Earth Sci Week 3

MINERAL RESOURCES
 Mineral resources are used for different application
1. Copper
2. Tellurium
3. Lithium
4. Cobalt
 A volume of rock enriched in one or more useful materials
(Nelson, 2012)
 Mineral Occurrence- concentration of a mineral that is of
scientific or technical interest
 Mineral Deposit- mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade
or concentration to enable extraction under the most favorable
conditions
 Ore Deposit- mineral deposit that has been tested and known to be
economically profitable to mine
 MINERAL OCCURRENCE ->MINERAL DEPOSIT->ORE
DEPOSIT->MINING
MINING
 Process of extracting mineral resources from the surface of the
Earth
 Stages of Mining Process
1. Exploration- The process of searching for areas that contain
mineral resources viable for mining. Exploration involves
prospecting, drilling, and modelling of ore deposit.
 Prospecting
(Evaluation of land’s geology)- identifies geohazards
groundwater and other factors that may become challenges.
(Analyze chemical properties of soil and water)
 (Commission airborne and ground physical surveys)- identify
electrical and magnetic properties.
 Drilling
Core drilling- evaluate the type and grade of minerals in the
ground
 Modelling of ore deposit
Geologic modelling of the ore deposit
2. Development and Design- determine whether the site can be
operated in an environmentally safe, economically sound and
socially responsible manner. It also involves scoping,
feasibility studies, procurement of necessary facilities and
equipment.
3. Construction- involves building roads, processing facilities,
environmental management systems, employee housing and
other facilities
4. Production- The sage where actual mining and processing of
minerals happen
 Gangue- unwanted impurities like sand, rocky material,
earthy particles
5. Closure and Reclamation- The process of closing the mine
and returning the land in its original state
 ensuring public health and safety
 minimizing environmental effects
 removing waste and hazardous material
 preserving water quality
 stabilizing land to protect against erosion
 establishing new landforms and vegetation
MINING & ORE PROCESSING
 Stages of Mining Process
ExplorationDevelopment &
DesignConstructionProductionClosure & Reclamation
  Surface Mining- are mining operations that delve into rock to
extract deposits of mineral resources that are close to the surface
 Open pit mining- involve digging large open holes in the
ground
 Strip mining- practice of mining an ore by first removing all
of the soil and rock that lies on top
 Mountaintop removal- practice removing the top of the
mountain to remove deposits not accessible by other
techniques
 Placer mining- the process of extracting minerals from
placer. (A placer is a deposit of sand or gravel in the bed of a
river or lake, containing particles of valuable minerals.)
 Underground Mining- refers to a group of techniques used for the
extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials,
buried deep in the Earth’s crust.
 Drift mining-method of accessing valuable geological
material, by cutting into the side of the earth, rather than
tunneling straight downwards.
 Shaft mining- the process where miners dig straight down, or
almost straight down, until they reach their desired depth
 Slope mining- method of accessing valuable geological
material where a sloping access shaft travels downwards
towards the material

ORE PROCESSING
 Comminution- The process of reducing the ores’ size turning it to
particles or fragments
  Comminution- crushing and grinding
-Main goal is liberation which means freeing the mineral form its
close attachment to gangue. Sizing may also happen after crushing
 Separation- Involves the act of creating concentrates of minerals
as it is separated from gangue. Method used should be based in the
properties of the minerals.
 Separation- Main goal is concentration which involves the
production of concentrated minerals separated from concentrated
amount of gangue
 Heavy media separation- Involves the separation of products
with different densities
 Magnetic separation- utilizes the force exerted by a magnetic
field upon magnetic materials to counteract partially or
wholly the effect of gravity
 Flotation- Involves the separation of hydrophilic materials.
 Cyanide Heap Leaching- Method of extraction in which a
solvent is passed through a mixture to remove some desired
substance from it
FOSSIL FUELS
 Energy sources that originated from biological materials
 Composed of hydrocarbons
  Coal- A combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock.
Coal normally occurs in rock strata as layers or veins called coal
beds or coal seams
COAL FORMATIONS
 The process of coal formation is called coalification.
 The most favorable conditions for the formation of coal occurred
360 million to 290 million years ago [Carboniferous Period]
 The temperature and the location where coalification happens
affect the rate of it and the quality of coal
 It all starts with a swamp on the edge of a sedimentary basin, such
as a lagoon or a lake.
 Tectonic activity or other natural phenomenon raises the level of
water, covering and killing the vegetation
 Plant debris accumulates and is buried under layers of mud and
sand in a process known as sedimentation.
 Sedimentation will happen for over a long period of time which
will cover the plant debris and slow down the decomposition.
 Pressure dure to continuous sedimentation and heat under the Earth
gradually cook plant debris to coal.
 Types of Coal
 Peat
 Lignite
 Sub-bituminous coal
 Bituminous coal
 Anthracite
OIL AND NATURAL GAS
 Oil is liquid fossil fuels while natural gas is gaseous. They are
both made up of hydrocarbons
 The formation of oil and natural gas have a great similarity
 When a living organism dies, it is generally recycled in one of two
ways:
1. It is eaten by predators, scavengers or bacteria
2. It oxidizes ( A small proportion escapes this)
 Transported by water, this tiny proportion sinks to the bottom of
ocean or lakes. (will be partly-preserved. Will mix with clay,sand
and even with dead planktons)
 Over time, this mixture accumulates and hardens. (If it contains 1
to 2% organic matter may be transformed into source rock. The
source rock will eventually produce oil and gas deposits.)
 Source rock- Mixture of remnants of living organisms, and other
inorganic matter
 The weight of accumulating sediment very slowly pushes the
source rock under the Earth’s crust. (The source rock is subjected
to increasingly high temperature and pressure. Source rock turns
into kerogen, an intermediate material of oil.)
 At a desired depth and temperature, kerogen starts to release oil.
(Further increase in temperature will turn the oil into gas.)
 A hydro carbon deposit can only form in reservoir rock.
Hydrocarbon molecules may accumulate in large quantities in the
porous, permeable rock.
Earth Sci week 4
Geothermal Energy
 This heat comes from the decay of radioactive elements and
residual heat are produced when a planet is formed
 It covers all techniques used to recover the heat in the earth’s
subsurface, particularly aquifers—(The rock reservoirs that
contain groundwater

 Geothermal is the most used renewable energy in the Philippines in

this generation(10,270,077)
 This heat tends to increase as you go deeper to the ground
(Geothermal gradient)
 Average value of gradient is 3 degree Celsius per 100 meters
BINARY CYCLE
 Hot water from underground is pumped through a heat exchanger
which heats a second liquid that transforms into steam
DRY STEAM CYCLE
 Hot steam from underground is piped directly into the turbines,
which powers the generator.
FLASH STEAM CYCLE
 Hot water from underground is pumped into a cooler temperature
flash tank. The sudden change in temperature creates steam which
powers the generator
GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS
 Closed Loop Systems- Close loop horizontal systems are the most
cost-effective for residential areas. For larger commercial
buildings, closed loop vertical systems are more often used. These
can sometimes go down 400 feet deep. Closed loops constructed
under or in a pond or lake are usually the cheapest. In closed loop
systems, a water/antifreeze mixture circulates through a loop of
pipes underground (or beneath a body of water) and into a
building.
 Open Loop Systems- The water is taken directly from a water
source and into the heat pump where it then can either be recycled
back into the same source (without polluting). The only difference
with the water going in and out is a slight change in temperature.
Although these can be cheaper, they also require a steady flow of
water capable of powering your home.
HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY
 Hydroelectric Energy is the second most used renewable energy
in the Philippines in this generation (9,610,799)
  Hydropower, or hydro energy, is a form of renewable energy
that uses the water stored in dams, as well as flowing in rivers to
create electricity in hydropower plants. The falling water rotates
blades of a turbine, which then spins a generator that converts
the mechanical energy of the spinning turbine into electrical
energy. Hydroelectric power is significant component of
electricity production worldwide
 Hydropower plants are the world’s leading renewable energy
source, producing 83% of renewable power
 Components of a Hydropower Plant
- A dam that creates a large waterfall and stores enough water
to supply the plant at all times
- A penstock channels water from the reservoir to the turbines
- A powerhouse that house the turbines driven by the waterfall
and the generator driven by the turbines.
TYPES OF HYDROPOWER PLANTS
 Impoundment Facility -Uses a dam to store water. Then, releases
water to generate electricity
 Diversion/Run-of-River Facility- works by redirecting river water
through a little dam into pipes towards a penstock and feeding it
downhill to the power station
 Pumped Storage Facility- combines a small storage reservoir with
a system for cycling water back into the reservoir after it has been
released through the turbine
VARIOUS WATER RESOURCES ON EARTH
 Distribution of Earth’s Water
Earth Sci week 5
ADDRESING ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS RELATED TO
THE USE OF FOSSIL FUELS, GEOTHERMAL ENERGY AND
HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY
 Environmental concerns
 Environmental Impacts of Fossil Fuels, Geothermal Energy,
and Hydroelectric Energy
 Air Pollution, Water Pollution and Land Pollution
 Air Pollution: Problem
 Burning fossil fuels through cars and industrial processes
results to the release of air pollutants and greenhouse gases.
 This result to air pollution, greenhouse effect, and global
warming
 Air Pollution: Solution
 The use of fossil fuels can be minimized by using electricity-
powered trains, bicycles, and other vehicles not powered by
fossil fuels
 Renewable Energy (like biofuel) is also good alternative to
fossil fuels. It emits less greenhouse gases upon use and its
relatively cheaper and easier to produce
 Water Pollution: Problem
 Fossil fuels can cause water pollution when leaked or spilled
in bodies of water like in oil spills which can damage
ecosystems by: - disrupting the food chains in the area
- changing the physical conditions in the area
- contain molecules or compounds that can
harm or kill organisms in the area
 Water Pollution: Solution
 Stricter regulations should be established in oil companies
when it comes to ensuring the transport of oil shipments to
prevent any leaks of spillages.
  Renewable energy is also a good alternative to fossil fuels as
they do not put risk of oil spills and water leakage
 Land Use and Quality: Problem & Solution
 Problem- extensive areas of land including the vegetation and
biodiversity are damaged or disturbed because of mining
 Solution- Stricter regulations should be established that
requires coal mining companies to bioremediate and restore
the are after mining
 Air Pollution
 Problem- Geothermal energy releases minimal amount of
pollutant and greenhouse gases such as hydrogen sulfide,
boron and mercury.
 Solution- Mercury emissions can be reduced through
mercury filter technologies. Geothermal power plants can
minimize air pollution by using close loop system
 Land Use and Landscape
 Problem- can induce earthquakes and also requires large area.
Ground subsidence because of depletion of geothermal fluid
 Solution- Better planning and engineering. Continuous
replenishment of the reservoir of geothermal fluid by using
used water
 Water Quality: Problem
 The creation of dams can lead to:
 Increase in sedimentation and siltation in the reservoir and
river.
 The amount of dissolved oxygen and amount of organisms
differ from the natural river environment
 Algal bloom is also a great risk to stagnant water.
 The water turns green and its oxygen level depletes which
kill the fishes living in it.
 Dams affect the natural life cycle of fishes by preventing
them to go upstream to lay eggs or to mate
  Water Quality: Solution
 Aeration is done in the turbines to increase the dissolved
oxygen content of the water in the river system
 Fish ladders are built to allow fishes to go upstream
 Regular dredging is done to prevent the accumulation of
sediments in the reservoir
 Water is regularly released in the spillway to prevent
stagnancy of water
 Flood in Nearby Communities
 Problem- During heavy rains, huge amount of water are
released in the spillway that causes flood in lowlands and
communities nearby to prevent any damage to the dam.
 Solution- Damage and loss of lives can be minimized and
even prevented by adapting floodplain management.

EXPLANING HOW DIFFERENT ACTIVITIES AFFECT THE

QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY OF WATER FOR HUMAN USE
 Activities that Affect the Quality and Availability of Water
 Improper Waste Disposal
 Irresponsible use of water
 Irresponsible use of Fertilizer
  Mining
 Commercial Logging
 Informal settlements
Activities Quality changes Availability changes
through… through…
Improper Waste Disposal Water Pollution Polluted Water

Irresponsible use of water None Overuse of water

Irresponsible use of fertilizer Eutrophication/ algal Polluted Water

bloom
Commercial logging Erosion and Shallowing of rivers and
sedimentation results to streams
turbidity of water
Mining Chemical pollution and Polluted and toxic water
leaching of heavy caused by leached metals
metals
Informal settlements Fecal and solid wastes Polluted water
thrown at the water
resource

SUGGESTING WAYS OF CONSERVING AND PROTECTING

WATER RESOURCES
 Water Conservation
 pertains to all efforts of reducing water usage, loss or waste
 encompasses the laws, policies, strategies and activities to
sustainably manage and protect the quality of water
resources.
 Methods
-conserve/save water
-reduce wastes
-rehabilitate water resources
 Conserve or Save Water
 Using lesser amount of water necessary to conduct an activity
or activity
 Reusing water for other purposes whenever possible
 Examples
-Turn off the faucet when not in use.
-Use a glass/ cup when brushing the teeth.
-Use a pail and dipper when taking a shower
-Use containers for other activities such as washing the
dishers, car, instead of running water.
 Reduce Wastes
 Avoid throwing wastes directly to different bodies of water
 Segregate waste materials
 Examples
-Avoid pouring chemicals, oils, gasoline, etc. down to sinks,
since they go directly to rivers
-Minimize the use of commercial fertilizers. Leaching of
nutrients results to algal bloom
-Avoid disposing wastes to different bodies of water
 Rehabilitate Water Resources
 Rehabilitation* of forest and aquatic areas are necessary to
keep our water resources clean
 Rehabilitation* is the process of restoration or bringing back
the natural condition of a certain area or resource
 Examples
-Clean up bodies of water such as river, streams, lakes, etc.
-Plant trees near bodies of water
-Reforest areas.
-Other strategies to rehabilitate
The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004
 The Philippines has a mandate to protect, conserve, preserve and
revie the quality of its water resources through R.A 9275 also
known as the Clean Water
 Its declaration states that: “The State shall pursue a policy of
economic growth in a manner consistent with the protection,
preservation and revival of the quality of our fresh, brackish and
marine waters.”
SUMMARY
 Water Conservation Methods
 Conserve/save water means using less amount of water
 Reduce waste in water resources means reducing waste
pollution
 rehabilitate water resources means improving the condition
of the environment and water resources
IDENTIFYING HUMAN ACTIVITIES SUCH AS FARMING,
CONSTRUCTION OF STRUCTURES, AND WASTE DISPOSAL
THAT AFFECT THE QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF SOIL
 Soil
 Top layer of the Earth’s crust
 Made up of minerals, air, organic matter, and water
 Non-renewable resource
 Human Activities Affecting Soil
 Farming
*Adding fertilizers
-microorganisms in soil have difficulty in producing
nutrients naturally
*Clearing of land
- loss of natural plant cover soil is easily washed (rain) or
blown (wind) away
  Construction
*Land disruption
-loss of natural vegetation prone to soil erosion
*Excavation of land
- for build foundation of structures, it also weakens soil
structure
 Waste Disposal
*Biological waste disposal
- toxins and chemicals from biological wastes seep into the
soil
-high in pH and increase heavy metal concentrations are
observed
-vegetation decreases due to high pH
 Plastic wastes disposal
-chemical moieties like heavy metals and chloride migrate
from plastic waste into the surrounding
SUMMARY
Farming Construction Waste Disposal
Addition of fertilizers disrupts Land disruption Biological wastes releases
microorganisms natural production removes natural chemicals and toxins
of nutrients vegetation
Clearing of land removes natural Weakens soil Increases pH and heavy
plant cover structure metal concentration
Exposes the soil to wind and rain Prone to soil Loss of vegetation
erosion

GIVING WAYS OF CONSERVING AND PROTESTING THE

SOIL FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS
 Soil and its Importance
 Defined as the top layer of the Earth’s crust
  Made up of minerals, air, organic matter, and water
 Non-renewable resource
 Industrial
-source of minerals like iron and coal
 Agricultural
-serve as substrate for biomass production
 Cultural
-records human activities, present and the past
 Soil Pollution
 Soil pollution is the presence of containments like
chemicals and toxins at high amounts in the soil that are
harmful to the ecosystem
 Industrial Activities
-i.e contaminated wastes of mining
 Agricultural Activities
-i.e frequent use of fertilizers
 Waste Disposal
-i.e biological and plastic wastes disposal

CONSERVING & PROTECTING THE SOIL (No Till Farming)

 This practice keeps the soil anchored in place and lessen its
exposure to wind and rain which promotes soil erosion
  Tillage is a process of preparing the soil, by digging, stirring
or overturning it, for growing crops
 Practice Contour Farming- Contour farming plant corps in
rows that run around the hill at a consistent elevation
 Slows the flow of water which causes soil erosion
 Reduces fertilizer loss
 Less infiltration and run-off water
PROPER WASTE DISPOSAL OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES
 Proper disposal of wastes prevents contamination of the soil as
well as the environment
 Methods of disposal
*Incineration
-hazardous organic wastes
*Land Disposal
-treated solid wastes
*Underground injection
-hazardous liquid wastes

HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL

 Landfills: Specifically designed to keep hazardous waste
contained
 Surface impoundment: Liquid waste poured into shallow lines
pits; water evaporates and solid waste is transported elsewhere
 Deep-well injection: Wastes injected into deep, confirmed porous
rock layer

 Windbreaks Planting
 Windbreaks are barriers of trees or shrubs that protect the
crops or liver stock from the harmful effects of wind
 Slows the force of the wind on the soil
 Prevents soil erosion
 Organic Matter Enhancing
 Promotes soil clumping which results to an improved soil
structure
 Prevents erosion due to increased levels of water infiltration
 Organic Matter or Humus is any residual material of plants or
animals that is now resistant to decomposition
 Ways to increase organic matter
 Leaving crop residues in the field
 Applying manure or compost
 Growing cover crops