space research
EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (passive)

satellite (active)
Radiolocation

RADIONAVIGATION
(TELEVISION)
INTER- 5.46
than others. For wireless communications, the prime

SPACE RESEARCH (passive)

6.2 14
SATELLITE

BROADCASTING
58.2
SPACE
radio spectrum can be thought of as electromagnetic

Earth
EARTH EXPLORATION-

(active)
(active)

(active)
EARTH
RESEARCH

exploration-

SATELLITE
SATELLITE (passive)

FIXED FIXED FIXED FIXED

MOBILE MOBILE MOBILE

RADIOLOCATION
Space research
satellite (active)
Radiolocation

RADIONAVIGATION
SPACE RESEARCH SPACE RESEARCH SPACE RESEARCH
(passive)

EXPLORATION- EXPLORATION- EXPLORATION- EXPLORATION-

MARITIME MOBILE
59.0 5.47 698.0
EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (passive)
RADIO- INTER- MARITIME BROADCASTING
LOCATION SATELLITE RADIONAVIGATION FIXED MOBILE

MOBILE
SPACE RESEARCH (passive)

FIXED
(TELEVISION)
6.525

Earth

(active)
(active)
EARTH
(active)
59.3 763.0

exploration-

SATELLITE

ISM – 5.8 ± .075 GHz

RADIOLOCATION

Space research
INTER-

satellite (active)

SPACE RESEARCH
EXPLORATION-
MOBILE FIXED RADIOLOCATION
AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
SATELLITE 5.57 FIXED MOBILE 6.685

(TELEVISION )
64.0 RADIOLOCATION MARITIME RADIONAVIGATION

BROADCASTING
5.6 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
Fixed

MARITIME METEOROLOGICAL 775.0

FIXED

INTER- RADIOLOCATION 6.765

MOBILE** FIXED RADIONAVIGATION AIDS
SATELLITE 5.65 BROADCASTING
RADIOLOCATION Amateur FIXED MOBILE MOBILE
65.0 FIXED
EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE 5.83 except aeronautical mobile (R)
INTER- Amateur-satellite 793.0
MOBILE **

ISM - 61.25± 0.25 GHz

FIXED SATELLITE
RADIOLOCATION Amateur
MARITIME MOBILE

SPACE RESEARCH (space-to-Earth) 7.0

66.0 FIXED-SATELLITE
5.85 FIXED MOBILE
RADIO RADIOLOCATION MOBILE Amateur AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE
MOBILE- RADIO INTER- (Earth-to-space)

ISM - 6.78 ± .015 MHz

NAVIGATION- 5.925 805.0 7.1
MOBILE SATELLITE NAVIGATION SATELLITE FIXED SATELLITE
SATELLITE FIXED
71.0 (Earth-to-space) FIXED MOBILE BROADCASTING
6.425 19.95
FIXED-SATELLITE AMATEUR
(Earth-to-space) MOBILE 806.0
LAND MOBILE

Earth)
6.525 STANDARD FREQUENCY AND TIME SIGNAL (20 kHz)

MOBILE
FIXED

Earth)
(space-to-

FIXED-
809.0

MOBILE

SATELLITE
FIXED-SATELLITE 72.0

(space-to-
(Earth-to-space) FIXED FIXED LAND MOBILE 7.3
74.0 6.7 849.0 FIXED MOBILE 20.05
BROADCASTING FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space)(space-to-Earth) AERONAUTICAL MOBILE 73.0 BROADCASTING
FIXED 6.875 851.0 7.4

Earth)
Space
BROADCASTING

Earth)
FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space)(space-to-Earth) LAND MOBILE

research
FIXED-
MOBILE FIXED

(space-to-

SATELLITE FIXED
RADIO ASTRONOMY

MOBILE
(space-to-
854.0

SATELLITE
SATELLITE 7.025 74.6
76.0 MOBILE FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) FIXED FIXED LAND MOBILE FIXED MOBILE
Space research RADIO 7.075 894.0
(space-to-Earth)
RADIOLOCATION Amateur AERONAUTICAL MOBILE 74.8
ASTRONOMY MOBILE FIXED
77.0 896.0 AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION
mobile (R)
FIXED

Space research RADIO 7.125 75.2

MOBILE

RADIOLOCATION Amateur-satellite Amateur FIXED LAND MOBILE

(space-to-Earth) ASTRONOMY FIXED MOBILE
except aeronautical

7.145 901.0 FIXED

77.5 FIXED MOBILE 75.4
Space research RADIO FIXED SPACE RESEARCH (deep space)(Earth-to-space)
Amateur-satellite AMATEUR 902.0 FIXED MOBILE 8.1
(space-to-Earth) ASTRONOMY 7.19 76.0
78.0 RADIOLOCATION MARITIME MOBILE FIXED
Space research RADIO FIXED SPACE RESEARCH (Earth-to-space)
RADIOLOCATION Amateur- Amateur 7.235 928.0 8.195
(space-to-Earth) ASTRONOMY satellite 81.0 FIXED FIXED
7.25 929.0
(AM RADIO)

FIXED-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) MOBILE-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) Fixed FIXED LAND MOBILE MARITIME MOBILE
930.0

Space
RADIO
7.3
BROADCASTING

FIXED-

research

FIXED
MOBILE-
FIXED MOBILE

MOBILE
SATELLITE
8.815

SATELLITE
(Earth-to-space)

ASTRONOMY
FIXED-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) Mobile-satellite (space-to-Earth)

(space-to-Earth)
FIXED 931.0

ISM - 915.0± .13 MHz

84.0 METEOROLOGICAL
7.45 FIXED LAND MOBILE AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
Mobile-satellite 932.0 8.965
FIXED-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) FIXED
SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth) AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
RADIO 7.55 FIXED 9.04
935.0

FIXED-
FIXED-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) Mobile-satellite (space-to-Earth) FIXED

FIXED
SATELLITE
ASTRONOMY FIXED LAND MOBILE FIXED

MOBILE
(Earth-to-space) (Earth-to-space)
(TELEVISION)
7.75 940.0 9.4

BROADCASTING
86.0 METEOROLOGICAL- FIXED MOBILE
SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) FIXED 941.0
7.85 FIXED
FIXED 944.0 BROADCASTING
7.9 FIXED
FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) MOBILE-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) Fixed

RADIO
SPACE
960.0

EARTH

(passive)
8.025 88.0

(passive)
Mobile-satellite

SATELLITE

RESEARCH
9.9

ASTRONOMY
EARTH EXPLORATION- FIXED SATELLITE (Earth-to-space)

EXPLORATION-
SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) (Earth-to-space) FIXED FIXED
92.0 (no airborne) 9.995
METEOROLOGICAL- Mobile-satellite
8.175 STANDARD FREQUENCY AND TIME SIGNAL (10 MHz)
FIXED-SATELLITE EARTH EXPLORATION- 10.005
RADIO- RADIO SATELLITE (Earth-to-space)
FIXED MOBILE (Earth-to-space) SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) FIXED AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
(space-to-Earth) (no airborne) 10.1
LOCATION ASTRONOMY 8.215 AMATEUR
94.0 Mobile-satellite
EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) 10.15
(space-to-Earth) (Earth-to-space) FIXED
(no airborne)
FIXED

FIXED Space research (deep space)(space-to-Earth)

8.4
RADIO SPACE RESEARCH (deep space)(space-to-Earth)

AERONAUTICAL
(R)

(active)
EARTH

(active)
SPACE
8.45

RADIONAVIGATION
except

(FM RADIO)

RADIO-
ASTRONOMY

SATELLITE
SPACE RESEARCH (space-to-Earth)

RESEARCH
FIXED

FIXED
Mobile

LOCATION
EXPLORATION-
8.5
BROADCASTING
aeronautical mobile

94.1 RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation

8.55 1164.0 11.175
MARITIME MOBILE

RADIO- RADIO RADIONAVIGATION-SATELLITE AERONAUTICAL

FIXED MOBILE

Earth
AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)

EARTH
(active)

(active)
satellite

Space

RADIO-
Radio-

SPACE
LOCATION

SATELLITE

(active)
(active)
ASTRONOMY

research
location
exploration -
(space-to-Earth)(space-to-space) RADIONAVIGATION

LOCATION
EXPLORATION-

RESEARCH
95.0 1215.0 11.275
8.65 RADIONAVIGATION-
RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation SATELLITE AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)

Earth

(active)
EARTH
satellite
(active)

(active)
(active)

SPACE

RADIO-
9.0 (space-to-Earth)

SATELLITE
exploration-

RESEARCH

LOCATION
Space research

EXPLORATION-
AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION Radiolocation (space-to-space)
11.4

RADIO

RADIO-
RADIO-
FIXED

RADIO-
MOBILE
9.2 108.0

SATELLITE
FIXED

ASTRONOMY

NAVIGATION-
LOCATION
1240.0

NAVIGATION
MARITIME RADIONAVIGATION Radiolocation 11.6
100.0 9.3

Earth
(active)

(active)
EARTH
satellite

RADIO -
(active)
RADIONAVIGATION Meteorological Aids Radiolocation

RADIO-
SPACE
Amateur

(active)

SATELLITE
exploration-
EARTH

NAVIGATION
SPACE

LOCATION
Space research

AERONAUTICAL
EXPLORATION-
BROADCASTING

RESEARCH
RADIO EXPLORATION- 9.5
RESEARCH 1300.0 12.1
ASTRONOMY SATELLITE

Earth

EARTH

(active)
(active)
satellite

Space

RADIO-
Radio-
(passive)

SPACE
SATELLITE
(active)

(active)
location
exploration -

research
AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION

LOCATION
(passive) Radiolocation

EXPLORATION
FIXED

RESEARCH
102.0 1350.0
9.8 12.23
RADIO RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation FIXED MOBILE RADIOLOCATION
MOBILE FIXED 10.0 1390.0
ASTRONOMY RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation Amateur MOBILE ** Fixed-satellite (Earth-to-space)
10.45 FIXED MARITIME
105.0 1392.0
AERONAUTICAL

RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation Amateur Amateur-satellite MOBILE ** MOBILE

RADIONAVIGATION

SPACE 10.5 FIXED 1395.0

RESEARCH RADIO MOBILE RADIOLOCATION LAND MOBILE (medical telemetry and medical telecommand)
ASTRONOMY
FIXED 10.55 1400.0 117.975 13.2
(passive) FIXED EARTH EXPLORATION - SATELLITE SPACE RESEARCH AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
109.5 10.6 (passive) RADIO ASTRONOMY (passive)
AERONAUTICAL
EARTH SPACE RESEARCH (passive) EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (passive) 1427.0 13.26
SPACE EXPLORATION-
FIXED MOBILE (R)
RADIO 10.68 LAND MOBILE LAND MOBILE Fixed AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
Non-Federal Travelers Information Stations (TIS), a mobile service, are authorized in the 535-1705 kHz band.

RESEARCH SATELLITE RADIO ASTRONOMY SPACE RESEARCH (passive) EARTH EXPLORATION-SATELLITE (passive) (medical telemetry and 121.9375 13.36
ASTRONOMY 10.7 medical telecommand (telemetry and telecommand) (telemetry) AERONAUTICAL MOBILE
(passive) (passive) 1429.5 123.0875 RADIO ASTRONOMY
111.8 FIXED FIXED-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) FIXED (telemetry and 13.41
LAND MOBILE (telemetry & telecommand) AERONAUTICAL MOBILE
SPACE 11.7 telecommand) 123.5875 FIXED Mobile
RADIO FIXED (telemetry and Fixed-satellite
1430.0 except aeronautical mobile (R)
FIXED MOBILE RESEARCH FIXED-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) LAND MOBILE
ASTRONOMY telecommand) (telemetry & telecommand) (space-to-Earth) 13.57
(passive) 12.2 1432.0 AERONAUTICAL
114.25 BROADCASTING-SATELLITE FIXED FIXED MOBILE **
BROADCASTING
SPACE EARTH 12.7 1435.0 MOBILE (R) 13.87
RADIO EXPLORATION- FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) MOBILE FIXED 59
RESEARCH 13.25 MOBILE (aeronautical telemetry) 128.8125 FIXED Mobile
ASTRONOMY SATELLITE 1525.0
(passive) AERONAUTICAL except aeronautical mobile (R) STANDARD FREQUENCY AND TIME SIGNAL (60 kHz)
(passive) Aeronatuical

Earth

(active)
(active)

EARTH
MOBILE SATELLITE (space-to-Earth)

satellite
116.0

Space
14.0

SPACE

(active)
(active)

SATELLITE
exploration -

research
EARTH MOBILE (R) 61

EXPLORATION -

RESEARCH
SPACE Radionavigation 1559.0 132.0125 AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE
INTER- EXPLORATION- 13.4 RADIONAVIGATION-SATELLITE AERONAUTICAL
RESEARCH SATELLITE AERONAUTICAL 14.25
SATELLITE (space-to-Earth)(space-to-space) RADIONAVIGATION AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)

Figure 3. Mathematical expression for a sinusoidal wave

(passive)

Earth
(active)
EARTH
(passive) 136.0 AMATEUR

(active)
satellite
SPACE

Radio-

Space
SATELLITE

location
RADIO -
1610.0

exploration -

research
EXPLORATION

RESEARCH
122.25

LOCATION
INTER-SATELLITE Amateur RADIODETERMINATION- AERONAUTICAL MOBILE SATELLITE 14.35

ISM - 122.5± 0.500 GHz

FIXED MOBILE 13.75 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R) Mobile
SATELLITE (Earth-to-space)
ISM - 13.560 ± .007 MHz

123.0 RADIONAVIGATION (Earth-to-space) 137.0 FIXED

MOBILE-SATELLITE SPACE RESEARCH SPACE OPERATION MET. SATELLITE

satellite
1610.6 except aeronautical mobile (R)
(space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth)
FIXED

RADIO RADIODETERMINATION- AERONAUTICAL MOBILE SATELLITE

MOBILE

14.99

and time signal

Space
RADIO -

FIXED-
RADIONAVIGATION

(Earth-to-space)
Space
(Earth-to-space) 137.025

research

Radio -
SATELLITE (Earth-to-space)
MARITIME

LOCATION
STANDARD FREQUENCY AND TIME SIGNAL (15 MHz)

location
research
ASTRONOMY MET. SATELLITE

SATELLITE
SPACE RESEARCH SPACE OPERATION

MOBILE-
Mobile-satellite

FIXED-
Standard frequency

Radio
RADIO-
RADIO-
SATELLITE
(Earth-to-space)
15.01

SATELLITE

SATELLITE
(space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth)

(space-to-Earth)
1613.8 (space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth)

NAVIGATION

astronomy
NAVIGATION-
14.0

(space-to-Earth)
Mobile-satellite RADIODETERMINATION- AERONAUTICAL MOBILE SATELLITE 137.175 70
Space RADIONAVIGATION
AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
130.0 Mobile-satellite (Earth-to-space) FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) (space-to-Earth) SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) (Earth-to-space) MOBILE-SATELLITE SPACE RESEARCH SPACE OPERATION MET. SATELLITE 15.1
EARTH research 1626.5 (space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth)
EXPLORATION- RADIO 14.2 137.825
Mobile-satellite (space-to-Earth) FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) MOBILE SATELLITE(Earth-to-space) Mobile-satellite SPACE RESEARCH SPACE OPERATION MET. SATELLITE 1605
SATELLITE

INTER-
ASTRONOMY

FIXED
(space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth) BROADCASTING

MOBILE
SATELLITE
(active) 14.4 1660.0 138.0 MOBILE BROADCASTING
134.0 Mobile-satellite FIXED-SATELLITE 1615
Fixed Mobile (Earth-to-space) (Earth-to-space) MOBILE SATELLITE
Radio astronomy AMATEUR AMATEUR - SATELLITE 14.5 RADIO ASTRONOMY (Earth-to-space) FIXED MOBILE 15.8
136.0 FIXED Mobile Space research 1660.5
RADIO RADIO 14.7145 144.0
Amateur Amateur - satellite RADIO ASTRONOMY SPACE RESEARCH (passive) AMATEUR AMATEUR- SATELLITE
notorious for its fine print.)

LOCATION ASTRONOMY MOBILE Fixed Space research 146.0 FIXED

FIXED

141.0 14.8 1668.4 AMATEUR

FIXED MOBILE RADIO ASTRONOMY RADIOLOCATION Fixed SPACE RESEARCH MOBILE METEOROLOGICAL AIDS 148.0
EARTH EXPLORATION-
148.5 15.1365 (radiosonde) RADIO ASTRONOMY MOBILE-SATELLITE
SPACE RESEARCH FIXED SPACE RESEARCH Mobile (Earth-to-space) FIXED MOBILE 16.36
Radiolocation

RADIO ASTRONOMY SATELLITE 15.35 1670.0 149.9

(passive) (passive) RESEARCH EARTH EXPLORATION - FIXED MOBILE **
Federal TIS operates at 1610 kHz.

RADIO ASTRONOMY SPACE(passive) SATELLITE (passive) 1675.0 RADIONAVIGATION- MOBILE-SATELLITE MARITIME

MARITIME MOBILE

BROADCASTING

151.5 15.4 SATELLITE

FIXED MOBILE RADIO ASTRONOMY RADIOLOCATION METEOROLOGICAL METEOROLOGICAL AIDS (Earth-to-space) MOBILE
155.5 AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) (radiosonde) 150.05
EARTH EXPLORATION- SPACE 15.43 1695.0 17.41 90
RADIO SATELLITE RESEARCH AERONAUTICAL FIXED-SATELLITE FIXED MOBILE FIXED
MOBILE METEOROLOGICAL 150.8 1705

FIXED
ASTRONOMY (passive) (passive) RADIONAVIGATION (Earth-to-space) SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) Fixed MOBILE ** FIXED LAND MOBILE 17.48
158.5 15.63 1710.0 152.855
MOBILE- FIXED- AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION BROADCASTING
bandwidth, and antenna size.

15.7 FIXED MOBILE LAND MOBILE 17.9

FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE SATELLITE Radiolocation RADIOLOCATION 1761.0 154.0 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
(space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth)
16.6 SPACE OPERATION (Earth-to-space) FIXED LAND MOBILE
Space research (deep space)(Earth-to-space)
FIXED

MOBILE FIXED
RADIO-

Radiolocation RADIOLOCATION 17.97

MOBILE

1780.0 156.2475 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)

LOCATION

164.0 17.1 MARITIME MOBILE RADIONAVIGATION

EARTH RADIO SPACE RESEARCH Radiolocation RADIOLOCATION SPACE OPERATION (Earth-to-space) 156.7625 FIXED
18.03
EXPLORATION- 17.2 1850.0 MARITIME MOBILE (distress, urgency, safety and calling) 1800
SATELLITE (passive) ASTRONOMY (passive) MOBILE FIXED 18.068
167.0 2000.0 156.8375 AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE
Earth

MARITIME MOBILE
(active)
EARTH

Space

MOBILE SATELLITE (Earth-to-space)

RADIO-

SPACE

(active)

(active)
SATELLITE

Radio-

research
exploration-

MOBILE FIXED
location

FIXED-
LOCATION

157.0375
EXPLORATION-

satellite (active)
RESEARCH

INTER- 2020.0 MARITIME MOBILE FIXED

18.168
FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE 17.3 Mobile AMATEUR
SATELLITE FIXED-SATELLITE FIXED MOBILE 157.1875 110
(space-to-Earth) BROADCASTING-SATELLITE Radiolocation 2025.0 MARITIME MOBILE 18.78
(Earth-to-space) MOBILE except aeronautical mobile
174.5 17.7 157.45 18.9
INTER- FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) FIXED BROADCASTING
FIXED MOBILE 17.8 SPACE OPERATION FIXED LAND MOBILE 19.02 1900
SATELLITE FIXED FIXED-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) (Earth-to-space) 161.575 FIXED
EARTH

SPACE
SATELLITE

174.8 18.3
FIXED

(space-to-space)
RESEARCH

MARITIME MOBILE
MOBILE

(Earth-to-space)
EXPLORATION-

(space-to-space)

(Earth-to-space)

19.68
(space-to-space)

INTER- SPACE RESEARCH EARTH FIXED-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) 161.625 MARITIME MOBILE

EXPLORATION- 18.6 2110.0 LAND MOBILE 19.8
SATELLITE (passive) SATELLITE (passive) SPACE RESEARCH FIXED-SATELLITE EARTH EXPLORATION - FIXED RADIOLOCATION
MOBILE FIXED 161.775
FIXED

182.0 (passive) (space-to-Earth) SATELLITE (passive) 19.99

MOBILE

EARTH 18.8 2180.0 MOBILE except aeronautical mobile STANDARD FREQUENCY AND TIME SIGNAL (20 MHz)
SPACE RESEARCH 161.9625
MARITIME

RADIO EXPLORATION- FIXED-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) MOBILE SATELLITE 20.01

19.3 MARITIME MOBILE (AIS)
Radiolocation

ASTRONOMY SATELLITE (passive) (passive) MOBILE FIXED (space-to-Earth) FIXED Mobile 2000
185.0 FIXED-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) FIXED 2200.0 161.9875
19.7 MOBILE except aeronautical mobile 21.0 MARITIME
SPACE RESEARCH INTER- EARTH 162.0125 AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE MOBILE FIXED 130
EXPLORATION- FIXED-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) MOBILE-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) MOBILE
(passive) SATELLITE SATELLITE (passive) MARITIME MOBILE (AIS) 21.45
aircraft)

20.2
EARTH

SPACE
SPACE

190.0 163.0375 BROADCASTING 2065

SATELLITE

FIXED-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth)
FIXED

RESEARCH
(ling of sight only

(space-to-Earth)
MOBILE

EXPLORATION-
OPERATION

(space-to-space)

(space-to-Earth)

21.85
(space-to-space)
including aeronautical
(line of sight only)

flight testing of manned

MARITIME MOBILE
telemetry, but excluding

(space-to-Earth)

SPACE RESEARCH
and
(space-to-space)

EARTH EXPLORATION- FIXED

Earth)
satellite
Standard
frequency

(space-to-
time signal

(passive) SATELLITE (passive) MOBILE-SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) 2290.0 2107

SPACE RESEARCH FIXED MOBILE 21.924
191.8 21.2 (space-to-Earth) FIXED AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R) MOBILE
RADIONAVIGATION SPACE RESEARCH EARTH EXPLORATION - (deep space)
MOBILE** FIXED MOBILE
MOBILE FIXED 22.0 except aeronautical mobile
INTER- MOBILE (passive) SATELLITE (passive) 2300.0 173.2 MARITIME MOBILE
FIXED

RADIONAVIGATION- 2170
MOBILE

SATELLITE 21.4 Amateur FIXED Land mobile 22.855

FIXED

SATELLITE 173.4 FIXED

MARITIME

FIXED
MOBILE

SATELLITE MOBILE 22.0 2305.0 MARITIME MOBILE

200.0 Amateur RADIOLOCATION MOBILE** FIXED FIXED MOBILE Mobile 23.0 MARITIME MOBILE
FIXED MOBILE** 174.0 FIXED
(telephony)
RADIO EARTH SPACE RESEARCH 22.21 2310.0
BROADCASTING Radio- except aeronautical mobile (R)
EXPLORATION- RADIOLOCATION MOBILE FIXED SATELLITE location Mobile Fixed 2173.5
ASTRONOMY SATELLITE (passive) (passive) SPACE 2320.0 23.2 160
RADIO
EARTH

209.0 RESEARCH AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR) MOBILE (distress and calling)

(passive)

BROADCASTING - SATELLITE
SATELLITE

ASTRONOMY Radiolocation Fixed

FIXED
EXPLORATION-

MOBILE**

FIXED- (passive) 2345.0 MOBILE 23.35

BROADCASTING Radio- 2190.5
RADIO RADIOLOCATION MOBILE FIXED Mobile FIXED

Figure 2. Frequency allocation of services used in the United States. Image Source: www.ntia.gov
FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE 22.5 SATELLITE location Fixed except aeronautical mobile
ASTRONOMY FIXED MOBILE 2360.0 24.89
(Earth-to-space) 22.55 MOBILE Fixed RADIOLOC ATION
217.0 2390.0 AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE MARITIME MOBILE
FIXED MOBILE INTER-SATELLITE MARITIME MOBILE
FIXED-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) MOBILE AMATEUR 24.99 (telephony)
23.55
FIXED

RADIO FIXED MOBILE 2395.0 STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (25 MHz)
MOBILE

FIXED

ASTRONOMY 23.6 25.01 2194

MOBILE

SPACE RESEARCH (passive) LAND MOBILE

MARITIME

RADIO SPACE RESEARCH EARTH EXPLORATION - AMATEUR

(TELEVISION)

226.0 ASTRONOMY SATELLITE - (passive) 25.07

BROADCASTING

(passive) 2417.0 MARITIME MOBILE

24.0 25.21 190
RADIO AMATEUR AMATEUR-SATELLITE Amateur Radiolocation LAND MOBILE
24.05 2450.0
SPACE
EARTH

ASTRONOMY 25.33
(Passive)
(Passive)
SATELLITE

Radiolocation MOBILE except aeronautical mobile

RESEARCH

Radio- MOBILE FIXED 216.0 FIXED

EXPLORATION-

RADIO- 2483.5 MOBILE

AERONAUTICAL
Earth

231.5 Amateur 25.55

(active)
satellite

location RADIODETERMINATION- MOBILE SATELLITE

MOBILE

LOCATION except aeronautical

FIXED

Now that we covered a bit of what RF is, how exactly does information get transmitted wirelessly
FIXED Fixed RADIO ASTRONOMY RADIONAVIGATION
exploration -
MOBILE

FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth) mobile

Land mobile 25.67
Radiolocation 24.25 2495.0 BROADCASTING 200
232.0 FIXED RADIODETERMINATION- MOBILE SATELLITE
217.0
MOBILE except 26.1
except aeronautical mobile

24.45 MOBILE** FIXED FIXED

FIXED- RADIONAVIGATION SATELLITE (space-to-Earth) (space-to-Earth) Land mobile aeronautical mobile FIXED MARITIME MOBILE
INTER-SATELLITE 2500.0 219.0 26.175
FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE Radiolocation 24.65 MOBILE except

SPECTRUM OCCUPIED.
INTER-SATELLITE RADIOLOCATION-SATELLITE (Earth-to-space) MOBILE** FIXED LAND MOBILE 26.48
(space-to-Earth) 24.75 Fixed Mobile FIXED aeronautical mobile Amateur 2495
FIXED-SATELLITE 2655.0 MOBILE
ISM - 2450.0± .50 MHz

235.0 RADIONAVIGATION 220.0 FIXED except aeronautical mobile

FIXED-SATELLITE SPACE RESEARCH EARTH (Earth-to-space) FIXED LAND MOBILE 26.95
EXPLORATION- 25.05 222.0 STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (2500kHz)
(space-to-Earth) FIXED-SATELLITE FIXED
satellite

(passive)
(passive)
(passive)

SATELLITE (passive) AMATEUR

Radio

FIXED
FIXED

(Earth-to-space) 225.0 26.96

Space research

Earth exploration-

238.0
MOBILE**

MOBILE
astronomy

25.25
FIXED INTER-SATELLITE MOBILE 2690.0 except aeronautical mobile 2505
RADIO- RADIO- 25.5 27.23
Mobile

FIXED-

FIXED MOBILE except aeronautical mobile

RADIO-
ISM –FIXED

ISM - 245.0± 1 GHz

NAVIGATION NAVIGATION- SPACE RESEARCH

SATELLITE

LOCATION
MOBILE

SATELLITE
(space-to-Earth)
EARTH

RADIO
(passive)

(passive) 27.41
ISM - 27.12 ± .163 MHz

SATELLITE
Aeronautical

EXPLORATION-

240.0
ASTRONOMY

EARTH

SPACE

FIXED
Inter-satellite

LAND MOBILE
FIXED
SATELLITE

RESEARCH

(Earth-to-space)
MOBILE
AERONAUTICAL

2700.0
(space-to-Earth)

time signal satellite

(space-to-Earth)
EXPLORATION -

FIXED MOBILE RADIOLOCATION 27.54

Standard frequency and
INTER-SATELLITE

FIXED
MOBILE
RADIONAVIGATION

METEOROLOGICAL AERONAUTICAL MOBILE

24.125 ± 0.125

Amateur-satellite
241.0 28.0
FIXED

RADIOLOCATION RADIOASTRONOMY Amateur 27.0 Radiolocation AIDS RADIONAVIGATION

MOBILE

248.0 Inter-satellite FIXED MOBILE INTER-SATELLITE 2900.0 AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE

Radioastronomy AMATEUR-SATELLITE AMATEUR
except aeronautical mobile

SPACE RESEARCH
250.0 27.5 29.7 275
EARTH EXPLORATION- LAND MOBILE
FIXED

RADIOASTRONOMY FIXED-SATELLITE 29.8 AERONAUTICAL Maritime

MOBILE

(passive) SATELLITE (passive) Aeronautical

252.0 FIXED MOBILE FIXED Radionavigation
(Earth-to-space) RADIONAVIGATION Mobile (radiobeacons)
RADIONAVIGATION-SATELLITE RADIO MOBILE-SATELLITE 29.89 2850
29.5 FIXED 285
RADIO-

FIXED

ASTRONOMY (Earth-to-space) MOBILE

MOBILE

through radio waves? Well, all radio waves have an amplitude, frequency, and phase. This is expressed
MARITIME

RADIO NAVIGATION 29.91 AERONAUTICAL MARITIME RADIONAVIGATION Aeronautical Radionavigation

NAVIGATION

MOBILE-SATELLITE
Radiolocation

FIXED-SATELLITE 265.0 FIXED-SATELLITE

RADIOLOCATION

RADIO ASTRONOMY (Earth-to-space) MOBILE (R)

300 GHz

FIXED MOBILE (Earth-to-space) (Earth-to-space) FIXED

Department of Commerce website. (The chart is

275.0 (radiobeacons) (radiobeacons)

30 GHz
300 kHz

3 GHz
300 MHz
3 MHz

30 MHz

3000.0
SEGMENTS SHOWN IS NOT PROPORTIONAL TO THE ACTUAL AMOUNT OF
PLEASE NOTE: THE SPACING ALLOTTED THE SERVICES IN THE SPECTRUM

NOT ALLOCATED 300.0 30.0 300.0 30.0 3000 300

first responder radios operate, and broadcasting
where cell phones operate, TV channels transmit,

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occurs. It offers the best trade-off between range,

and can be readily found through the United States

5
frequencies. Indeed, UHF is the range of frequencies

based on usage. This is specific to the United States

The image below shows the allocation of frequencies
Early communication systems transmitted signals by modulating the amplitude or frequency. Amplitude
modulation (AM) is accomplished by keeping the frequency of transmission constant and varying the amplitude.
The change in amplitude over time can represent a lower-frequency signal, such as sound. On the transmit side,
the higher frequency RF signal’s amplitude is modulated with an audio signal, and on the receiver side, this
signal can be recovered using a simple low-pass filter. On the other hand, frequency modulation (FM) keeps the
amplitude constant and changes the frequency of operation slightly. These deviations in operating frequency can
be identified by the receiving device and the transmitted information recovered. FM communication is generally
more robust to noise and, consequently, more often used to broadcast music.

With today’s technologies, digital communication is the prevalent method of wireless communication. The topic
is very complex and in-depth, but from a very high level, the amplitude and phase of a signal are used to encode
data into wireless signals. The advantage digital communication offers is that it can transmit more information
in a smaller bandwidth. As a result, the spectral efficiency of the communication system is improved. Spectral
efficiency is of utmost importance in today’s communication systems due to the crowded RF spectrum. Many
different digital communication protocols exist, including phase shift keying (PSK), Gaussian frequency shift
keying (GFSK), and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).

CHAPTER - 3 Introduction to Software Defined Radio

Software-defined radio (SDR) is becoming a predominant technology in today’s wireless communications

landscape. This is due to the growing ways in which data is wirelessly communicated. Data communication, voice
communications, video communications, broadcasting, and streaming can use different forms of modulation.
Utilizing a software-defined radio, the device may be re-configured in real time to support any of these different
modulation formats. Simply put, an SDR is defined as a radio device in which some or all of the physical functions
can be defined through software. More specifically, components such as filters, mixers, and modulators that have
traditionally been implemented in hardware get implemented using some sort of digital signal processing (DSP).
This generally occurs in a field programmable gate array (FPGA) device.

There are many advantages SDRs offer over traditional radios. These include but are not limited to the following:

• More Flexibility - The ability to define signal processing digitally allows the radio to support various protocols.

• Bandwidth - SDRs are generally more wideband than their traditional radio counterparts. This allows them to
perform multiple tasks in parallel, such as demodulating and spectrum monitoring.

• Upgradability - The ability to update or re-configure a device after it is sold or purchased makes the device
more robust to technological changes. Previously, to update or upgrade a device, a hardware change would be
needed to accomplish the task, a costly and timely activity.

• Filtering and DSP - Generally speaking, the performance of digital filters is much better than filters that are
implemented with analog components. Additionally, DSP functions such as mixing and filtering are much more
reliable. The performance will not degrade due to changes in supply voltage, temperature, or part-to-part
variations.

• More Functionality - Overall, the end user is getting more functionality with less hardware. SDRs provide the
ability to do more with less.

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 Figure 4. Generalized SDR block diagram

Although many different architectures can be used to implement a software-defined radio, the block diagram
above gives a high-level overview of how most SDRs are implemented.

An antenna is always needed to convert wireless signals into conducted signals on the PCB. The RF
channel can consist of components such as filters, mixers, and amplifiers. Generally, there is some sort
of mixing function implemented to convert the RF frequency to a lower frequency that can be processed
by the data converter. The data converter itself is also an essential component. Whereas the RF channel
can vary in implementation from SDR to SDR, the data converter, like the antenna, is common to all
platforms. Finally, the DSP is where the software-defined portion of the radio is implemented. Additional
functionality, such as filtering, mixing, and modulating/demodulating takes place in the DSP. No perfect
SDR architecture exists. The design of an SDR radio requires trade-offs between performance, cost, and
power consumption. As a result, the unique requirements of a given application will determine which SDR
is best for a particular application.

3.1 SDR HW Applications

Now that we have covered what SDR is, we will list some possible applications they can be used for. First
and foremost, learning is probably one of the most useful reasons to begin tinkering with an SDR. RF and
wireless communication is a vast topic with much to be explored. In addition, it seems like we are seeing
more and more devices going wireless every day. However, if that is not motivation enough, below are
some additional applications an SDR may be used for.

• Creating a police scanner radio • Sniffing GSM signals

• Monitoring spectrum • Listening to satellites and the International
• Listening to air traffic control Space Station (ISS)

• Tracking and receiving meteorological weather • Searching for RF noise sources

balloons • Reverse engineering wireless protocols
• Listening to amateur radio transmissions

CHAPTER - 4 SDR and RF with the Raspberry Pi

The Raspberry Pi currently supports a large range of SDR software applications. This includes some of
the most popular applications, such as GNU Radio and Gqrx SDR. In fact, there is an entire image with
many of the latest SDR software pre-installed. It is called PiSDR and is a modified version of the Raspian
operating system commonly installed on the Pi. Currently, the latest version supports all versions of

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the Pi from Zero to 4. Some of the software pre- One of the simplest uses of an SDR radio is
installed includes GNU Radio, LineVNA, Soapy, frequency scanning (or frequency monitoring).
SDR Angel, LimeSuite, hamlib, RTLSDR-Airband, This is a relatively simple task requiring just
IIO Oscilloscope, and SDR++. In addition, many of the hardware and proper software. In fact,
the more common SDRs are officially supported, most software available for SDR platforms
meaning they have been tested with the Raspberry will support some sort of frequency scanning.
Pi. PiSDR can be pre-loaded onto an SD card. Frequency scanning is accomplished in the radio
by processing small chunks of spectrum and
PiSDR is probably the easiest way to get started performing a Fourier transform on the ADC output
with SDR on the Raspberry Pi. An SD card with at data. For example, a radio may have a 20MHz
least 8GB of memory is required. Once ready, a receive bandwidth. The radio can “look” at the
user can transfer the image to the SD card using frequency spectrum from 480MHz to 500MHz,
the Raspberry Pi Imager, just as one would for any process the data, and then tune to a higher
other Raspberry Pi operating system. Upon first frequency and repeat the process to show a large
running the Raspberry Pi with the installation, it is amount of spectrum. Alternatively, the radio can
recommended to run the command “volk_profile.” also sit at any specific frequency and continuously
This enables the system to run faster by optimizing monitor only the 20MHz bandwidth. The following
mathematical functions used by software such image shows an example of frequency monitoring
as GNU Radio. From here, the operating system using the Gqrx software.
will run just like the traditional Raspian operating
system, with the exception being the rich array of
SDR software that is readily available.

Figure 5. Frequency scanning with Gqrx. Image Source: https://gqrx.dk/

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There are multiple things being shown in the image. Another popular application that SDRs can be
First, the top of the screen shows the spectrum used for is signal processing. Signal processing
scan. This is the fast Fourier transform (FFT) of is a deep and rich topic with lots to explore and
the ADC output data. The y-axis is the amplitude learn. The two easiest methods to get started with
level of a signal, while the x-axis is the frequency. signal processing would be to use some sort of
Each one of the spikes rising out of the noise floor programming language, such as Python, to perform
is some sort of wireless signal. What is shown operations on the IQ output data from an SDR. Or
at the bottom of the image is what is commonly one can use an SDR software package such as
known as a waterfall plot. This is a different way of GNU Radio to perform mathematical operations.
viewing the strength of wireless signals. The plot
will continuously move from the top to the bottom, GNU Radio is an open source software that
with stronger signals showing a lighter color. For provides the user with a GUI to perform signal
instance, the deep blue means there are no signals processing functions. It can be used with the SDR
present, and the device is seeing nothing but noise radios previously mentioned or can be used alone
at those frequencies. On the other hand, when a without hardware. The software features flow
green, yellow, or orange color is seen, it means graphs that allow a user to put together complete
a strong signal is present at those frequencies, signal processing functions. Examples include
with orange being the signal with the largest receiving and de-modulating FM radio stations or
magnitude. Waterfall plots are great for visualizing plotting spectrum, such as in the previous example.
the persistence of a signal whether it is consistently An example of a simple flow graph is shown in
there or not. Figure 6. The frequency sink allows the user to plot
the spectrum of the data, while the time sink allows
the plotting of the time domain signal.

Figure 6. Simple flow graph in GNU radio for plotting waveform data

In GNU radio, various blocks are available by default that perform different signal processing functions. This
includes modulation and demodulation, filtering, Fourier analysis, waveform generation, and mathematical
operations. Creating a working system simply requires a user to place the required blocks and connect them
together appropriately. In addition, users can create their own custom blocks for new functionality.

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An additional use case for the Raspberry Pi and SDR is the tracking and reception of satellite signals.
Some of the most common satellites tracked using SDRs are the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) satellites. These satellites continuously monitor and take pictures from above the
Earth. These are used for understanding the weather, geographical monitoring, and educational purposes.
An example of what one can expect from the pictures captured is shown below.

Figure 7. Example image captured from an NOAA satellite. Image Source: www.goes.noaa.gov

Many guides are available online that walk through setting up the Pi with the appropriate software and
drivers needed for the project. After setup and installation, the Pi will also need to know your coordinates
in longitude and latitude to accurately calculate when the satellite will be passing by. Once everything is
set up, the Pi and software downloaded can be left to run and continuously collect data.

CHAPTER - 5 SDR Development Platforms

We will now cover some of the SDR development platforms that are widely used today.

5.1 CaribouLite RPi HAT

The CaribouLite was designed with the maker and hacker in mind. First introduced on Crowd Supply,
the CaribouLite is a low cost, fully open-source dual-channel SDR platform designed specifically for the

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Raspberry Pi. It is offered in two different versions, Analog Devices offers a plethora of information on
the full version and ISM version. The main their website, which includes overview documents,
differences between the two are the operating getting started guides, and tutorials on using the
frequency ranges. The full version has a channel device through different means, such as software
that can support 30MHz to 6GHz and a second GUIs and programming languages.
channel that can support sub-1GHz bands. On the
other hand, the ISM version supports the native The Pluto is based on Analog Device’s AD9363
2.4GHz and sub-1GHz bands that are native to the transceiver chip. It features a transmit and receive
Microchip chipset implemented on the PCB. chain that can be controlled independently,
allowing it to operate in full duplex mode with
support for time division duplexing and frequency
division duplexing. The transceiver can tune over
the range of 325 MHz to 3.8 GHz and operate
with a channel bandwidth from 200 kHz to 20
MHz. Furthermore, the ADC and DAC are 12-bit
devices that have configurable sample rates up
to 61.44 MSPS. Overall, the Pluto device offers
a solid platform to begin getting up to speed on
Figure 8. Caribou Lite SDR platform. SDR hardware and software. The device does have
Image Source: www.crowdsupply.com limitations when it comes to its RF performance;
however, this is a trade-off made to make the
In addition to the hardware and software being device affordable and easy to use. Analog Devices
completely open source, there are also application even encourages users to hack the device and
guides available that provide information in HDL provides all the schematics and information that
and other programming languages to support may be needed to do so.
various applications such as analog receivers,
signal recording, and signal relays and generators.
TCXOs come equipped on both versions of the
board with frequency stability tolerances of less
than +/-2ppm. The SDRs are half-duplex devices
capable of transmitting with output powers up
to +14dBm. Onboard LEDs are included to offer
indicators as to when the device is transmitting
or receiving. Additional features include an
unpopulated PMOD connector, data converter
resolution of 13 bits, maximum RF bandwidth of
2.5MHz, and max sampling rate of 4MSPS.
Figure 9. Analog Devices’ Pluto SDR
5.2 Analog Devices Pluto Image Source: www.analog.com

Analog Devices’ SDR radio, Pluto, is a compact

portable SDR radio that is powered and controlled
5.3 RTL-SDR
over USB. The device was originally designed RTL-SDR is a popular SDR device in the maker
for educational and learning purposes with users space. This is mainly due to its extremely low cost.
of various knowledge levels in mind. It is a low It also happens to be a device that was developed
cost device that is compatible with all operating through the combined efforts of a few hackers.
systems and will also work on some embedded The origins of the device stem from digital DVB-T
platforms, such as the Raspberry Pi. Additionally, TV tuners. It was found that the chipset’s raw IQ

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data could be accessed directly, allowing the end and controlled, and comes in an injection-
user the freedom to use this data for their own modeled plastic enclosure. Since its inception,
applications. The USB dongles support frequency a large community has formed online around the
ranges from 500 kHz to around 1.75 GHz, with HackRF. As a result, there are lots of tutorials and
bandwidths up to 8 MHz. The ADC used is an 8-bit publications that can be found online to help not
ADC that supports sample rates up to 3.2 MSPS. only get started with the device, but also get going
However, it has been known to have issues when with advanced applications and projects.
operating on the high end of its claimed sample
rate. As a result, many guides suggest a maximum
sample rate of 2.56 MSPS.

Software is available that supports the RTL-SDR,

with most of it being community-developed. In
addition, minimal computing power is needed to
work with the USB dongle. It can run on multiple
operating systems, and has also been shown to be
usable with single-board computers such as the
Raspberry Pi. However, when using a Raspberry Figure 11. HackRF One SDR radio.
Pi, it is often recommended to use a powered USB Image Source: https://greatscottgadgets.com
hub to prevent the dongle from drawing too much
current from the Pi and its power supply. Overall, The HackRF One offers a large 1 MHz to 6 GHz
the RF performance leaves much to be desired operating frequency range. It can also support a
with the RTL-SDR dongle, but with the extremely receive bandwidth up to 20 MHz. The device does
low cost and wide community support of the have an ADC resolution of 8-bits which limits the
device, it provides a great entry point for users dynamic range, and it has also been known to
new to the world of SDR. have some DC offset issues. However, due to the
cost, a large community of support, and the fact
that it is open source, it provides a great entry
point for individuals looking to get acquainted with
a more versatile SDR.

5.5 SDRplay Radios

SDRplay is a UK-based company that offers

three different SDR options: the RSP1A, RSPdx,
and RSPduo. Each one can support an RF
Figure 10. RTL-SDR dongle. frequency range of 1 kHz to 2 GHz and 10 MHz
Image Source: www.rtl-sdr.com instantaneous bandwidth. The devices offer
impressive RF performance with 14-bit ADCs,
5.4 HackRF One RF pre-selection filters, various notch filters,
bias-tees, and a 0.5ppm TCXO. In addition,
The HackRF One is probably the most popular
the company also offers Windows software to
SDR radios in the maker and hacker communities.
support the devices. Another unique feature is
The device is a half-duplex transceiver, meaning
RF shielding on the PCBs. This helps prevent
it can transmit or receive, but only works in a
outside interference from entering the device and
single direction at a time. It is USB-powered
corrupting the received data.

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CHAPTER - 6 SDR Projects

We will now cover various SDR projects with the Raspberry Pi that anyone can build.

NOAA Satellite Receiver Amateur Radio Astronomy Project

This project is a NOAA satellite receiver using Are you interested in building a device that can
upcycled parts centered around a Raspberry Pi. receive and listen to signals from outer space?
It goes through installing the necessary software If so, this project should interest you. Using
components to use the RTL-SDR module on a inexpensive RTL-SDR dongles and the Raspberry
Raspberry Pi for NOAA satellite reception. Pi, the project attempts to receive radio signals
from the sun or Jupiter and its satellite Io.

Project Source: Mario Cannistrà

Remote Spectrum Monitoring Device DIY SDR DSP Radio

This project shows you how to build a remote The radio developed in this project is capable of
monitoring device by using the Raspberry Pi and receiving the entire spectrum, from 500 kHz to 2
an SDR (Software-Defined Radio) dongle in order GHz. It can decode all digital and analog radio
to view the surrounding radio spectrum, and signals, and it also contains a tuning knob for
stream audio from some of the detected signals. easier frequency dialing.

Project Source: Alan Boris

Project Source: Mirko Pavleski

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CHAPTER - 7 How to Make a Coat Hanger Antenna

As complex as antenna theory and design can be, Next, cut the neck off the coat hanger.
it is actually quite simple to create an antenna.
For the hobbyist and maker, there are many
simple ways to create an antenna that can suffice
for many wireless applications. An example of
this is creating a UHF antenna out of a common
household metal coat hanger.
Two pieces are needed to make an antenna out of
a coat hanger. They are a coaxial cable and the
hanger itself. Of course, various tools are also
needed to assist in the build, including a razor, All metal hangers have a protective coating
pliers, wire cutters, and soldering equipment. that needs to be removed in order to maximize
The first step in creating a coat hanger antenna conductivity between the coat hanger to the
starts with the coaxial cable. The construction of coaxial cable. Note that it is only important to
a coaxial cable is depicted in the follow image. remove the protective coating at the ends where
Basically, it consists of the outside insulating coat, we will be soldering. Once the coating is removed,
a conductive mesh that acts as the ground as well we can begin soldering. One end of the hanger will
as providing shielding for the signal conductor, be soldered to the copper core wire in the coaxial
another insulating layer, and finally, the copper cable, and the other will be soldered to the mesh
wire at the core, which carries the signal. grounding on the coaxial cable. This effectively
creates a loop antenna, as illustrated in the
following diagram:

If coaxial connectors are on both ends of the

cable, one end needs to be cut off. The next step The construction of the antenna is now completed,
is to peel back some of the conductive grounding and its coaxial connector can connect to a TV
mesh and both insulators, exposing the copper or radio. Again, this antenna is pretty crude
wire at the core. Approximately two inches of and not optimal, but it should suffice for some
copper wire is sufficient. basic applications operating in the UHF range
of frequencies. For best reception, the antenna
should be placed as high as possible and away
from large metal obstructions.

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 The Raspberry Pi 4 Model B

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