Unit 1 Rocks Minerals and Their Expolitation

o Igneous rocks:
 Made when liquid magma cools to form solid rock.

 Molten rock below the surface is called magma, and lava when it reaches the surface.
 Extrusive igneous rock: if the rock cools quickly, small crystals are formed e.g. basalt.
 Intrusive igneous rock: if the rock cools slowly, large crystals are formed e.g. granite.
o Sedimentary rocks:
 Formed by the weathering of existing rocks at the Earth’s surface.
 Fossils may be present.
 Sediments (small particles of rocks) accumulate into layers and get pressurised due to the
newer deposits above them.
 The sediments are transported by water and wind (erosion).
 Particles like clays, silts, sands, gravels and small boulders are found in sediments.
 Examples: limestone, sandstone and shale.
o Metamorphic rocks:
 Formed from existing rock when heat and/or pressure causes changes in the rock crystals
without melting it.
 The changes can be physical, chemical or both.
 Examples: marble and slate.
1.2 Extraction of rocks and minerals from the Earth:
 Exploring for minerals:

o Prospecting:
A process of searching for minerals by examining the surface of the rocks.
o Remote sensing: a process in which information is gathered about the Earth’s surface from
above.
 Photographs of the area are taken from air.
 The images are carefully analysed for mineral presence.
 Aerial photography can cover more ground than a person on the surface.
o Radiation detection:
 Mineral deposits are weathered at the Earth’s surface, forming mineral oxides.
 They can be detected by their unique radiation pattern (recorded by a satellite and
downloaded to a computer for analysis)
o Satellite signals:
 Some satellites send signals to the Earth’s surface and collect the reflected signals, indicating
the presence of minerals.
 The system works in all weather conditions.
o Satellite images:
 Computers are used to process the data from a region of interest to check for mineral
presence.
 Geologists confirm the presence of the mineral by visiting the location (recorded by the
satellite’s positioning system).
 Geologists can further check the availability
o Geochemical analysis: analysing the chemical properties of rocks (by taking samples).
The samples can be taken from stream sediments, soil or rocks (using shallow drilling).
 The location of the sample points can be accurately found using the Global Positioning System
(GPS).
o Geophysics: method to identify mineral ores present in rocks using their physical properties.
 A series of vibrations (seismic waves) are sent through the Earth’s surface.
 Several sensors are placed at different distances from the source of vibrations on the surface.
 The vibrations create shock waves that travel down into the rock layers.
 They are reflected back to the sensors on the surface.
 The shock waves record different patterns depending on the mineral present in the rock layers.
• Methods of extraction
 Surface mining: includes open-cast (open-pit,

opencut) and strip mining.
 Open-pit mining is used when a valuable deposit is located

near the surface.
 The vegetation is cleared and topsoil removed.
 The rocks are broken up and loosened with

explosives.
 The loose rock is removed using diggers.
 The rock or mineral is tipped into trucks or
railway wagons.
 Building materials such as sand, gravel and stone
are removed from open pits called quarries.
 Strip mining is used to mine a seam of mineral
 The overburden (overlying rock and soil) is

removed as a thin strip.
 It is mainly used to mine coal
 Sub-surface mining: includes deep and
shaft mining.
 A vertical shaft is sunk down to the rock layer
containing minerals.
 A horizontal tunnel is made, following the mineral
layer.
 The minerals are extracted by digging (by machines
and miners).
 The loose rock is brought from the mine and piled
up on waste heaps on the surface.
 The minerals are brought to the surface and
transported in trucks or trains.
• Factors that affect the decision to extract rocks and minerals:
 The costs of exploration and extraction:

 Probable cost of extracting one tonne is calculated.
 There are fewer technical difficulties of mining on a large scale using open-pit mining as there’d
be low extraction costs per tonne.
 Shaft mining is costlier to set up and maintain as the cost per tonne will be higher. So, only
deposits of higher value can be mined in this way.
 Geology:
 High-grade ores yield more of the required chemical elements than low-grade ores.
 Small deposits of high-grade ore are worth mining.
 Small deposits of low-grade ore that cannot be mined at a profit are left as reserves.
 Accessibility:
 Transporting the ore from the mine to processing plants can be difficult and expensive.
 The cost of building road or rail links to the processing plant or to the nearest port for
export has to be considered.
 Carrying out some processing at the mine reduces transport costs.
 The mining company must be given a licence before extracting a deposit.
 A long-term agreement between the government and mining company must be reached to
avoid rapid rises in the tax, which makes the mining unprofitable.
 Environmental impact assessment:
 For a licence application to be approved, the company must have a plan to keep the loss
of habitat minimal, followed by the restoration of land proceeding the completion of
mining.
 The choice of site for mine waste should also be considered.
 Supply and demand: the relation between how much of a commodity is available and how
much is needed or wanted by the consumers.
 Increase in world demand for any mineral ore will elevate the prices.
 The profit from a working mine depends on changes in supply and demand.
 If the demand is too high, mines that were not profitable before become worth mining.
 If the demand falls, working mines may get into a loss due to the transport and
extraction expenses.

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o Igneous rocks:

 Made when liquid magma cools to form solid rock.

 Exploring for minerals:

 Surface mining: includes open-cast (open-pit,

 Open-pit mining is used when a valuable deposit is located

 The vegetation is cleared and topsoil removed.

 The rocks are broken up and loosened with

 The overburden (overlying rock and soil) is

• Factors that affect the decision to extract rocks and minerals:

 The costs of exploration and extraction:

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