Sustainability

Sustainability is meeting our needs but not harming the planet and not
overconsuming so future generations can meet their needs as well
Formation of rocks
Igneous rock
● Formed from when molten rock dries
● Granite
● Basalt
Sedimentary rock
● Formed by the weathering and erosion of rocks.
● Over time layers of sediments build up to form this rock
● Limestone
● Sandstone
● Shale
● Fossils may be present
Metamorphic rocks
● Created by heat and pressure
● Changes are chemical and physical
● Marble
● Slate

Searching for minerals

1. Prospecting
a. Look carefully at the surface of rocks
2. Remote sensing
a. Images of land taken in the air are analysed
b. A satellite can detect mineral oxides (which mineral deposits
produce), and analyse them in computers.
c. A satellite can send signals to the surface of the Earth and then
collect reflected signals.
A. Computers process this data to see whether minerals are present in
the area. The exact position is recorded, geologists then visit this area
for confirmation.
B. Samples are taken and sent to a laboratory for geochemical analysis
for identification.
d. Geophysics. Vibrations are sent through the Earth’s surface and
create shock waves that travel down into the rock layers and are
reflected back on the sensors on the surface. The shock waves
record different patterns depending on the mineral.

Mining rocks and minerals

An evaluation is carried out to estimate the grade and tonnage of the mineral.
A feasibility study is carried out to evaluate the financial and technical risks.
The final decision may be to develop a mine straight away or wait until
conditions change in the future.
 Surface mining
Open cast, open pit, open cut and strip mining
Open- pit
● Used when a valuable deposit is located near the surface
● The material above the deposit is called overburden and is stored
nearby for mine restoration
● Are carefully dug in sections called benches, like stairs.
● Roads have to be made as the digging progresses
Strip mining
● Used to mine a seam of a mineral
● Overburden is removed

Sub-surface mining
● Digging tunnels to reach a mineral that is too deep to be removed by
surface mining.
● Sometimes horizontal tunnels are dug entirely into the coal seam in the
side of a hill, this is entered by an adit.
● Miners job is to make sure all the machinery is working properly and
safely
● Dangers of collapsing tunnels as well as the risks of poisonous gas,
explosion and underground fire.

Factors affecting the viability of extraction of

minerals
● The costs of exploration and extraction: The probable cost of extracting
one tonne of ore has to be calculated. Deposits near the surface can be
extracted by open-pit mining which usually have fewer technical
difficulties on a large scale, which leads to a low extraction cost per
tonne. Deeper deposits can only be extracted by shaft mining which is
more costly to set up and maintain, so the cost per tonne will be higher.
Only deposits of high value can be mined economically this way.
● Geology: geologists need to take into account the position of the
minerals, the depth and the stability of the rock when starting a new
mine.
● Climate:
● Accessibility: The chances of finding a deposit on the sides that have
never been mined are low. Sites that have already been mined usually
have a higher strike rate.
● The environmental impact: (listed below)
● Supply and demand: Changes in supply and demand can increase or
decrease profits from working mines. If the supply is bigger than the
demand the price will drop. If the demand is bigger than the supply the
price will increase.
 Environmental impacts
Ecological impacts

All mining activity will involve the loss of habitat for some species of plants
and animals, even small-scale.

Large scale surface mining causes the greatest loss of habitat. Large areas of
vegetation have to be stored and large volumes of removed overburden have
to be stored. The restored land will slowly become covered in some
vegetation. However this will have less biodiversity compared with the original
vegetation. This means that some plants and animal habitats will still be lost
from an area for many years, even with restoration.

In sub-surface mining, at first, only a small area of land is cleared of

vegetation but after this mine has been working for a few years, more habitats
will be destroyed as the amount of mine waste stored aboveground increases.

When a company applies for a licence to start working, an environmental

impact assessment is carried out. A plan to keep the loss of habitat as small
as possible and restoration has to be proposed.

Pollution

Noise: Noise pollution is a problem when large scale surface mining takes
place. Explosives are needed. This can disturb the behaviour of many animal
species near the mine and cause health problems for people.

Water: The water that drains through mine waste, or comes directly from mine
shafts, can cause dramatic changes to the populations of living organisms in
streams and rivers. Drinking water supplies might also be polluted making it
unsafe for people to drink. This pollution is caused by chemical reactions
between water and exposed rocks and mine waste. This contaminated water
kills many aquatic organisms. A main component of this only exists in low
concentrations in bodies of water. However, organisms absorb these ions and
retain them in their body, reaching much higher concentrations than in the
water. These concentrations increase further in organisms that are higher up
the food chain. This is called biomagnification.

Land: Will become polluted by mine waste. The toxic nature of the waste
means that only a few plants can grow, even years after the mining has
stopped. When mine waste is stored above natural courses, the waste pile may
collapse and cover more land.

Air: Many mining activities release dust particles, which will settle on
vegetation. Dust reduces plant growth: If light cannot penetrate a layer of dust
on a leaf surface, then the plant cannot perform photosynthesis. This dust
may also have toxic effects depending on the chemical components present.
This can reduce or stop plant growth and the particles can be dangerous to
human health. Long term exposure can lead to serious lung diseases that can
cause death. Mining companies provide safety clothing and breathing masks .
However, many people without a licence don't provide these precautions.
Visual: Evidence of mining activity can often be seen because the landscape is
damaged. Large-scale surface mining will create the most obvious visual
pollution during the working life of a mine. This type of pollution may only be
temporary because careful restoration of the landscape is possible, though
not commonly done.

Economic impacts
Extracting valuable minerals provides employment for people and provides
taxes for the government. Modern mining is carried out using machines so
only a small number of people will be directly employed. However, if the
mineral is then refined and processed or exported, further jobs are created.
Transportation also requires people. If all these activities occur in the same
country, this will generate the most income for buying goods and services as
well as investing in infrastructure projects.

Some improvements to transport and services, such as healthcare and

education, will be required to supply any mining industry as well as support
the mineworkers and their families.

If the land is polluted, economic activities, such as agriculture and livestock

farming, cannot be performed.

Although, if the mine is not restored, as in most cases, it can be used as a

touristic site.

Safe disposal of mining waste

In the past, mining waste was put in piles near the point of extraction. Stable
waste piles were placed on top of water courses, which then became polluted
with toxic chemicals or the piles collapsed and increased land and water
pollution.

Today, safe storage and disposal of mine waste is one of the most important
aspects of any mining licence application. Applicators must provide a detailed
plan to show how mine waste will be stored to prevent collapse. The sire of the
mine waste must also prevent the possibility of water pollution. The plan must
include details of how the waste will be monitored.

Land restoration and bioremediation

When mining has finished, the land needs to be restored. Sometimes mine
waste can be reshaped to blend in with the surrounding landforms. The waste
can then be covered by a layer of enriched soil. Such an area can then be
plants with trees. This will help other plants and animals to colonise the area.
As time passes, the soil will be improved by the addition of organic matter.

Some waste does not allow the growth of tree roots, so other methods of
restoration have to be used. Contaminated water can be treated where it was
left by bioremediation. Alternatively, waste is taken to a treatment plant.

Bioremediation is the process of removing pollutants from waste using living

organisms. This often happens slowly in natural environments.
Mineral extraction often creates large holes in the landscape. If the rock lining
of the hole is impervious to water and non-toxic it can be allowed to fill with
water to form a reservoir. Sometimes, these holes are filled with household
waste until they are full. The waste is then covered with soil and planted with
trees. This is referred to as a landfill.

Of course, restoration is not usually done, especially in isolated areas.

Companies don’t think it is a problem important enough to waste money on.

Efficiency of extraction
Underground coal mines only remove between 55 and 70% of the coal present
in the reserve. This Is because of the technical difficulties of extracting the
remaining coal in a safe and cost effective manner. Open-pit mining is more
efficient at extraction than underground mining but some wastage still
occurs. To improve the efficiency of extraction, many mine wastes are now
being processed for a second time. This allows materials to be recovered and
reduces the risk of pollution from waste.

Improvements in the performance of the machines and processing also

increase the efficiency of extraction. Greater use of data analysis by
computers is likely to lead to improvements as well. However, surface mining
has more potential for an increase in efficiency of extraction than
underground mining.

Efficiency of use and recycling

Recycling materials makes an important contribution to the sustainable use of
rocks and minerals. Recycling uses less energy than processing the ores or
concentrates to make metals.

It is possible to design steel beams used in buildings to have the same

strength but use less steel.