EM Summary

1.
1 Structure of earth and formation of rocks:
Earth is made up of 4 layers:
1. Crust (made up of cold or solid rocks).
2. Mantle (made up pf molten rocks called magma, when erupted called lava).
3. Outer core (made up of Iron and Nickle at liquid state).
4. Inner core (made up of Iron and Nickle at solid state due to the high pressure).
Formation of rocks
Rocks are made up of minerals (mineral=inorganic substances with specific chemical

composition)
Types of rocks
1. Igneous rocks:
They are formed when the magma cools down and solidified.
Igneous rocks consist of crystals.
Ex: Granite and Basalt
2. Sedimentary rocks:
They are formed of layers (sediments) fragments of rock, particles of sand , clay, and
remains of dead plants and animals. These layers accumulated and compressed over
time to form sedimentary rocks.
sedimentary rocks do not consist of crystals.
Ex : Limestone , sandstone, shale.
3. Metamorphic rocks:
Originally they are either igneous or sedimentary rock have changed by heat and
pressure to give metamorphic rock.
Metamorphic rock can also change into a new metamorphic rock by action of heat and
pressure. Metamorphic rocks consist of crystals.
Ex : Marble and slate .
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The below summaries the characteristics of the three types of rocks:
Igneous rock Sedimentary Metamorphic
Made from liquid magma. Made from other rock Made from existing rock.
fragments.
Magma cools down to Rock fragments buried The original rock is
form solid rock. and increased pressure changed by heat and
forms rock. pressure.
Mineral crystals are Mineral crystals are Mineral crystals are
present absent present
No fossils present fossils may be present No fossils present
The rock cycle:
A diagram represents the three types of rocks and the processes involved in changes between
them.

1.2 Extraction of rocks and minerals from the earth:
Mineral: is any substance obtained by mining.
Ore: a rock contains a valuable metal (mineral).
Minerals can be metallic and non- metallic:
Metallic such like:
Gold and silver used in jewelries.
Cupper is used in electrical wires.
Iron is used in buildings and industries.
Potassium is used as fertilizer.
Non-metallic such like:
Oil and coal used as fuel.
Dimond is used for drilling and digging machines.
Limestone is used in buildings, cement manufacturing, and fertilizer to neutralizes the

effect of the acid rain.
Mineral exploration:
Exploration = searching or looking for minerals.
There are many methods\ techniques are used for mineral exploration:
1. Prospecting: looking for mineral at surface of rocks.
2. Remote sensing and satellite: this technique provides images and aerial pictures,
which then analyzed by using computers to give indicators of mineral deposits.
3. Geochemistry (Geochemical analysis): identification of chemical properties of the

rocks could give clues for mineral presences.
4. Geophysics: this technique depends on sending waves or vibrations (seismic waves)

through the earth surface, reflected waves with different patterns depend on what minerals are
present detected by sensors on the earth surface and then analyzed using computers to give
information about minerals in this area. This method is close to echo- location system in the
bats.

Methods of mining:
1. Surface mining: this method is used when the mineral deposit located close to earth
surface
It includes:
A. Open-pit (open-cast or open-cut) mining.
Open-pit mines are dug in sections called benches designed in a proper way to avoid
collapsing and sliding.
In some cases open pits stop working either because depletion of mineral deposit or removing
of overburden has increased to extent that mining is not profitable.
B. Strip mining: this method is used when a mineral founded as seam \band (ex: coal).
Generally surface mining includes the following steps:
1. Removing of topsoil and overburden layer( layer that does not contain the mineral or
worthless materials).
2. Using explosives to loosen or break down the ore.
3. Using diggers to remove loosen rocks.
4. Load ores in trucks in order to extract the minerals.
2. Sub-surface mining: this method is used when mineral deposits located at deep soil or
away from earth surfaces.
Shaft mining and deep mining are examples of Sub-surface mining.
Generally sub- surface mining includes the following steps:
1. Removing of topsoil and overburden layer.
2. Sink vertical shafts to reach the mineral deposit.
3. Build horizontal tunnels through mineral layer.
4. Use machines to cut or break down the minerals.
5. Lifting minerals to the surface.(using elevators).
Factors affecting decision of mining \ the viability of extraction of minerals:
1. The cost of mining: generally sub-surface mining is more expensive than surface mining.
2. Geology: presence of mineral in different geological structure may affect decision of

mining.

3. Climate: if a mine is located in places with extreme weather conditions (very hot or very
cold) may results in cancelling mining.
4. Accessibility and transportation: is it easy to get to the mine and easy to transport
minerals to the market.
5. The environmental impact: mining companies are asked to write a report ( Environmental
Impact assessment) about the environmental damage as result of mining in order to get the
license for mining.
6. Supply and demand (price) : if there is high supply (less demand) prices will fall, mining
companies will stop mining, and vice versa.
7. The deposit size (depletion rate): big deposit size are more favorable than small ones.
8. The quality\ grade (purity) of minerals: high grade ores are more likely to mined.
1.3 Impacts of rock and minerals extraction:
A. Environmental impacts:
Generally mining affects the environment negatively in different forms:
1. Ecological impacts:
Removing of top soil and overburden layer results in soil erosion , and habitat loss , which in
turn results in die of living things(extinction) and as a consequence biodiversity will be
affected (less biodiversity).
2. Pollution:
Mining results in different types of pollution:
Noise pollution:
Using of machines, truck and explosives causing noise to local people.
Land pollution:
Land could polluted by the wastes of mining, in some cases land may not support plant
growth.
Air Pollution:
-Emissions from trucks, machines and chimneys of factories contribute to air pollution.
-Dust from releasing topsoil and overburden layer which settle on plants may affect plant
growth , leaves will be able to absorb light, then the rate of photosynthesis decreased.
Visual pollution:
Mining left with piles of wastes and scares on landform which look unsightly and damage and
spoil the scenic beauty of the area.

Water pollution:
This type of pollution occurs when wastes of mining drain or discharge into water bodies or
streams. The water may become acidic and then dissolve toxic metal ions. This leads to
higher concentration of ions-higher than the normal- in living organisms
(Bioaccumulation),then the concentration increased further throw higher organism in the food
chain or food web (Biomagnifications).
B. Economic impacts:
Economically, mining has positive impacts for government and local people:
Government: mining considers as source of income in form of taxation , license, and

exporting of mineral provides more income of foreign currency , which improve national
economic and that reflects in developing of infrastructure ( schools , hospitals , roads ,and
power plants.) therefore benefit the whole population of the country.
Local people: mining provides employment and job opportunities, and if the minerals are
processed in the same country that would provide more jobs.
- Deep mining is more dangerous because:
1. High risk of roof collapsing.
2. less chance of surviving in case of flooding and fire.
3. Miners work at extreme condition (high temperature, less supply of oxygen).
4. Some mines ignore safety measurements.

1.4. Managing the impacts of rocks and minerals exploration:
A. safe disposal of wastes:
Wastes should be disposed in a safe way to prevent the possibility of land and water pollution.
B. Land restoration and bioremediation:
Mining left with big holes and pits on landscape, land should be restored (return to first
shape), sometimes the wastes and overburden layer are used to reshape the landform (bury the
big pits and holes) , then it covers with a layer of soil and fertilizer , then the area can used for
planting trees and then enrich the ecosystem..
Some wastes don’t allow plants to grow instead; either they are treated at the mine (in situ)
by using microorganisms and this referred to Bioremediation, or could be transported to
another facility for treatment (ex situ).
Large holes and pits could be used as a reservoir to harvest rainwater and might used for
irrigation and drinking, or in some cases they are used as landfill side for dumping household
waste in a proper way to prevent waste and toxic materials from leaking and results in land
pollution.
1.5 Sustainable use of rocks and minerals:
minerals are found in a finite amounts ( non-renewable), so they should be used in a

sustainable manner.
Sustainability: the use that meet the needs of the present without affecting the ability of future
generations to meet their needs.
How we could make exploration of rocks and minerals more sustainable:
A. Efficiency of extraction:
This approach could be achieved by:
Processing of the mine wastes again to increased amount of minerals extracted and reduce
the pollution, this include chemical and biological treatment.
Improve the performance of machines used; develop new technologies and using of
computers.
B. Efficiency of use and recycling:
This strategy focusing on using less amount of minerals in industries , using of alternatives
for ex using of fiber optics (silica) rather copper wires , and recycling by using metals and
minerals again and again to prolong life expectancy of minerals and saving more energy.

2.1 Fossil fuels:
Fossil fuels include: coal, oil, and natural gas. They are produced from decay of plants and
animals, and take millions of years to create.
- Formation of coal:
It is formed when vegetation dies and buried under sediments to from peat, peat is
compressed to from lignite, more compression forms coal.
- Formation of oil and natural gas:
Both remains of plants and animals buried under sediments and exposing to high
temperature and pressure. Generally oil and natural gas are founded between layer of
impermeable rocks and porous rocks (sedimentary rocks), so extracting requires
drilling and digging.
2.2 Energy resources:
Generally there 2 types of energy resources:
A. Non renewable sources: they are limited sources of energy and once they are
used they will not be replaced or take very long time to create again (fossil fuel and
nuclear power using of uranium).
B. Renewable source: they can be used again and again without running out, and
can be replaced. (Geothermal energy, solar energy, wind energy, hydroelectric power,
wave energy, tidal energy, biofuels e.g. bioethanol, biogas and wood.)
How energy sources are used:
Generally all these kinds of sources are used to manufacture electricity by the process of
electromagnetic induction. This process aim to transform kinetic energy into electrical
energy inside generators. Generator consists of a coil of metal rotating close to a magnet, as
the coil rotates the electrical current is generated. Power is used to rotate the coils. This
rotation comes from a turbine connected to the generator.
In order to utilize geothermal energy cold water is pumped under pressure to layer of hot
rocks which change water into steam, which is used (steam) to spin the turbines and generate
electricity.
Fossil fuels, biofuels are burnt to release heat which is used to change water into steam and
used to spin turbines.
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Nuclear energy utilized by nuclear fission to release heat, which is used to change water into
steam and used to spin turbines.
Wind, Hydroelectrical power (HEP), wave, tidal are used directly (kinetic energy) to spin
the turbines.
Photovoltaic cells are used to convert solar energy into electrical energy.
Using the different energy resources:
Decision of using specific energy resource is affected by many factors:
1. Economic factors:
Many countries try to rely on their local fuel supply to avoid cost of importing and fluctuation
of prices, for example Middle East countries depend on crude oil, Russia depends on natural
gas, china and USA depend on coal. While others could depend on natural resource for
energy supply for example Iceland depend on geothermal energy.
Some countries may face economic barriers from using energy resources, such as the cost of
technology is expensive (nuclear plants and solar panels).
2. Social factors:
Extraction of some energy resources (oil) may affect land and will not be longer available
for agriculture, in other hand provides more jobs for local people as well as improvement to
local infrastructure.
The development of HEP (building of dams) causes the displacement of local community
beside varies types of pollution (noise, air and visual).
3. Environmental factors:
Extraction and using of energy resources may have many environmental impacts; however
that depends on the type of resource used. some resources producing high amounts of carbon
dioxide (coal) while other do not ( wind , solar , nuclear). Beside that there are more impacts
such as:
Different types of pollution: during extraction, transportation or using.
Changes to the ecosystem: extraction of oil results in habitat destruction; HEP may affect
ability of fish to breed.
Visual pollution: solar panel and wind turbines may ruin the beauty of the area.

The table below shows the advantages and disadvantages of different types of energy
resources:
Fuel type Advantages Disadvantages
Fossil fuel -Plentiful supply in some -Releasing of toxic emission

places such as carbon dioxide (specially
- Extraction provides jobs. coal).
- simple technology is - non- renewable
needed. - extraction causing damage to local
area.
Nuclear power - Does not produce carbon - Risk of radiation leakage.
dioxide - risk of explosion
- less contribution to acid rain - cancer and mutations.
and global warming. - radioactive wastes cannot recycled
- highly efficient (small amount and lasts for very long time.
of fuel release large amount of - limited supply ( non-renewable).
energy.
- power plants provide jobs.
Re-newables - Do not emit carbon dioxide - some of them are expensive ( HEP,
- Unlimited supply. geothermal, wind, solar).
- Conserve (save) fossil fuels. - Affected by weather ( wind, solar).
- limited to some places (
geothermal).
- some of them causes visual
pollution and uses large area
(solar,wind).

2.3 The demand of energy:
Energy demand is affected by many factors:
1. Industrial demand:
Generally industrial countries (developed) consume high amount of energy due to

manufacturing of goods, unlike countries depend on agriculture (developing). Also advanced
technology has led to availability of many products, and that has resulted in more energy
consumption.
2. Domestic demand:
Affordability and availability of luxury products (phones, televisions, etc,) put more pressure
on energy consumption, as well as changing purchasing patterns; for example people now can
get vegetables and fruits that cannot grown locally or out of season either by controlling the
conditions (green house) or by importing \transporting. In both cases there is energy
consumption.
3. Transport demand:
Transportation section consumes the high portion of energy in all countries, because all types
of transportation require large amount of fossil fuel, as well as saving products and goods in
specific conditions (cooling\freezing) cost energy.
4. Economic factors:
Economic status of the country plays important role in energy demand. If a country with good
economic status it will be able to manufacture more goods and there will be more need for
transportation and storage, and there will be a higher employment (income) for more luxuries
therefore more energy consumption, unlike countries with bad or poor economic status.
5. Climate:
Climate also affects energy demand; people live in hot countries demand energy for cooling,
air conditions, and ventilation system. Unlike those living in cold countries demand energy
for heating and warming. More energy is needed for lightening in countries with long night
hours.

2.4 Conservation and management of energy resources:
Conservation and management of energy resources could be achieved by 2 main strategies:
1. Strategies for effective use of energy:
-Reduce consumption by reduce the amount of heat escape:
Reducing consumption results in using less energy and producing less waste as well. In cold
climate energy is consumed for heating, many strategies now aimed to reduce the amount of
energy lost (to reduce energy for heating). This method works by using a construction
material with good insulation properties to prevent loss of heat.
-An insulation layer (loft insulation) may add into the roof space.
- Walls are built with 2 layers and the cavity is filled by insulation material.
-Using 2 sheets of glass and gap is filled with inert gas (double glazing) or 3 layers (triple
glazing –expensive-), instead of reducing the window size which results in using more
artificial lights.
-Other ways to reduce the consumption:
This includes many ways:
-Turning off electrical devices when out of use.
-Using more efficient devices (use less energy).
-Using high efficient cars (use less fuel).
- Energy from wastes:
-Biogas (methane) could be collected from anaerobic digestion of organic wastes (animal
manure, food and vegetation).
-Vegetation oils (cooking oil) could be recycled after using to turn into biofuels (methyl ester)
in some cases it is used as replacement for diesel.
- Household rubbish could be burnt to release heat, which could be used to generate
electricity. In other hand that leads to produce toxic emissions.

- Education:
One of the tools are used to raise the awareness, the educational massage should be targeted
as saving bills in order to reduce consumption of energy. However education must be
reinforced and supported by governmental laws and legislations such as:
- Stricter building regulations requiring new constructions to be more energy efficient.
- preventing the sale of inefficient types of light bulbs to force the use of other type.
Some governments have provided grants to encourage positive attitudes and to purchase of
more efficient technologies such as:
- Insulating older houses that are energy inefficient.
- Replacing older, inefficient heating boilers.
- Scrapping older, inefficient cars, which also emit more pollutants into the air.
-Transport policies:
These policies are formed by the government in order to reduce the amount of energy used
and improve air quality, these policies include:
- Regulation regarding the quality of exhausts gases from vehicles, and fuel efficiency.
- Restrictions on where and when cars may go and used.
- Taxations on fuel.
- Improving public transport.
- Improve routes for cyclists and pedestrians.
- Encourage car-sharing.
- Providing grants to buy more fuel-efficient vehicles.
- Providing grants for vehicles using cleaner technology, such as electric- powered vehicles.
2. Development of new resources:
One of the prominent new technologies is fracking (hydraulic fracture). This technique
involves pumping water, sand and chemical underground to extract oil and natural gas from
shale rocks.

Water and chemicals help the rocks to fracture (split open) and push oil and natural upward to
the surfaces and collected there. Sand is used as (proppant) to keep the cracks open allows gas
and oil to escape.
This technique is controversy, there are two different viewpoints concerning it. The table
below summaries the viewpoints:
Fracking is safe (advantages) Fracking is unsafe (disadvantages)
More supply of oil and natural gas (expand life High risk of toxin from fracking entering the water
expectancy). table.
Oil and natural producing less carbon dioxide The mixture of chemicals and sand is toxic and may
comparing to coal. affect local residents.
Shale rocks are deep in the soil, far below the water Fracking uses a lot of water, which may reduce
table. availability for other purpose.
Fracking provides jobs for local people. Noise pollution
Fracking lowers the level of rocks, causes earth

tremors, and long terms are un known

2.5 impacts of oil pollution:
People around the world still depend on oil as source of energy for many reasons:
- Easy to extract, store and transport.
- Different products could be obtained from.
- Producing less pollution when burnt compared with coal.
Oil pollution \ spill can occur by main 3 causes:
- Offshore extraction.
- Transportation via pipelines.
- Shipping and transporting through tankers.
How does an oil spill impact the marine ecosystem?
Crude oil (unprocessed oil) is black, thick, dark, stick and toxic material, it damages the
ecosystem in many ways:
- Lack of food and oxygen (it blocks sunlight and reduces the ability of planktons for
photosynthesis)
- Death of fish due to lack of food and oxygen (extinction of species)
- Physical impacts on aquatic organisms which affect their movement, or direct contact with
gills.
- Ingestion of oil causes death to living things (toxicity).
- Damaging to the natural ecosystems (Coral reefs).
- Visual pollution if oil is washed by tides and reaches beaches.

2.6: Management of oil pollution:
This can be achieved by 2 strategies :
1. Reducing oil spills in marine environments:
A. MARPOL: (MARINE POLLUTION):
International convention for the prevention of pollution from ships and sewage, rubbish and
toxic liquids. This convention has formed many rules and regulations for oil transportation
and transferring.
B. Tanker design:
All tankers should be double-hulled, which consists of 2 layers (plates) to reduce the risk of
oil spills.
2. Minimizing the impacts of oil spills:
Many techniques are used for this strategy depending on the amount of oil spilled and the
local weather conditions.
A. Floating booms:
Booms are floating barriers used to surround spilled oil and prevent it from spread. This
method words in small scale and clam conditions.
B. Detergent sprays:
They contain chemical which break oil slicks into smaller droplets, it could cover large area
and not affected by local conditions of oceans, however these chemicals may cause
environmental damages to coral reefs.
C. Skimmers:
Drag the oil using materials oil can attach to it easily, it is very useful technique and doesn't
change the physical and chemical properties of oil or water however it is affected by stormy
ocean conditions.
If oil is washed by tides and reached beaches it removed physically by hand which is difficult,
expensive and time-consuming operation.

AGRICULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT
3.1The soil
Is the upper part of the crust, where all human activities take place.
Soil components:
A. In organic (Mineral) particles. (45%)
B. Organic contents.)5%)
C. Air from atmosphere. (25%)
D. Water from precipitation. (25%)
Percentages vary from place to another due to climate, type of soil, size of mineral
particles.
A. Mineral particles (in organic components)
They include sand, silt, and clay. They come from rocks, they are formed due to
the process of weathering and erosion.
Weathering: the process of breaking down rocks into small fragments.
Erosion: the process of moving of fragments from place to another.

Types of weathering:
1.Physical caused by: (heat, pressure, water, (ice), wind).
- during day or summer high temperature expands mineral in rocks, however at

night or winter low temperature contracts or shrinks mineral in rocks, the
continuous process results in making cracks and rocks fragmentation.
The high friction between water\sand and rocks results in eroding the rocks.
2. Chemical (acid rain and salts)
Salts and chemicals in acid rain react with rocks result in rocks eroding.
3. Biological (Effect of plant roots and animal’s claws)
Roots of plants make cracks on rocks as they grow, as well as the physical effect
of claws of animals when digging borrows ex. Rats and foxes.
Characteristics of particles
Particle type Size of particle Texture Characteristics
2.0-0.02 mm Feels gritty -Large pore size

Sand -Drains well
-Contains large air gaps
0.02-0.002 mm Feels silky or -Less friction than sand
Silt soapy -Particles slippery.
Less than Sticky when wet -Particles held together
Clay 0.002mm tightly
-Poor air spaces or
drainage
-Forms a hard mass when
dried
B. Organic content
It includes living things and their remains:
1.Plant roots.
2.Soil organisms (Decomposers bacteria ,fungi, producing enzymes breakdown

dead bodies and turn them into nutrients.) worms mix organic matter and make
pores for air.
3.Organic matter or decomposed dead bodies (Humus).
Importance of organic matter ( Humus) :
Increase water holding capacity (absorbers more water).

Increase air pores. (more oxygen).
Increase number of decomposers.( more nutrients).
Enrich the soil with nutrient ( last for long time-slow acting, sustainability of
nutrients)
Sandy soils vs. Clay soil
3.2 Soils for plant growth
Successful plant growth requires:
Availability of nutrients.
Anchorage to fix plant roots.
Water supply.
Oxygen.
According to these requirements loam soil (mixed of three particles) the optimum
soil for plants growth.
34% sand, 33% clay, 33% silt.

Minerals ions
Plants need variety of minerals in form of soluble ions:
N,P,K high quantity (N,P make proteins, K taking water).
Mg, S, Ca small quantity
Zn, Fe , B Traces
Lack of these minerals ions results in reducing growth, and productivity.
Signs of nutrients deficiency in plants table 3.3 pg 56
The most important substances the plant need from soil to photosynthesizes are
water and minerals
Word equation of photosynthesis:
Carbon dioxide + water glucose + Oxygen.
Soil pH
Is how soil acidity/ alkaline is.
Factors affecting soil pH.
-Parent rocks, chemicals drainage in the soil, water from rivers( acid rain),
fertilizers.
Soil pH is extremely important because ions solubility depends on it.
The optimum pH of the soil is (5.5-8.0), at which all ions are available.
extreme low pH (acidic) affect the soil by accumulation of Al ions which is toxic
for plants.

3.3 Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of plants and animals to use their product to sustain
life.
There are some Factor affecting agriculture:
Climate, economics, and social.
Types of agriculture
-According to the purpose:
Subsistence: farmer aims to feed his family.
Commercial: to sell crops and get cash.
-Type of product:
Arable(plantation): looking for plant products only.
Pastoral: looking for animal products only.
Mixed: looking for both plant animal products.
Size of land to amount of product:
Extensive: large area with few amount of output.
Intensive: small area with high amount of output.
The table below shows the differences between intensive and extensive
agriculture:
Extensive Intensive
Size of land Large Small
Amount of product Few High
Use of techniques Less High
Capital Small Big

3.4 Increasing agriculture yield
There is a high pressure on food production for many reasons:
-population growth (more demand of food, water shortage), climate change,

reduction of farm size (settlement).
According to this pressure a problem of world hunger has developed, how to solve
world hunger?
-Reduction population size.
-Growing more staple food.
-Eat less meat.
-Ensuring equal distribution.
Green revolution
Varity of activities aim to increase crop yield, which includes:
-Crop rotation.
-fertilizers.
Irrigation.
-Controlling of competing organisms.
-Mechanization.
-Selective breeding.
Controlling the crop environment.
Crop rotation
Principle of growing different types of crop in different plots every year.
Adv:
-Less diseases (left behind).
-Migration of pests, less using of pesticides.
-New plot is more likely to plentiful of nutrients.
-Old plot will have more time for nutrients recovery.
-Less labour, less machines, less wastes (harvesting at different times). Fig 3.8 pg 60

Fertilizers
Fertilizers increase soil nutrients content, there 2 types of fertilizers:
1-Organic fertilizers are derived from living things (remains of plants, animal
manure, hooves, dried blood)
Enrich the soil with organic matter.
2- Inorganic fertilizers are manufactured in factories.
The table below shows the differences between organic and inorganic fertilizers.
Organic Inorganic
Source Remains of organisms Factories
Cost Cheap Expensive

Hard, and unpleasant to Easy
Storage and handle.
transportation
Rate of acting Slow Fast
Applying fertilizers safely
Depends on quantity and time of application:
Farmers need to check soil contents of nutrients before applying fertilizers, Too
much fertilizers causing damage to the environment (eutrophication), and lush
growth (rapid growth of plants).
- farmers should take climate into consideration when applying fertilizers, during
heavy rain season water can leach fertilizers. Strong winds can also blow
fertilizers.
Irrigation
Provision of providing water to plant is extremely important.
Supplying of water to plants involves 3 stages:
-Storage.
-transporting.
-application to plant.

Irrigation methods
1.Overhead sprinkles:
A system uses special sprinkles with a small aperture that forces the water out
under pressure.
Advantages and disadvantages of overhead sprinklers
Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to set up. Large droplets cause soil cap ( upper

become hard.
Cover large area. Small droplets don’t reach root and

blow by wind.
No need for attachment pipes for each Not very precise.

plant.
2. Clay pot system:
This method uses porous clay pots are buried in the soil next to the roots of plants.
Simple technology Only suitable for larger plants.
Easy t check the amount of water More labour is needed.
Little loss of water, very precise.

3. Trickle drip system ( leaky pipes):
Serious of flat polythene hoses laid on the surface of the soil between crops rows.
Very precise Expensive
Controlled automatically by computer Small particles(grits) can block tubes.
High efficient of water Inflexible.

4.Flood irrigation:
Simple method based on free flow of water on soil surface throughout the crops.
Inexpensive Very inefficient (high loss of water).
Cover large area. Damage soil structure.
Not precise.
-farmers try to reduce water loss from their crops by some techniques aim to
reduce the evaporation, these methods include:
Building shelters around crops such as tress or artificial roofs, or by using mulches
(materials are used to prevent water evaporation, such as plastic bags.)
Controlling competing organisms
- Competing organisms include weeds and pests.
Weed: a plant grows in an inappropriate place.
weeds need to be controlled because:
-Compete crops (light, space, water).
-Reduce crop quality.
-Make cultivation harder.
-Block drainage system.
-Might be toxic for crops and livestock.
-Source of pests and diseases.
Weeds may have controlled either by herbicides or alternatives.
Herbicides: are chemicals (toxic) substances are used to control weeds and
harmful herbs.
They are either liquids applied by sprayers or solid granules when water is added
dissolve to release effective materials.
Impacts of weather:
wind and rain affect the same as applying fertilizers.

Alternatives to herbicides:
Cultural control: removing of weeds by hands. (more labor).
Flame guns.
Weed barriers.
farmers prefer chemical control than alternatives because:
Effective (rapid, predicable, less risk of failure).
Easy to manage (no need to apply many times).
Cheap and requires less labours.
Controlling of pests and diseases
Pest: An animal (insect) that attacks or feeds upon crops.
Diseases: are caused by pathogens (fungi, bacteria, and viruses).
Pests could be controlled either by pesticides or biological control.
Pesticides: are chemicals (toxic) substances are used to control pests.
Biological control:
Idea of introducing predators to the farm.
Adv:
-Less toxic substances.
-No negative impacts on surrounding ecosystems.
-Once introduced no need for reapplication.
-When preys decrease, predators decrease.
Disadv:
-Control is not instant and effective as pesticides.
-Preys may reproduce faster than predators.
-Predators may not feed on intended pest.
-Predators may not stay at the farm.

Mechanization
Using of machines make cultivation:
-Easer (in extreme conditions, application of fertilizers, pesticides, harvesting).
-Cheaper (Less labour).
-Effective (large area in less time).
Selective breeding
-Traditional method aims to improve yield and productivity in plants and livestock
by trait transformation in nature.
The method involves the following steps:
-Identify the important characteristics.
-Choose parents showing these characteristics.
-Raise the offspring.
-Repeat the process.
Genetic modification
Modern method of selective breeding.
This process involves gene transformation from DNA of one organism to another.
(in laboratory).
Organisms are produced by this process are called :GMOs( Genetic Modified
Organisms).
Gene: part of DNA that control the characteristic.
This method is argumentative, some scientists seek to develop it, while others
raising concerns about it.
Development of GM:
-Diseases and pest resistance ( less use of pesticides and herbicides).
-High yield.
-More nutrient value.
-Extreme conditions resistance (drought and temp)

Concerns about GM
-Products are not natural.
-Unknown impacts for long term.
-Influence of genes if GMOs interbreed with wild species.
-Relationship between GMOs and cancer.
Controlling the crop environment
Environment can be controlled simply by:
-Providing shade (to avoid high temp, reduce evaporation).
-Wind breakers (less damage to crops).
-Removing obstacles (more light).
Greenhouse is an advance technology for controlling the environment.
Greenhouse (not glasshouse):
A building made up of glass or similar transparent materials (polythene,

polycarbonate, aluminum) to manage most environment conditions for plant
growth.

Modern greenhouse use range of sensors –linked with the computer-to control and
manage most environmental condition.
Growth factor How it might be increased How it might be decreased
Temperature Heating system Open roof ventilation.
Light level\day Use supplementary lighting. Use shading material in the roof.
length.
Humidity Use misting units to add Open roof ventilation
moisture
Water Use sprinklers Drainage pipes.
Growing blueprint:
The ideal environmental conditions and requirements growth needed by a plant

for maximizing the yield.
Controlling the whole environment:
Hydroponics:
Growing plants without soil, with nutrients plant needs dissolved in water, in
conjunction with growing blueprint. Fig 3.13 pg 70.
Adv:
-No need for soil.
-Can be grown everywhere (in space).!!!
-High productivity.
-Easy to harvest.
-Efficient use of water (water is recycled; nutrients are given in irrigation water).
-No weeds, pests, and diseases.
Disadv:
-Expensive (need more technology).
-Not suitable for large areas.
-Rapid spread of diseases if present.
-Plant can die quickly if conditions are fixes at optimum level.

3.5 The impacts of agriculture on people and the environment
Over using of pesticides and herbicides results in :
-Development of new resistance strains.
-Non selective (kill un targeted organism, beneficial)
-Accumulation of toxics in soil.
-Affects the food wed.
-Risk of spreading to another ecosystems.
Misuse (over using) of fertilizers:
-Eutrophication (excess amount of nutrients).
-Large quantities alter the pH.
-Accumulation of trace elements can be toxic to the plants.
-Too much fertilizers affects up taking of water by osmosis.
-Lush growth: rapid growth of plant (can’t support its self, more vulnerable to
pests and diseases.)
-Imbalance of K and N causes lots of foliage growth ( less fruit).
-Too much fertilizers affects water quality and pH.
-Development of blue baby syndrome.
Misuse of irrigation (over irrigation):
Damage soil structure.
Water logging ( water replaces oxygen, roots will not respire ( death).
Soil erosion.
Soil capping (soil surface became harder).
Prevent soil cultivation( soil became heavier).
Desertification.( fertile soil changes into desert).
-Salinisation: increasing of salt soil content
Too much water water seeps under ground more solubility of salts
water evaporates salts left behind
-High concentration of salts affects up taking of water by osmosis.

Mechanization:
-Releasing of toxic gases (burning of fossil fuel).
-Expensive.
Change soil structure (Heavy machines put more pressure, soil compaction, less
air pores, bad drainage).
Less job opportunities (relocation of people, migration).
Overproduction and wastes:
High production may lead into over supply and less demand, that results in
overproduction and wastes.
Overproduction and wastes cause economic failure in different ways:
-Too much crops might not be sold.
-Need for space for storage (some need special conditions).
-Need for transportations.
-More labors are needed.
3.6 Causes and impacts of soil erosion
Soil erosion is the removal of top layer of the soil. It takes place when soil losses
its structure and the physical effects of wind and water.
Main causes of soil erosion?
1-Removing of vegetation cover(deforestation), vegetation provides the

following benefits:
-Trees act like wind breakers and reduce surface run-off.
-Roots keep soil structure.
-Debris enrich the soil with organic matter.
2-Over grazing:
Put more pressure on natural vegetation.
Animal hoofs compact the soil (less air, less respiration).
Animal hoofs damage soil structure.

3-Over cultivation:
ploughing losses soil structure.
Over irrigation. (more surface run-off).
4-Water erosion:
Physical impact of water (heavy rain, rain water runoff, gully and streams).
Impacts: of soil erosion
1-Soil un able to support plant growth (less vegetation, less nutrients, less
productivity, less food, malnutrition, famine).
2-Fertile soil changes into a desert (desertification).
3-Habitat loss.
4-Eroded sediments affect water bodies and results in:
Water quality, less sunlight, less photosynthesis, less oxygen.
Deposited sediments cause flooding, damage sea bed, reduce effectiveness of

gills.
3.7 Methods to reduce soil erosion
Terracing:
1-Change (reforming) of slope (hill) landform into steps ( reduce surface run-off).

2-Bunds:
Artificial lakes (banks) at horizontal steps. (reduce surface run-off, deposit

sediments from upper layers).
3-Contour ploughing:
Practice of ploughing at perpendicular axis to slope steep (gradient).
It reduces surface run-off, provides large surface area for agriculture.
4-Wind breakers:
Obstacles are used to reduce the effect of wind. They may be living things (
vegetation) or artificial.
Natural vegetation provide habitat; roots keep soil structure.
5-Adding organic matter:
Improves soil structure, because:
-Act like sponge, absorb more water make soil heavier.
-Add more air pores.
-Increases the number of decomposers.
-Enrich the soil with the nutrients (more fertile).

6-Maintaining crop cover:
Land should not be bare for long time, that increases the risk of soil erosion,
instead:
-Plant legumes(clover) could left after harvesting the crop.
-Leave the residue of plants up to next season. (no dig method)
7-A multi layer approach to cropping:
A-Reforestation.
B-Agroforesty.
Is the practice of growing trees in between of crops, that provides the following
benefits:
-Trees form windbreakers.
-Provide a shade for less light plants ( coffee).
-Natural habitat for some animals ( biological control).
-Debris enrich soil with organic matter.
8-Mixed cropping. ( intercropping).
-Growing of more than one crop in same area to use soil resources more efficiency
( less competition).
-Crop rotation.
Helps in soil management by using of resources effectively.

3.8 An integrated approach for sustainable agriculture
Sustainable agriculture aims to increasing yield without causing damage to the

environment.
Sustainable agriculture is needed for:
-Make the need of population.
-Sustainable use of non- renewable resources.
-Make sure of farmers independency.
Mainly sustainable agriculture based on number of organic techinques.
A-Use of organic fertilizers:
-Slow acting ( last for long time , no need for reapplication).
-Waste products ( less cost).
-Enrich the soil with organic matter.
B-Use less (appropriate)quantities of herbicides and insecticides ( pollinating

insects will not be affected).
-Using of non persistent chemicals. ( do not last for long time).
C-Grazing(not OVER GRAZING):
Grazing should take into consideration the carrying capacity, timescale for
grazing.
Benefits of managing the grazing:
-Maintain vegetation cover.
-Maintain soil fertility by moving livestock at different areas.
-Maintain good drainage ( prevention from compaction).
D-Crop rotation
E-Choice of varieties:
Despite the controversy arguments about GMOs, they could by one of the
approaches for sustainable agriculture, because:
-Reduce the using of pesticides (pest- resistance strains), and herbicides
-Ability to resist the diseases and viruses.

-Reduce the need for irrigation (drought resistant strains).
-Shorter life cycle, allow more than one crop.
F-Irrigation:
In term of irrigation, sustainable agriculture focused on the targeted use of water

(Trickle drip system) which provides the following benefits:
-Less water is used.
-Targeted delivery of water to the plants.
-Less risk of salinization, soil erosion.
-Sustainable agriculture uses alternative water supply ex: rain water harvesting.(
collecting the rain water from roofs, standing objects in reservoirs until needed).
Some systems use large amount of water, exceed amount can be collected and re
use again.

Chapter 4: water and its management
4.1 The distribution of water on earth
Despite that more than 75% of the Earth is water, only 3% is fresh (surface water, ice glaciers,
ground water), while 97% of water is saline (oceans and seas).
68.7 % of fresh water (ice caps and glaciers).
30.1 % of fresh water (ground water).
0.9% surface water (rivers, lakes and swamps) which is available for human.
4.2 The water cycle
The movement of water between hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere. It involves the
following stages:
Evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation (any form of water released from clouds
such as rain, snow, hail), Surface run- off, interception (stopping of precipitation from reaching
the ground by trees or vegetation), infiltration ( water seeps to underground). See fig(4.2) pg.91
4.3 Uses of water
Water is used for 3 main purposes:
1. Domestic:
Using of water in households (Drinking, Cooking, washing, toilet,).
2. Industrial:
Generating electricity, cooling machines, most of solid substances dissolve in water (universal
solvent).
3. Agriculture:
Irrigation and rearing livestock.
4.4 The main source of fresh water for man use
1. Surface water: (rivers, lakes, swamps)
Water from rivers can be taken(used) by:
- bucket (simple and most abundance in the world).
- Making reservoirs (dams, bank side), in both cases water is un potable (not safe to drink).
2. Water from the ground:
Water that infiltrates and accumulates in porous rocks. These stores are called (Aquifers).

Water obtained from aquifers by digging wells.
In some aquifers water is not found under pressure, Pumps and motors are used to obtain
water, unlike artesian aquifers, pumps are not needed.
3. Water from sea (Ocean):
Salty water could be changed into fresh water by the process of desalinization.
Desalinization: the process of removing salts from sea water. There are 2 methods of it:
A. Distillation:
Water is boiled, salt is left behind and water vapor is condensed to collect fresh water.
This method is high energy demand, producing wastes, pollution and less efficient10-30%).
B. Reverse osmosis
This method based on pumping water in very high pressure through fine membrane to remove
salt, this method producing less wastes, more efficient, less energy compared to distillation).
Fig (4.3) pg.93
4.5 Available of safe drinking water around the world:
Amount of water in each country depends on:
- precipitation.
- Water bodies
In term of water availability, countries classified into:
- Water rich countries (brazil, Russia).
- Water poor countries (U.A.E, K.S.A)
Poor water countries suffer from water scarcity, which could be:
1. Physical water scarcity:
Lack of water due to less rain fall, less water bodies or high evaporation.
2. Economic water scarcity:
A country has availability of water, but can’t afford extraction, purification.

Availability of water doesn't mean it’s safe to drink (potable), providing potable water depends
on:
1. Good sanitation system which ensures that sewage water is separated from drinking water.
2. Water treatment plants ensure that the water supplied to people is safe to drink.
Mainly people in urban areas have access to safe and clean water than rural areas in
developing countries, this is because:
- More wealth (can afford water treatment plants).
- Put more pressure on government to provide safe water.
- Live closer to each other (easy and cheap to build pipe lines).
4.6 Multipurpose of dam projects
Dam projects are always controversial, due to the advantages and disadvantages:
Adv:
- Generating of electricity (HEP).
- Flood control.
- Provision of water (drinking, irrigation).
- Tourism.
- Creation of wetland land habitat.
Disadv: ( social, environmental, economic):
- Relocating people.
- Floods (habitat destruction, damage of farms, livestock, …).
- Disturbing of fish and other aquatic organisms life cycle.
- Altering water supply for people downstream.
- siltation. (if dam became redundant).
- Expensive.
Where to build a dam (location):
- Narrow valley (less cost of construction).
- High up in the valley (high generation of power).
- High amount of rain fall (more water supply).

- Low temperature (less evaporation).
- Impermeable rocks (less lost of water by infiltration).
- Away from settlements. (reduce the impacts of local people).
Structure of dams fig (4.4) pg.95
4.7 Water- related diseases
There are 3 types of water –related diseases:
A. Water based: the pathogen lives in water. ex bilharzia.
B. Water borne: the pathogen transmitted by water. ex. Cholera, typhoid. (sewage).
C. Water breed: the vector of disease lives or part of its life cycle in water. ex Malaria.
Pathogen: the organism that cause a disease.
Vector: the organism that carries the pathogen.
The table below shows a comparison between cholera and typhoid
Cholera Typhoid Malaria

Plasmodium
Pathogen Vibrio cholerae S.typhi or S. paratayphi Mosquito is the vector
Fever, abdominal pain, Fever and chills.
symptoms Diarrhea and vomiting. skin rash. Could be fatal(cause death).
Diarrhea and vomiting.
Rehydration. Antibiotics. Drugs.
Treatment Vaccination. Vaccinations.
The life cycle of malaria. Fig (4.7), pg.99

Control of water- related diseases
- Good sanitation system (sewage water separated from drinking water).
- Access to good toilet.
- Water treatment plants (provide safe drinking water).
Prevention and controlling malaria:(role of individuals)
- Avoid being outside during the dawn and dusk.
- Wearing long sleeves clothes.

- Using of mosquito nets treated by insecticides.
- Using of insecticides.
- Prevention and controlling malaria(government):
- Damage breeding site (drainage of wetlands).
- Using of natural predators. (fish to feed on larva).
- Pouring oil on water surface to prevent larva from breathing).
- Campaign of applying insecticides.
4.8 Sources, impacts and management of water pollution
1. Domestic wastes (sewage):
Impacts:
Sewage is rich of organic matter which causes eutrophication, and consists of pathogens which
cause water borne diseases (cholera and typhoid).
Management:
- Removal of dead algae bodies.
- Bubbling oxygen into lakes.
-Sewage treatment before discharge (reduce the biological oxygen demand).
-Improve sanitation.
- water treatment (disinfectants, chlorination).
2. Industrial processes:
A.Toxic compounds and heavy metals (pb, Hg, Cd) from industry may cause death to aquatic
creatures due to bio magnification.
Management:
Treatment before discharge.
B. Acid rain:
Causes:
So₂ and Nox from burning of fossil fuel dissolve in clouds and change water into acids Sulfuric
and nitric acid, with pH less than 6.0.

Impacts:
-Death of plant’s leaves.(Dieback).
-Low soil ph. results in leaching of minerals, and accumulation of Aluminum.
-Acidification of lakes causes fish death.
-Damaging of buildings (limestone).
Management:
- Use alternatives of fossil fuel.
-Using of scrubbers to reduce the emission of toxic gases.
-International agreements.
3. Agriculture:
A. Fertilizers causing eutrophication.
B. Pesticides and herbicides pollution.
Management:
- Using less \ organic fertilizers, and chemicals.
- Using alternatives.
Laws and legalization:
Governments try to control the pollution by laws and regulation by setting limits of pollution.
Laws and regulation put more pressure on companies to reduce the pollution, in form of taxes,
fines in case of excess the limit of pollution, in extreme case they forced to close down.
Incentives can also provide to encourage positive attitudes.

Chapter 5: OCEAN AND FISHERIES
5.1 The resources potential of the ocean
Oceans provide potential resources such like:
A. Food. (Fishes and other species such like : shrimps, lobsters, squid, etc…)
B. Chemicals and building materials
salts, Mg, Gold, Tin, Titanium, Diamond, sand, gravel, oil.
C. Wave and tidal energy.
D. Tourism.
Tourism resorts, coral reefs, diving,….)
E. Transportation.
Ships for goods and oil transportation, travelling
F. Source of fresh drinking water (Desalination).
5.2 World fisheries
-Oceanic currents:
Are massive amounts of water are moving at specific direction, which controlled by wind ( prevailing
/ trade wind. (Currents are moving at fixed pattern except in specific conditions).
-There are 2 types of oceanic currents:
A. Warm (carrying the water from the equator to the poles), this kind of currents linked to high
precipitation, due to warm temperature, which increases the evaporation.
B. Cold (carrying the water from the poles to the equator), these currents are linked to the drought.
Cold currents have the ability of (nutrients upwelling), which means have the ability to bring the
nutrients from deep ocean floor.
Finding fish:
Most of major fisheries are founded on continental shelves. Which an area in oceans with less than
150 m depth.
This is because:
-Area of shallow water (more light can penetrate).
-More nutrients.
-More phytoplankton (more photosynthesis , more food).

-More oxygen.
Some fisheries are not located on continental shelves ex: Peruvian anchovy fishery (cost of Peru).
Because of the Cold current results in upwelling of nutrients.
More phytoplankton. (More food, more oxygen).
EL Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO):
-For unknown fully understood reasons prevailing wind got weaker, -Change in prevailing wind
which results in change of oceanic currents pattern (pacific)- that results in reversing (replacing of
cold current by warm one. Warm current is poor- nutrient current (stops the upwelling), which
results in decreasing of phytoplankton, less photosynthesis, less oxygen, which leads to fishery
collapse.
Warm current bring high amount of rainfall in cost of Peru.
El-Nino occurs every 9-13 years. See fig (5.8, 5.10) pg. 119,120
El Nina is the opposite phenomena of El-Nino in which the warm current is replaced by cold current
which leads to drought).
The table below illustrates a comparison between the normal year and El-Nino year
Normal year El-Nino year
Strong wind Weak wind
Cold current Warm current
No rain Heavy rain
Up welling Stops upwelling
Availability of fish Lack of fish ( collapse of fishery)

5.3 exploitation of the oceans:
impact on fisheries
Over fishing of marine fish species:
Causes of over fishing:
-Over population (population growth): more demand of food.
-Economic: fishing is considered as source of income for many countries (Peru).
-Technology and improvement in fishing methods:
-Bigger and high developed boats which travel for longer distances, boats are provided with
refrigerators to store fish for longer time.
-New techniques ( sonar, satellite) to detect fish location and weather forecasting.
-Big and huge nets, which can scoop everything in the area including unwanted species (bycatch).
-Impacts of overfishing:
-Reduction of fish population, some species will extinct which affects food chain.
Shrink of fish size, and early maturation.
5.4 Strategies for managing the harvesting of marine species
1. Net type and mesh size:
-Banning of some types of nets such as driftnet.
-Suitable mesh size (allows small\ young fish to escape), according to (GFCM) 40 mm square-mesh
cod end (the close end of the net).
2- Other methods of fishing:
Alternatives methods rather than using of dragging nets such as ( pole and line method) for catching
fish, this method reduces the number of bycatch, however it is suitable for some species (tuna) for
example.
3- Quotas: legal limit on the amount of fish that can be caught.
The quota is managed by country regulations or international agreements.
4- Closed seasons and protected area:
Banning of fishing during specific season (breeding season), and specific areas ( closed areas).

5- International agreements and conservation laws:
Some fisheries are considered as preserve area in economic exclusion zone (area under control of
the country or called by national water course), however at international water international
arrangements and conventional are needed.
How well do these strategies work?
Most of these strategies are not work properly for many reasons:
-Most of these regulations and roles are non-bendable (not applied by force and laws).
-Fishing is linked to people livelihood (food and source of income, jobs).
-Lot of fishermen are not honest to declare amount of fish caught, to avoid taxes and fines.
-Oceans and fisheries are hard to monitor.

Managing Natural hazards
6.1 What is a natural hazard
Hazard:
A physical event that has the potential to cause loss of life , injury or damage to infrastructure.
-Hazard can be classified into:
Tectonic (geological): such as Earthquakes and volcanoes.
Or Climatic : such as Tropical cyclones, drought, floods.
Another classification for natural hazards:
Magnitude or intensity.
Speed of the event.
Duration.
Frequency.
If a hazard causes serious or massive disruption to a community (social, economic, environmental), then
it is called natural disaster.
Generally the impacts of natural disaster depends on :
Length of the event (long term or short term).
Time of occurrence.
Vulnerability of people affected (population density).
People ability to cope with the disaster (management).
6.2 what causes earthquakes and volcanoes
In order to understand how earthquakes and volcano occur, we need to understand the theory of plate
tectonics, and the structure of the crust.
Plate tectonic theory:
A theory that explains the formation of some important features on the earth and continents move. It
states that crust is not one continuous layer, it is made up of 8 plates, each plate is consisting of crust
and upper part of the mantle (lithosphere). Fig 6.3 pg. 136
Mr.Huzyfa Ahmed Page 1 of 6 0919501490

There are 2 types of crust, oceanic and continental, the table below shows the differences between
them:
Oceanic (sima) Continental (sial).
Mainly made up of basalt. Mainly made up of granite.
Thinner (average depth 6 km) Thicker (average depth 35-100 km)
Denser(heavier). Less dense (lighter).
It can sink and usually destroyed and renewed. It can not sink and is neither destroyed or
renewed
Tectonic plates are floating on the magma and could move by the action of convection currents caused
by the heat.
When the convection currents rise up to the surface plates move apart from each other, and vice versa.
Plate boundary (margin):
A place where 2 plates meet. There are 3 types of plate boundaries:-
1.Constructive (divergent).
2.Destructive (convergent).
3.Conservative.
1. Constructive(divergent):
-Two plates are moving away from each other. ( , , ).
A. If these 2 plates were oceanic plates:
A gap is formed (mid ocean ridge) and magma rises up (because of convection currents) and solidified to
form new crust (volcanic island).
This process is called by sea-floor spreading or ridge push.
Volcanoes are formed due to this plate boundary is called by shield\basic volcano, without explosion
and violence eruption due to the little pressure. There is less probability of earthquakes occurrence.
Fig 6.4(a). Pg 137.
B. If these 2 plates were continental plates:
If 2 continental plates move away from each other, this results in forming rift valley down the faults.
Faults (the edges of rift valley).

2.Destructive(converging) :
A. Two plates are moving toward each other.
If 2 plates (one oceanic\ one continental) move toward each other, the oceanic (denser) will sink
downward (subducted) at subduction zone. As result of this process (subduction) an oceanic trench (the
deepest part in the ocean) is formed. (fig 6.4) (b). pg. 137
-The high pressure and friction results in Triggering earthquake in Benioff zone.
-The magma starts to rise and erupt (due to pressure) through a weakness in the crust as an explosive to
form (composite\strato\acidic) volcano, with high eruption
B. If 2 continental plates are moving toward each, sediments between plates are squeezed and folded
up ward at collision zone, to form fold mountain. (fig 6.4) (c).pg. 137
Earthquakes can occur, but no volcanoes (No subduction zone).
C. If 2 oceanic plates move toward each other, the denser (older) sinks and subducted downward.
The magma that rises form island arc (japan).
3. Conservative:
-2 plates sliding over\past each other, they either moving at opposite direction, or at same direction but
at different speeds.
High friction and pressure result in producing seismic and triggering earthquakes. (fig 6.4) (d).
There is no risk of volcanic eruption (no subduction zone).
Earthquake is when the ground moves or shakes in a sudden jerks.
Characteristics of earthquakes:
-Earthquakes initiate at focus underground (where seismic waves generate).
-Earthquakes reach the surface at the focus.
-Tsunami created if earthquakes occurs under the sea or in a coastal area.
-The magnitude of an earthquakes is measured by Richiter scale on seismometer.
The number of death and injuries of an earthquake depend on :
-The magnitude.
-The location (close to epicenter= more damage)
-The time (at night causes more damage)
-The geology and relief (mountains may suffer from land sliding, coastal area suffer from tsunami)
-The density of population.

-Building strength.
-How people cope with the event (after the event)
Characteristics of volcanoes:
Volcano: a hole or crack through which magma erupts onto the surface.
Features of volcano (fig 6.6) pg 140
6.3 What causes tropical cyclones
Tropical cyclones are large area with very low pressure, with high wind speed.
The conditions of cyclone formation:
A-Warm ocean temperature ( above than 27˚C), heat provides energy for this process . ( no cyclones at
high latitude due to low temperature, or land because it loses its source of energy.)
B-Deep ocean 60 m, provides more water vapor.
C-Latitude between 5˚ and 20˚ North and south the equator.(high Coriolis comparing to the equator).
They do not form on the equator because the Coriolis effect there is 0.
Coriolis force : the force that initiates because of earth rotation.
D- Calm condition; wind shear (strong wind stop development of the vertical column).
These conditions are exist between May and November in Northern hemisphere, and between
November and May in Southern hemisphere.
How tropical cyclones occur:
- When sea water reaches 27˚C, moist warm air starts to rise, when it reaches high latitudes, it cools
down and condenses and loses its latent heat and starts to go down ward, this results into
development of column of low pressure or centre of cyclone (the eye), which sucks up more air with the
aid of Coriolis force. The moisture in rising air condenses and forms cumulonimbus clouds.
6.4 What causes flooding?
Flooding occurs when discharge of a river exceeds the capacity of the river’s channel, which mainly
caused by high rainfall.
Causes of flooding:
Flooding occur when there is more surface run-off and less infiltration.

This may due to physical factors or Human factors:
Physical factors:
HEAVY RAINFALL • Reduces the infiltration capacity of the soil;

• Increase in overland flow.
PROLONGED • Saturates the soil;
RAINFALL • Causes the water table to rise,
reducing infiltration capacity.
SNOWMELT • Overland flow occurs due to rapid snowmelt.
LAND RELIEF • Steeper gradients lead to faster overland flow ‫ ؞‬water has little time to infiltrate.
SATURATED SOIL • The more saturated the soil is(before the rainfall), lesser infiltration and more
overland flow.
STORM SURGES, • Flooding of low-lying coastal areas.
TSUNAMIS
Human factors:
HUMAN CAUSE IMPACT

DEFORESTATION • Reduces interception and infiltration.
Agriculture • Ploughing down rather than across slopes increases the water flow.
 Overgrazing compact soil, which affects drainage( less pores).
URBANISATION • Concrete and tarmac are impermeable surfaces (no infiltration ‫ ؞‬high overland
flow).
CLIMATE • Global warming may lead to rise in sea levels and more rainfall in some areas.
CHANGE

6.5 What causes drought?
Drought is when there is a lack of rain or less rain than normal over a long period of time. Or prolong of
dry period for long tome.
Most drought occurs when regular weather pattern is interrupted and evaporation exceed than
precipitation, this is because:
- Air in a high-pressure system sinks and doesn’t form rain clouds.
- Effect of El Niño Southern Oscillation and La Niña:

El Niño causes the surface water in the Pacific Ocean along South America (Peru) to be warmer.
This warmer water alters the storm pattern and reverse the warm current in Australia with cold one
which causes drought (see oceanic currents 5.2 ) La Nina.
-Effect of climate change:
Some scientists debate that warmer worldwide temperatures cause the rainfall to decrease in some
parts of the world, leading to drought.
6.6 impacts of natural Hazards
Fig 6.12 pg. 147
6.7 Strategies to manage the impacts of natural hazards
Tables 6.5-6.9 pg. 149-150

Atmosphere and human activities
7.1 The structure and composition of the atmosphere
The composition of atmosphere Table 7.1
The structure: (fig 7.1)
Atmosphere is made up of different layers based on change of temperature.
-Mainly atmospheric pressure decreases, which results in high wind in higher layers.
Generally the temperature of each layer depends on:
The distance from the sun.
The components of the layer.
The troposphere:
Temperature decreases with height (conversion), in this layer the source of heat not the sun, but the
earth surface as we getting away from earth surface (height)we getting away from the source of
heat .Tropopause is isothermal( temperature doesn’t change with height)
The stratosphere:
50 km above, the temperature increases with height ( inversion), due to the presence of ozone.
(which absorbs U.V radiation), stratosphere is isothermal.
The mesosphere:
50 – 80 km (conversion zone), because there is no presence of particles ( water vapor, ozone, dust)
to absorb energy of solar radiation. Mesopause (isothermal).
The thermosphere:
80-100 km inversion zone ( 1500 C ),because it is close to the sun, more oxygen atom absorb
energy.
The natural green house effect:
Earth receives solar radiation as short-wave length radiation (high energy).
32% is reflected by earth surface and clouds.
18% is absorbed by atmosphere.
As the earth is warmed up and long wave radiation is emitted back to the atmosphere(less energy)
Green house gases ( act like blanket) trap and deflect these radiation to the surface, and warm up
the atmosphere.
Green houses include:
Carbon dioxide, methane, CFCs, Nitrous oxides, water vapor, and ozone. Table 7.2

7.2 Atmospheric pollution and its causes
Pollution occurs when pollutants ( gases and substances)exist in harmful amounts.
They either:
Primary pollutant: produced directly from the source and causes pollution.
Secondary pollutant: a pollutant that produced from chemical reaction between 2 or more primary
pollutants.
A. Smog (Smoke and fog)
Burning of fossil fuel produces (smoke) which mixes with condensed water vapor ( during the
winter) forming smog.
Photochemical smog:
Chemical reaction between certain pollutants ( PM,VOCs,No) in sunny conditions results in forming
harmful substances (ground level ozone).
PM: mixture of very small particles and liquid droplets suspended in the air. like soot.
VOCs: organic vapors that suspend in the atmosphere (incomplete burning of fossil fuel, leakage of
fuel, tankers.
Certain physical conditions may results temperature inversion at troposphere and leads into
accumulation of smog, which becomes thick enough to block sun light (dust bin lid effect)these
conditions are:
-High air pressure (anticyclones), air sinks downward.
-Calm conditions (wind disperses smog).
-Valleys surrounds steep hills ( tarps the smog).
This results in tropospheric inversion
B. Acid rain:
Is a precipitation of low pH (less than 6).
Burning of fossil fuel releases (No, and So), they dissolve into clouds (atmosphere), to from nitric
and Sulfuric acid in clouds.
Acid rain is an international problem, toxic gases are produced in a country , carried by the wind to
another country.
C. Ozone deletion:
Ozone is a layer at stratosphere which absorbs UV radiation, which causes:
Mutations, cancer, high temperature, affects plant productivity, caractus.

CFCs (chloroflurocarbons) are chemical are used in aerosols, refrigerators, air conditions, and fire
extinguisher.
CFCs are high stabilized compounds, they escape to reach to the ozone layer, UV breaks down CFCs
and release chlorine which reacts with ozone and cause damage to it.( deplete).
D. The enhanced greenhouse effect:
The effect is caused by number of gases (green house gases).
Table 7.4 the sources of green houses gases.
The problems related to atmospheric pollution can be classified into 3 categories:
Local ( smog) , international (acid rain) or global ( ozone depletion and climate change).
7.3 The impacts of atmospheric pollution table 7.4
7.4 Managing atmospheric pollution
A-International agreements:
International co-operation is required to solve atmospheric pollution, by international agreements.

Such as Montreal protocol in 1987 which bans using of CFCs.
However Finding solution for international problems is not easy to achieve because:
Some LEDCs want to develop their industries without cutting emissions.
LEDCs have no strategies to reduce pollution, no money for finding alternatives to fossil fuel.
B. Role of government:
Acid rain:
Use of low sulfur coal (crush and wash with water before use to remove sulfur).
Flu gas desulfurization (scrubbers to remove SO, lining chimneys with lime, catalytic convertors for
vehicles).
Low sulfur fuel
Ozone depletion:
Banning use of CFCs.
Finding alternatives such as HCFCs.
Safe disposal of old items.

Carbon dioxide:
-Development of public transport.
-Developing specific routes for cyclists, pedestrians.
-Using of renewable (alternatives).
-Fuel taxation.
-Reforestation.
-Laws and regulations.
-Subsidies and grants for high efficiency devices.
C. Role of individuals:
-Use of public transport, car sharing and cycling
- reuse, reduce, and recycling.
- Using of insulators, and high efficient devices and engines.

Chapter 8: Human population
8.1 population growth:
Like other populations, human may grow and increase in numbers in case of no limitations.
Population growth can be represented in graphs, showing increasing of population through the time.
S or sigma shape graphs are used for illustration, which is divided into main regions:
1. lag phase: the period of time in population growth when an organism is adapting to its new
environment and the growth is slow.
2. log phase: when the growth rate of a population increases overtime as all requirements are in
superabundance, and reaches the peak.
3. Stationary phase: when the growth rate of a population has slowed down to zero as the carrying
capacity is reached.
Carrying capacity: the maximum size of a population that an environment can support in terms of food,
water and other resources.
8.2 change in population size
Birth rate, death rate and natural increasing:
Birth rate: the number of live births per thousand of population per year.
Death rate: the number of deaths per thousand of population per year.
Natural increase: the difference between birth rate and death rate.
Factors affect birth rate:
-High fertility rate (number of birth for each woman).
-In farming economies of many LEDCs, more people are needed for manual labor families tend to be larger.
-In MEDCs, it is expensive to have children and pensions.
-Many social and political factors result in low use of birth control in LEDCs, whereas in MEDCs birth
control is widely used.
- Many women receive little education and marry young at early age.
Death rate mainly depends on health and medical care.
Not only birth rate and death rate control human population size, migration is also affecting.

• Migration: the movement of people into (immigration) or out of (emigration) a region, country or an
area.
Most common worldwide movement is from rural to urban areas in LEDCs
Population growth: (birth rate + immigration) – (death rate + emigration)
Migration occurs either for pulling or pushing factors.
PUSH FACTORS: factors PULL FACTORS: factors
that encourage f people to that encourage people to
move away from an area. move into an area.
Drought/famine; Good supplies of food
whatever the weather;
Poverty; Well-paid jobs;
Poor links with outside Good roads;
world;
Poor services; Hospitals, schools, water,
electricity;
Work on the land only, Factory, shops, office
subsistence; work for a wage.
Desertification;
Sea-level rise;
Seasonal weather events.

8.3 population structure:
Population structure is displayed in form of Population/age pyramid which is a diagram that shows the
proportion of the population that is male and female with in different age groups.
Age groups could be classified into 3 groups:
1. Young group (0-17) years.
2. Middle group ( 18-65) years.
3. ageing group (+ 65) years.
Young and ageing groups are described as dependent groups, because they depend on middle age group
(independent) group for their needs.
• Dependant: those people in the population who are not economically active (working) i.e. the young
(<16) and old (65+) and thus rely on those who are working for their needs.
• Independent: those people in the population who are economically active (working) i.e. the middle-
aged (between 17 and 65).
• Taxes from the independent population is used for:
o Education for the youngsters and provision of school ,places for the children yet to reach school age,
as well as medical care.
o Creating care-home places, pension and hospitals for the ageing population.
According to the distribution of these 3 groups population pyramids are laid into 3 categories:
1. Expanding (young): (high birth rate and high death rate).
It has a board base (young age group represents the highest percentage in this population), which means
there is a high birth rate.
Narrow tip (low percentage of ageing group) to high death rate.
Typical pyramid for LEDCs (Afghanistan 2015). See figure (8.13 a ) pg. (182 ).
2. Stationary
This pyramid has rectangular shape, board at all positions except the top (high death rate), middle age group
forming the vast majority of this population. (USA). See fig (8.13 b ) pg. (182 ).
3. Contracting (old): (low death rate, low birth rate).
This population has narrow base and tip due to the low birth rate and death rate, it is referred to
declining population. (Japan) fig (8.13 c ) pg. (182).

Managing human population:
Human population size could be managed by different ways:
1. Family planning:
Is the strategy a couples use to plan how many and when to have children, by using of contraception
method, sterilization, and abortion.
Family planning sometimes is done by choice or adopted by the government by providing these
programs.
2. Improved health and education:
Improving of health care reduces death and mortality rate especially for infant and elderly people,
primary and secondary medical care as well as providing access to safe and clean water and sanitation.
Education makes people more aware about family planning methods, especially women, education
increases chances of careers and late of marriage age and therefore less children.
3. National policies:
National policies aim to either:
Encourage having more children by different means such as grants, subsidies, fare and reducing taxes
(pronatalist policies) such as France
Or:
Discourage having fewer children, these policies take many forms from quite measurement such as
family planning, contraception and education, to laws encourage couples to have one child
(antinatalist policies ) such as china.

Chapter 9 : Natural ecosystem and human activity
9.1 The ecosystem:
A defined area which consists of living thing (biotic factors) and non-living things (abiotic factors), and
includes interaction between them.
Ecosystem structure:
• Population: all the organisms of one species living in a defined area at the same time.
• Community: a group of populations of different species that live together in an area and interact with
each other.
So Ecosystem= community of living things + abiotic factors.
• Habitat: the place within an ecosystem where an organism lives.
• Niche: the role of a species within the ecosystem.
Biotic factors:
Factors are related to living things, they include:
Producers, consumers, predators, preys, decomposers, competitors,
Abiotic factors:
Factors are related to non-living things, they include:
Humidity, temperature, water, oxygen, salinity, light, ph.
-Interactions could be between living things-biotic interactions such as competition, predation and
pollination. Or between living and non-living things such as photosynthesis and respiration.
-Ecosystem processes:
The way how living / non-living things interact, ecosystem has 2 processes:
-Flow of energy and nutrient cycle.
These processes can be illustrated by photosynthesis, food chain, and food web.
Photosynthesis: the process in which plants make their own food using water, carbon dioxide and
energy from sun light to convert it into glucose.
Chlorophyll
Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen.
Light
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Food chain: a diagram showing the relationship between a single producer and primary, secondary and
tertiary consumers.
Or it describes the feeding relationship between living organisms.
Food web: a diagram showing the relationship between all (or most) of the producers, primary,
secondary and tertiary consumers in an ecosystem.
Plants (producers) make their food by photosynthesis- capture light energy- in form of glucose (change
light energy to chemical energy), energy and nutrients (carbon, nitrogen) pass to other organisms
(primary consumers) when they feed on plants, and so to secondary, and tertiary consumers.
Fungi and bacteria feed on dead bodies (decomposer), to release the nutrients to be taken again by
plants and re-used again and again, and this referred to nutrient cycle.
Unlike nutrients, energy can’t be recycled, instead of it flows (moves at one direction), high portion of
energy-captured by plants- loss through each trophic level almost (90%), which used by the organisms
to sustain its life processes (movement, reproduction…), only 10% pass to the next trophic level. The
role of 10%, this is referred to flow of energy. That explains reducing of number of living organism at
higher levels on pyramid of energy. Fig 9.2 pg. (192) and fig 9.6 (pg. 195)
Producers: organisms within an ecosystem that can carry out photosynthesis.
Primary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from producers.
Secondary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from primary consumers.
Tertiary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from secondary consumers.
Decomposers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from the bodies of dead organisms.
Trophic level: a feeding level within a food chain or food web.
Pyramid of numbers: a diagram that represents the number of organisms at each trophic level in an
ecosystem by a horizontal bar whose length is proportional to the numbers at that level
-Nutrients cycle
As discussed nutrient can be recycled and can be taken again.
-Carbon cycle:
Like carbon, any nutrient cycle consists of general 2 stages: fixation from the reservoir into the living
thing and then removal to the reservoir again fig 9.7 pg. 196.
Fig 9.8 (a) pg. 196 simplified carbon cycle.

Carbon exists in form of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere (reservoir), it is fixed into living thing
(producers) into form of carbohydrates (glucose) by photosynthesis, then it passes to other organisms
(consumers) when they feed on producers, in form of proteins, fats,…,. Carbon is released to the
atmosphere again either by respiration or decomposition of both producers and consumers. Fig 9.8 (b).
pg. 196 carbon cycle in details.
9.3 The causes and impacts of habitat loss
Causes of habitat loss:
A. The drainage of wet land:
Wet lands are areas which saturated with water such as: swamps, lakes, marshes, ponds,….
Wet lands provide several ecological benefits such as:
Shore land protection, maintain water quality, flood control, recharging aquifers, Biological productivity,
Provide habitats, Source of variety of products e.g. fish, fuel and fibres.
Wet lands are drained for many reasons:
- Agriculture, control mosquito and forestry.
- Use for disposal of waste created by road construction;
- Discharge of pollutants
- Peat removal
- Removal of ground water.
B. Intensive agriculture practices:
Providing land for agriculture may result into deforestation which leads to habitat loss, in addition using
of pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers (agrochemicals) cause death to living organisms by effect of
bioaccumulation and bio magnification.
C. Deforestation:
Trees provide habitat and sources of food for many organisms (insects, birds, rats, reptiles,..)
Impacts of habitat loss:
The main impact of habitat loss is loss of biodiversity and genetic depletion:
Habitat loss results in extinction of species-affects the food chain- and reduces biodiversity and as a
consequence results in genetic depletion (loss of some genes).

Genetic depletion is a problem because it reduces the ability of developing of new strain (by genetic
modification) as well as losing of some drugs and medications.
9.4 The causes and impacts of deforestation:
Vegetation is removed for many reasons such as:
- The need for timber (wood)-this is referring to logging- for many purposes: fuel, building material,
industries (furniture and papers).
- Need for land either for intensive farming, pastoralism, industries, building of settlements.
- Mining, making roads, airports …
Impacts of deforestation:
1. Habitat loss and genetic depletion.

2. Soil erosion and decertification:
Trees conserve and maintain soil structure: they act like wind breakers, reduce surface run-off,
roots keep soil structure, and dead leaves and branches enrich the soil with organic matter.
3. Climate change:
Deforestation results into less up taking of CO2 , which results in trapping more heat, and
enhancing global warming and climate change.
Management of deforestation:
Deforestation could be managed in different ways:
- Selective logging: the removal of old and non-valuable species.
- Strip logging: trees are cut in a way in which can regenerated again.
- Efficient use of wood (reduce, recycling of wood product, finding alternatives).
- Quota (limit amounts of wood per person), taxation, laws and regulation.
- Reforestation and agroforestry.
Agroforestry: is the practice of growing crop in between the rows of trees.
This activity provides variety of ecological activities:
Trees conserve and maintain soil structure: they act like wind breakers, reduce surface run-off, roots
keep soil structure, and dead leaves and branches enrich the soil with organic matter.
Crops in case of legumes provide or enrich the soil with nitrogen.

9.5 The need for sustainable management of forests:
Besides providing habitat, food, drugs, and medicines, forests perform a variety of ecological services:
1. Carbon sink and carbon store
Young forest absorbs more CO2 during photosynthesis than it releases by respiration, this is referring to
carbon sink.
Mature forest takes and releases the same amount of CO2 during phtotsynethesis and respiration; this is
referring to carbon store.
2. Role in water cycle:
Trees reduces the surface run-off by the effect of interception, thus increases infiltration as well as
increase the amount of water vapor by transpiration.
3. Prevention from soil erosion:
Trees conserve and maintain soil structure: they act like winds breakers reduce surface run-off, roots
keep soil structure, and dead leaves and branches enrich the soil with organic matter.
4. Ecotourism:
Forests can be source of tourism attraction, in which people pay many for luxury and time, which later
can be invested in conservation of ecosystem.
9.6 strategies for conserving the biodiversity and genetic resources of natural ecosystems:
Conservation is the protection, preservation, restoration and management of natural ecosystem
1. Sustainable harvesting of wild plant and animal species, sustainable forestry and agroforestry:
Wild plants and animals could be source of medical drugs as well as genetic stock for developing new
strain by genetic modification.
Sustainable harvesting could be done by a management plan as follow:
Firstly: assessment of plant abundance.
Secondly: investigation of growth rate.
Finally: species should be harvested in less than the growth rate, and monitored.

2. National parks, wildlife reserves and ecological corridors:
National parks and ecological reserves are defined areas devoted for preservation and protection by the
action of laws and regulations posed by the government, they mainly difference in size.(ecological
reserves are much larger). The main objective is protection NOT TOURISM, or even using of natural
resources there.
Laws are usually implemented than ban or limited such hunting and logging, fine and imprison in case of
violence of laws.
The nature of laws and regulations vary from country and national parks.
Wild life corridors are areas of land that link large reserves or other wildlife areas.
Corridors are critical for the maintenance of ecological processes including allowing for the
movement of animals and the continuation of viable populations.
3. Extractive reserve:
Is attempt to find a balance between using of resources to meet economic benefits without destroying
the ecosystem.
Conservation and management is done by local people with help of government.
4. World biosphere reserves:
Are another ways try to strike a balance between conservation and meeting the people needs.
They are mainly divided into 3 areas (zones): fig (9.19) pg. 208
A. Core area: where protected ecosystem is exist.( no human activities but protection, conservation, and
monitoring.
B. Buffer zone: area of research, education and tourism (laboratories, libraries,…).
C. Transition (multi-used): where local people, government, and conservation organizations work
together to manage the area to benefit local people.
One benefit of biosphere reserves they are recognized internationally via the United Nations
Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNSECO), that make support of fund much easier.
-Beside (UNSECO) many organizations seek their efforts for environmental conservation such like:
CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), an
international agreement between governments. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in
specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.

UNEP (United Nations Environmental Program) is the global champion for the environment with
programs focusing on sustainable development, climate, biodiversity and more. It provides
information / data;
WWF (The World Wide Fund for Nature is an international non-governmental organization founded
in 1961, working in the field of wilderness preservation, and the reduction of human impact on the
environment. It raises money; has education programs.
IUCN (The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the global authority on the status of the
natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it.it encourages partnerships between countries;
publishes red list; the creation of innovative solutions to conservation issues.
5. Seed banks, zoos and captive breeding:
These strategies are considered to be the last resort for conservation, when the habitat has been
totally fragmented (destroyed) or severely threatened.
Seed banks are used to conserve plants as seeds under specific conditions:
- Collected seeds are examined by x-ray to check embryo viability.
- seeds are dried to remove water, and kept at very low temperature(-20) to suppress germination.
- stored seeds are checked regularly to make sure they still a live.
Zoos and captive breeding:
Zoos provide 3 main roles in conservation:
- Education for illegal trade of animals.
- Scientific research to control disease.
- Captive breeding programs to increase species numbers.
Zoos with small number of animal try avoid inbreeding (reduce the diversity) with different ways:
-Organisms are not allowed to breed repeatedly with the same partner.
- Zoos have data base to record the breeding history for individuals.
6. Sustainable tourism and ecotourism:
Tourism provides many benefits such as income for government and local people, development of
infrastructure, and jobs.
However it could have negative impacts: habitat destruction for settlements and accommodation for
tourists, temporary increasing of populations may cause several problems such as: air pollution

(travelling, more energy consumption,…), noise pollution, and tourists may influence local people
customs and habits.
Sustainable tourism is important which ensure both people and government benefit of tourism without
damaging the environment.
-Ecotourism (ecological tourism) is a form of sustainable tourism, which is guided by environmental

principles to conserve the environment and improves the welfare of the local people.
(Money that spend in tourism return in form of conservation and protection of ecosystem).

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1.

1 Structure of earth and formation of rocks:

Earth is made up of 4 layers:

1. Crust (made up of cold or solid rocks).

3. Outer core (made up of Iron and Nickle at liquid state).

Rocks are made up of minerals (mineral=inorganic substances with specific chemical

sedimentary rocks do not consist of crystals.

Ex : Limestone , sandstone, shale.

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Igneous rock Sedimentary Metamorphic

No fossils present fossils may be present No fossils present

The rock cycle:

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Mineral: is any substance obtained by mining.

Ore: a rock contains a valuable metal (mineral).

Minerals can be metallic and non- metallic:

Metallic such like:

Gold and silver used in jewelries.

Cupper is used in electrical wires.

Iron is used in buildings and industries.

Potassium is used as fertilizer.

Non-metallic such like:

Oil and coal used as fuel.

Dimond is used for drilling and digging machines.

Limestone is used in buildings, cement manufacturing, and fertilizer to neutralizes the

Exploration = searching or looking for minerals.

1. Prospecting: looking for mineral at surface of rocks.

3. Geochemistry (Geochemical analysis): identification of chemical properties of the

4. Geophysics: this technique depends on sending waves or vibrations (seismic waves)

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A. Open-pit (open-cast or open-cut) mining.

Generally surface mining includes the following steps:

2. Using explosives to loosen or break down the ore.

3. Using diggers to remove loosen rocks.

4. Load ores in trucks in order to extract the minerals.

Shaft mining and deep mining are examples of Sub-surface mining.

Generally sub- surface mining includes the following steps:

1. Removing of topsoil and overburden layer.

2. Sink vertical shafts to reach the mineral deposit.

3. Build horizontal tunnels through mineral layer.

4. Use machines to cut or break down the minerals.

5. Lifting minerals to the surface.(using elevators).

Factors affecting decision of mining \ the viability of extraction of minerals:

2. Geology: presence of mineral in different geological structure may affect decision of

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1.3 Impacts of rock and minerals extraction:

Generally mining affects the environment negatively in different forms:

Mining results in different types of pollution:

Using of machines, truck and explosives causing noise to local people.

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Government: mining considers as source of income in form of taxation , license, and

- Deep mining is more dangerous because:

1. High risk of roof collapsing.

2. less chance of surviving in case of flooding and fire.

3. Miners work at extreme condition (high temperature, less supply of oxygen).

4. Some mines ignore safety measurements.

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A. safe disposal of wastes: