A Master's Guide To Berthing 2nd Edition
A Master's Guide To Berthing 2nd Edition
A Master's Guide To Berthing 2nd Edition
Authors
Eric Murdoch BSc, MSc, C.Eng Capt. Chris Clarke OBE, Master Mariner
Chief Surveyor Senior Lecturer, Manned Model
Charles Taylor & Co. Ltd Shiphandling Facility
Tel: +44 20 3320 8836 Warsash Maritime Centre
Email: eric.murdoch@ctcplc.com Newton Road
Warsash, Southampton
Dr. Ian W. Dand BSc, PhD, FREng SO31 9ZL
Director of Hydrodynamics Tel: +44 1489 576161
BMT SeaTech Ltd Email: chris.clarke@solent.ac.uk
Building 114, Haslar Marine Technology Park
Gosport, Portsmouth, Hants
PO12 2AG
Tel: +44 23 92 335021
Email: ian@bmthaslr.demon.co.uk
Standard House
12–13 Essex Street
London WC2R 3AA
Web: www.standard-club.com
The Standard P&I Club has revised the ‘Master’s Guide to Berthing’ and are grateful to Captain David Miller,
Senior Master with P&O Ferries for his assistance.
Chris Spencer
Director of Loss Prevention
February 2012
PAGE
01 Introduction 02
05 Berthing in wind 14
06 Effect of current 19
07 Hydrodynamic effects 21
12 Master/pilot relationship 32
(Incorporating the ICS/Intertanko/OCIMF Guide)
Ship handling is an art rather than a science. However, a ship handler who
knows the science will be better at his art. Knowledge of the science will
enable easy identification of a ship’s manoeuvring characteristics and quick
evaluation of the skills needed for control. A ship handler needs to understand
what is happening to his ship and, more importantly, what will happen a short
time into the future. This knowledge is essential in a port environment when a
ship encounters close quarter situations, narrow channels and the effects of
cross-winds, tides and currents. The tide of course affects the water flow but
the change in water level can also change the ship’s side area exposed to the
wind when approaching berths and jetties.
The purpose of this guide is to provide some insight into what can go wrong
and why; why ships are designed the way they are; why they handle the way
they do; and how to berth them. In the final chapter, there is advice on
pilotage. On its own, the guide will not teach you how to become a ship
handler, but it does provide background material to help a good ship handler
become a better one.
Throughout the berthing examples, it has been assumed that the ship has
a single right-handed propeller and that bulk carriers and tankers have their
accommodation aft. The guide is unable to cover all the different ship types.
Masters must become acquainted with their own ship configurations.
Bridge team
r the master must ensure that all ships personnel are familiar with the expected approach
to the berth/quay/lock or terminal and what is expected of them. A positive team
approach to the task improves efficiency and communication
Passage planning
r always brief the bridge team to ensure the officer of the watch (OOW), helmsman, lookout
and pilot are fully aware of the expected manoeuvres and the likely effects of wind, tide
and current
r always passage plan from berth to berth. Pay careful attention to the dangers that are
likely to be encountered during periods under pilotage
r always fully brief the pilot, making sure that he understands the ship’s speed and
manoeuvring characteristics
r always ask the pilot to discuss the passage and berthing plan. Ask questions if anything
is unclear
r always check with the pilot that the ship will have under-keel clearance at all times
r always have your anchors ready to let go and forecastle manned in advance of berthing
Equipment check
r ensure main engines and thrusters are fully operational before approaching the berth.
Main engines should be tested before arriving at the pilot station ahead and astern.
Remote controls checked
r ensure steering gears fully operational. Both steering motors operating. Hand steering
mode operational
r ensure all bridge equipment checked including engine movement recorders, VDR,
radars, course recorders, echo sounders and all remote read outs. Use a bridge
equipment check list
Manoeuvring
r avoid high forward speed particularly when working with tugs, when using a bow
thruster, when under-keel clearance is small, when sailing in a narrow channel or when
close to other ships
r test astern movement and wait until the ship moves positively astern before stopping
r remember that a kick ahead can be used to initiate and maintain a turn when speed
is low
r remember that the ship’s pivot point is forward of amidships when steaming ahead
r remember that a ship will want to settle with the pivot point to the windward of, and
in alignment with, the point of influence of wind
r remember that the point of influence of wind changes with wind direction and the
ship’s heading
r remember that at low speed, current and wind have a greater effect on manoeuvrability
and that high-sided ships will experience a pronounced effect from leeway
r remember draught and trim affect the ship’s manoeuvring characteristics
Finally
r never ring ‘finished with engines’ until every mooring line has been made fast
r always anticipate well ahead and expect the unexpected to occur
r always brief the officers in charge of the berthing crew fore and aft of what is expected
and allow them sufficient time to prepare for berthing. The pilot should always be
consulted on the expected ‘tie up’ and the order of running the mooring lines
REMEMBER:
The first rule of berthing is to approach at a slow and controlled speed. The second
rule is bridge team work and preparation.
Since 2000 the club has seen the annual cost of dock damage claims increase from
approximately $3 million to $19 million. During this period, the number of claims handled
by the club has doubled, while the total cost has increased by almost four times. Almost
70% of these claims can be put down to bad ship handling, errors in ship control (too
fast), tug error or pilot error. We have noticed that newer ships are more likely to be
involved in dock damage, which may be a result of berthing without tug assistance.
However, it appears that the majority of incidents are caused by simple mistakes
made by an individual. More often than not speed is the contributing issue.
The case studies that follow briefly report incidents, their causes and how they could
have been avoided.
Struck a dock
The master, pilot, watch officer and helmsman were on the bridge. The pilot gave the orders
and the helmsman applied them. The pilot ordered starboard helm, but the helmsman
applied port helm. By the time this error was discovered, the ship was swinging towards
rather than away from the berth.
The assisting OOW should also always monitor rudder and engine movements have been
applied as per the pilot’s or master’s commands.
Departure checks should require sighting the propeller pitch indicator on the oil distribution
box. All dials and read outs should be synchronised and regularly checked.
Before berthing, an astern movement should be tested and the response of the engine/
propeller pitch observed. The watch officer should routinely observe engine settings and
pitch indicators.
Where extensive automation is used for engine management, it is essential for every deck
and engineering officers to know what, if any, default propeller pitch settings there are.
Poor communications
The ship had raised her anchor immediately before the pilot boarded. She was under way
when the pilot entered on to the bridge. The master spoke English to the pilot, but the pilot’s
English was very poor and the master could hardly understand what he was saying.
Nevertheless, the master allowed berthing to continue. During her first approach to the
berth, the ship hit and sank a fishing boat; she struck the berth on the second approach.
The master should have returned the ship to the anchorage, anchored and waited until a
pilot boarded who spoke a language common to both.
Struck a dolphin
The LPG carrier was moving towards a jetty that comprised of mooring dolphins. One of the
dolphins was hit and damaged when the ship’s bow veered to starboard while she was
moving astern under full astern power.
It is important for ship masters and watch officers to understand the manoeuvring
characteristics of their ship. At a suitable opportunity, manoeuvring should be practiced.
It is especially important to be familiar with the effect of transverse thrust.
Struck a dolphin
In order to berth, it was necessary to swing the ship through 180° and approach at an angle
of approximately 45°. However, on this occasion, the ship came out of the turn to the west
of the jetty. This would result in an approach angle of 10° rather than 45°. There was a 4 knot
current that would push the ship towards the jetty. As the ship approached the jetty, the
strong current swung her bow to port and towards the berth. Corrective action was taken
and additional starboard rudder applied, but the bow still swung towards the jetty and hit a
mooring dolphin.
Handling characteristics will vary from ship type to ship type and from ship to ship.
Handling qualities are determined by ship design, which in turn depends on the ship’s
intended function. Typically, design ratios, such as a ship’s length to its beam, determine
its willingness to turn. However, desirable handling qualities are achieved only when
there is a balance between directional stability and directional instability.
High values of L/B are associated with good course directional stability. Container ships are
likely to have an L/B ratio of approximately 8, while harbour tugs, which need to be able to
turn quickly and where course stability is not required, have a value of 2.5 to 3.
High values of B/T increase leeway and the tendency for a ship in a beam wind to ‘skate
across the sea surface’. A B/T ratio of over 4 is large. Most merchant ships have a B/T ratio
in the range of 2.75 to 3.75. A 22-metre fast motor yacht will have a B/T ratio of about 5.75.
Ships with large block and prismatic coefficients have poor course stability and a readiness
to turn. When turning, they will do so easily. Large tankers have these characteristics.
Ships with a large protruding bulbous bow are likely to have their longitudinal centre of
buoyancy far forward. As a result, the ship will show a tendency to turn.
The pivot point traces the path that the ship follows.
Lateral motion
Ships move laterally when turning because the pivot point is not located at the ship’s centre.
When moving forward and turning to starboard, the ship’s lateral movement is to port. When
moving astern and turning to starboard, lateral movement is to starboard.
It is important to understand where the pivot point lies and how lateral movement can cause
sideways drift; this knowledge is essential when manoeuvring close to hazards.
Rudders can be defined by what is known as the ‘rudder area ratio’, which is a ratio of the
surface area of the rudder divided by the ship’s side area beneath the water level. The rudder
area ratio gives an indication of the likely effectiveness of a rudder. Merchant ship ratios
range from 0.016 to 0.035. The larger the ratio, the greater the effect the rudder will have.
The balance between headway and lift is dependent on how much of the propeller disc is
blanked by the rudder when hard over. This knowledge is important when considering the
effect of a ‘kick ahead’. If the optimum rudder angle for a given speed is exceeded the
radius of turn will increase because the rudder will generate more drag than lift.
Azipods are devices where the prime mover is an electric motor, encased in an underwater
streamlined pod, which connects directly to a propeller. Pods are fitted to the outside of a
hull. They can be azimuthing i.e. used as a rotational device or used in a fixed position in a
similar way as a fixed propeller. Propellers attached to them can push or pull. A propulsion
pod acts as both propeller and rudder.
Bow thrusters
Their objectiveness will depend upon:
r the distance between the thrusters and the ship’s pivot position
r the forward draught
r the ship’s speed
Lateral thrusters are most effective when a ship has neither headway nor sternway. They
create a turning effect by providing a side force at their location. Their effectiveness will
depend upon the distance between the thruster and ship’s pivot point. When berthing a
ship that has a single bow thruster, and no stern thruster, it is important not to become too
focused on the bow, because this can be controlled with the thruster. Plan to get the stern
alongside as a priority. Remember that pure rotation can only be induced by two lateral
thrusters, one forward and one aft, opposing each other, and that a tug may be needed to
control the stern of a large ship.
Bow thrusters are used when it is required to ‘breast’ on to or off a berth, to move the ship’s
head from a jetty or to turn the ship in a limited space. Modern ships fitted with a bow
thruster will often berth without tug assistance.
However, a bow thruster will lose its effectiveness as a ship’s speed increases. Depending
on the hull and thrust tunnel design, thrust effectiveness can be lost at between 2 and 5
knots. The reason for this is the merging of the slipstream from the thruster with the general
flow around a forward moving hull. When speed increases above 2 knots, local loss of
pressure over the hull, downstream from the thruster, creates a turning moment opposite to
the moment produced by the thruster. The thruster may become ineffective.
Thrusting when stopped – When stopped and thrusting, a ship’s pivot point is likely to be
aft. If a bow thruster is put to starboard on a stopped ship, the ship will turn to starboard.
Thrusting with headway – The pivot point will be forward, so thrusting will be ineffective,
especially at high speeds.
Thrusting with sternway – The pivot point is aft and when the bow thruster is put to
starboard, the ship’s bow will swing to starboard. The thruster will be effective, and will act
as a form of ‘rudder’.
Rudder response
The time it takes for the rudder to respond to a helm order will determine how rapidly a ship
gets into a turn. The quicker the rudder responds, the sooner the ship will begin to turn.
Transverse thrust
Transverse thrust is the tendency for a forward or astern running propeller to move the stern
to starboard or port. Transverse thrust is caused by interaction between the hull, propeller
and rudder. The effect of transverse thrust is a slight tendency for the bow to swing to port
on a ship with a right-handed propeller turning ahead.
When moving astern, transverse thrust is caused by water passing through the astern-
moving propeller creating high pressure on the starboard quarter of the hull, which
produces a force that pushes the ship’s stern to port. Rudder angle can influence the
magnitude of this force.
Masters should be aware of the variable effect of transverse thrust. As water flow over a
ship’s hull changes, so does transverse thrust. The difference is most noticeable in shallow
water. For example, a ship that turns to starboard in deep water may well turn to port in
shallow water. Also, the magnitude of the force will change and, by implication, there will be
a range of water depths for which the bias may be difficult to predict, something that is
especially true when a ship is stopping in water of reducing depth.
Transverse thrust is often used to help bring the ship’s stern alongside during berthing.
When a propeller is put astern on a ship moving forward at speed, the initial effect of
transverse thrust is slight. However, as the ship’s forward motion decreases, the effect of
transverse thrust increases.
It is essential for a master to understand just how much effect transverse thrust has on his
particular ship. He should also be aware on how the traverse effect can vary or change due
to its currents and depths of water.
For this reason, it is essential to plan a stop by reducing speed in good time. Also, it should
be appreciated that putting engines to full astern during an emergency could result in a loss
of steerage.
Wind has special significance in the handling of high-sided ships such as car carriers,
container ships, bulk and tankers in ballast. The effect will vary with the relative wind
direction and the speed of the ship. Although wind force and direction can be estimated
from information obtained from a variety of sources, such as weather forecasts, VTS
information, the ship’s own wind instrumentation and personal observation, local conditions
can change rapidly and with little warning. Control of a ship can be easily lost during the
passage of a squall. There is an obvious need to understand how wind will affect your ship,
and how this effect can be difficult to predict. For example, it might appear logical that the
effect of wind on a tanker stopped in the water would cause the bow to swing towards the
wind. However, experience shows that a tanker stopped in the water will usually lie with the
wind forward of the beam rather than fine on the bow.
It is especially difficult to predict the effect of wind on a partially loaded container ship.
Ships with high sides and large windage, car carriers, loaded containers and passenger
ships, for example, should always keep an eye on changes in wind direction. Cloud
formations to windward can often be an indication of approaching squalls.
To anticipate the effect wind will have on a ship’s heading, W must be viewed in relation to CLR.
Ship handlers prefer to refer to pivot point (P) rather than CLR when discussing the effects
of wind on a ship with headway or sternway. However, a stopped ship does not have a pivot
point and for this reason CLR should always be used. In the discussion which follows, CLR
is used for a stopped ship and P for a ship with motion.
Unlike a ship’s centre of gravity, the point of influence of wind moves depending on the
profile of the ship presented to the wind. When a ship is beam to the wind, W will be fairly
close to the mid-length point, slightly aft in the case of ships with aft accommodation and
slightly forward if the accommodation is forward.
A ship will always want to settle into a position where the pivot point and point of influence
of wind are in alignment.
Direction of wind
No turning lever
#$%"! W and CLR coincide
Direction of wind
Direction of wind
where F is the wind force in tonnes per square metre, V is the wind speed in m/s (metres per
second) and windage area is the area of ship exposed to the wind in square metres.
Estimate windage area for a beam wind by multiplying length by freeboard and adding the
side area of the accommodation housing. For a head wind, multiply beam by freeboard and
add the area of the bridge front. As a ‘rule of thumb’, double the figure obtained for F and
order an additional tug with a suitable bollard pull.
This calculation gives an estimate of the total force of wind on a ship’s side. It will give an
indication of the total power that tugs will need in order to overcome this force.
It should be remembered that a ship will always want to settle on a heading where the ship’s
pivot point is in alignment with the position of the wind’s point of influence. When navigating
on such a course, a ship will show good course-keeping properties. As a result, it is preferable
to berth with head to wind with headway or to berth with stern to wind with sternway. In
addition, knowledge of the location of W, compared with P, makes it possible to predict
whether the ship’s head or stern will ‘go to wind’ as a ship is stopped. The ship will want
to settle with P in alignment with and to windward of W.
High-sided ships may suffer more from leeway than from heading change.
Points to remember:
r ensure that conditions are safe and suitable for the envisaged manoeuvre. It will be
cheaper to delay the ship until the wind moderates than to deal with the aftermath
of an accident
r wind force acting on a ship increases with the square of the wind speed. Doubling the
wind speed gives four times the force. Sudden gusts of wind are therefore dangerous
r if berthing in high winds, take evasive/corrective action early. Attach tugs early and
before they are needed. Bow thrusters effectiveness can be limited
r tugs should be of sufficient strength to counteract the effects of wind and to get the
ship to the required destination
r the berthing plan should be devised to minimise the adverse effect of wind and to
maximise its assistance
r thrusters are more effective at slow speed
r a ship is more vulnerable to wind at slow speed. As speed reduces, hydrodynamic
forces reduce, and the effect of wind on heading and leeway increases
r take corrective action as soon as it becomes obvious that it is needed. The earlier that
action is taken, the less that needs to be done. The longer things are left, the more
drastic will be the action needed to correct the situation
r ‘kicks ahead’ can be effective in controlling a ship in windy conditions
r consider any special circumstances where wind may affect ship handling. Trim,
freeboard and deck cargo can vary the position of W and the force of the wind on the
ship, and change the ship’s natural tendency in wind. For example, significant trim by
the stern can cause W to move ahead of P. In these circumstances the bow will have
increased windage. Consequently, if the ship is heading into wind, the bow may show a
tendency to blow downwind, even if the ship has headway. This is very noticeable with
small ships in ballast and trimmed by the stern enclosed bridges can lead to a false
impression of wind strength, as opposed to open bridge wings where the wind strength
will be obvious
r the windage area, and hence the force of the wind on the ship, will vary with the relative
heading to the wind, the maximum force on the ship is when the ship is broadside to
the wind
r the windage profile considerably changes when in a loaded or ballast condition. The
windage effect of the bow and forward area can be significant when trimmed well by
the stern
r good control is easier to achieve when the ship’s head is to wind and the ship has
headway. Control is difficult when wind is following
r consider that wind speed increases with height above sea level. The speed provided by
the port/terminal control or tugs will be lower than the wind speed recorded on the
ship’s mast
r consider that on high sided ships, 85% of the beam windage can act when the ship is
only 20° off the wind
r high freeboard ships are more difficult to berth. When berthing high freeboard ships
such as car carriers, it is essential to pay extra attention in windy conditions
r keep spatial awareness of the vicinity including other ships and those moored, shore
cranes and overhead obstructions
r apply large passing distances when it is windy. Draught and sea room permitting,
always pass any obstructions downwind or well upwind. Gusts and squalls can arrive
very rapidly and with little warning. When wind has caused a ship to move rapidly to
leeward, it can be difficult to overcome the motion and return to a position of safety
r allow plenty of distance from the berth for approach manoeuvrings when wind is
onshore. If berthing in an onshore wind, it is best practice to stop half a ship’s length
from the berth and then come alongside in a controlled manner. An uncontrolled landing
on a downwind berth can result in damage to both the ship and the berth
Another advantage of berthing into a current is that it can be used to push a ship alongside.
Position the ship off the intended berth but at a slight angle towards it. Then allow the
current to produce a sideways movement of the ship towards the berth.
Masters should note that currents are usually complex, with varying rates and directions
that can change hourly. For safe navigation, local knowledge is essential. A ship making
headway into a current, but stopped over the ground, will have a forward pivot point.
Berthing in a current
Berthing with a following current is difficult, since the ship must develop sternway through
the water in order to be stopped over the ground. In these circumstances, control of a single
screw ship will not be easy. Use a tug to hold the stern against the current.
Care is needed when berthing into a current, because too large an angle between the berth
and the direction of the current will cause the ship to move rapidly sideways. Unless
corrected, contact with the berth may be unavoidable. If a controlled approach is not
possible assistance of tugs should be considered.
Direction of current
!"
If during berthing the bow’s angle to the berth is over-corrected then the ship could move
away from the berth as the wedge of water between ship and berth becomes established.
This may cause the ship’s stern to strike the berth. A controlled and slow speed approach to
the berth allows time to assess if the angle of approach is correct. Consideration should
also be given to the effect of currents on solid quays/berths or open quays. Masters should
be prepared to abort an approach if the ship is incorrectly aligned.
!"
Direction of current
Once alongside, care must be taken to prevent the ship dropping astern before back
springs and head lines are set.
Points to remember:
r in many places a counter current flows in the opposite direction to the main current
close to the bank. Only local knowledge will provide this information
r current can vary with depth of water and large deep draught ships can experience
different current effects at differing parts of the hull. Caution is needed
r when close to the berth in a head current, there is a danger that flow inshore of the ship
becomes restricted and the ship is subject to interactive forces (see page 26), These
forces can cause the ship to either be sucked towards or pushed away from the berth.
Local knowledge will help anticipate this phenomenon
Direction
of current
r as speed is reduced, take care that the increased proportion of the ship’s vector which
is attributable to current does not set the ship close to obstructions
Direction of current
Obstruction
r always make a generous allowance for current. Its effect on the ship increases as the
ship’s speed reduces. A mistake made during berthing is often difficult to correct.
Remember that current predictions are just predictions and meteorological conditions
may result in a greater or lesser rate than forecast. Local VTS information will normally
advise of any significant anomalies
Water depth
Water depth has a profound effect on manoeuvring. In a harbour, water depth may
vary from deep water to conditions in which there is danger of touching bottom. The
behaviour of the ship changes with changes in water depth. A ship’s resistance increases
as water depth reduces. The increase becomes significant when the water depth is less
than twice the mean draught. The effect of this increased resistance is a reduction in
speed, unless engine revolutions are increased.
As well as speed, water depth affects manoeuvring, and as depth and under-keel clearance
reduce, turning ability deteriorates, virtual mass increases (increase in a ship’s mass resulting
from water being dragged along with the ship) and the effect of the propeller’s transverse
thrust on yaw alters. As a result, a ship can become difficult, if not impossible, to control
during a stopping manoeuvre as the rudder loses the beneficial effects of the propeller
slipstream, and the bias off-course may become more pronounced. The increase in virtual
mass is most noticeable when a ship is breasting on to a quay or jetty. Virtual mass in sway
motion is invariably large, increasing as under-keel clearance reduces. Consequently, any
impact with a quay wall jetty or fender will be much more severe if under-keel clearance
is small. Similarly, when a large ship moored in shallow water is allowed to move, the
momentum can be considerable. Fortunately, the situation is alleviated by the considerably
increased damping of any movement that is a consequence of shallow water and small
under-keel clearance.
Water depth limits a ship’s speed. There is a maximum speed that a conventional
displacement ship can achieve in shallow water which can be less than the normal service
speed. This is called the ‘limiting speed’. Limiting speed needs to be considered during
passage planning. Knowledge of areas where ship’s speed is limited by water depth is
important because any increase in engine power to overcome the limiting speed will greatly
increase wash. In simple terms, the limiting speed can be calculated from the formula:
Vlim = 4.5 √ h
In shallow water, and because of insufficient engine power, a conventional ship may be
unable to overcome the limiting speed. However, some powerful ships such as fast ferries
can overcome limiting speed but in doing so produce dangerous wash.
Squat
Squat is the increase in draught and trim that occurs when a ship moves on the surface
of the sea. At low speed, a ship sinks bodily and trims by the head. At high speed, a ship
bodily lifts and trims by the stern. At especially high speed, the ship can plane. However,
squat is greatest in shallow water where the resulting increase in draught and trim can
cause grounding.
This, of course, provides a further limit on speed in shallow water, consideration of grounding
due to squat being especially important if the under-keel clearance is 10% or less of the
draught and the speed is 70% or more of the limiting speed.
In shallow water, squat can be estimated by adding 10% to the draught or 0.3 metres for
every 5 knots of speed. High speed in shallow water can also adversely affect a ship’s
course ability to steer. Squat effect will vary from ship to ship.
Waterway width
If the waterway is restricted in width as well as depth, this can also have an effect on
performance. If the underwater midship area of the ship is significant compared to that of
the waterway (for example over 20%) then this ‘blockage’ will further increase resistance,
increase squat and create a ‘backflow’ of water between the ship and the waterway. This
will cause silt to go into suspension or deposit on the bed of the channel, and may erode
the waterway. It may also cause bank material to be transferred to the bed of the waterway.
A further effect may also occur. If the banks are high relative to the water depth, the ship
may steer away from the bank. This ‘bank effect’ is due to backflow between the bank and
the ship creating a low-pressure region amidships. This causes the ship to be ‘sucked’
towards the bank, and a pressure wave between the bow and the bank (the ‘bow cushion’)
pushes the bow away from the bank and the stern is drawn in.
Bank effect increases with increases in speed, blockage (that is when the cross-sectioned
area of the ship is large relative to the cross-sectioned area of the bank) and low under-keel
clearance. If speed is too high, bank effect can be severe and sudden, catching the ship
handler unaware. It is advisable to slow down and to steer towards the bank. By so doing,
it may be possible to strike a balance, with the ship running parallel to the bank. Bank effect
is also felt on bends in a waterway when proximity to the outer bank may ‘help the bow round’
a tight bend.
These hydrodynamic effects are collectively known as ‘interaction’. They can, and do,
lead to collisions or contact. Interaction is accentuated by shallow water when a large
hydrodynamic effect can render a ship almost impossible to control. To minimise their
effect, it is essential that masters anticipate the situation, that speed is reduced before the
encounter, if practicable, and that the maximum passing distance is maintained. This is
especially true when overtaking.
Interaction is more of a problem when overtaking than when crossing on a reciprocal course,
because the forces have more time to ‘take hold’ of the other ship. But it should be
remembered that both ships are affected by the interaction and both should take care to
minimise its effect. Research has shown that mariners accept closer passing distances
for overtaking ships than for crossing ships.
Approach channels
Approach channels allow a deep-draught ship to enter an otherwise shallow port and may
provide many of the external factors that affect manoeuvring.
The width, depth and alignment of many approach channels are now subject to rigorous
analysis at the design stage so that they provide the minimum hazard to ships that move
along them. They are designed for single or two-way traffic and their width, depth and
alignment are an optimised compromise between acceptable marine risk on the one hand
and economic acceptability (with regard to dredging costs) on the other.
When berthing without tugs, it is essential that the effects of lateral motion are
fully understood.
When a ship moving forward turns by use of engines and rudder alone, the effect of centrifugal
force is to push the ship laterally away from the direction of the turn. When turning by use of
bow thrusters alone, the thruster simply pushes the bow to port or starboard. There is no
centrifugal force or lateral motion.
Port-side berthing
The following sequence assumes a fixed pitch right-handed single screw ship without
tug assistance.
Approach the berth at an angle, because astern thrust will be used to stop the ship and swing
the bow to starboard and the stern to port. This will parallel the ship to the berth. Once
stopped, the ship can be manoeuvred into the final position using astern power, which gives
transverse thrust and kicks ahead with appropriate rudder as required. The actual sequence
will depend on the available berthing space.
!"
!"
If sternway is developed and transverse thrust causes stern to swing to port, lateral motion
will be to starboard and away from the berth. This may be useful if a new approach is required.
!"
If berthing against a knuckle, it is important to land flat against the straight part of the
quay, not on the knuckle.
Starboard-side berthing
The following sequence assumes a single screw ship with a fixed pitch right-handed propeller.
The ideal approach should be to balance forward speed against the astern power needed
to stop. The greater the forward speed, the greater the astern power required to stop the
ship and, consequently, the greater the effect of transverse thrust, which will bring the bow
close to the berth and throw the stern off.
Aim to approach the berth with the ship parallel. The effect of transverse thrust will swing
the bow towards the berth.
!"
To stop the ship, it will be necessary to put the engine astern. Transverse thrust will probably
push the stern to port and bow to starboard. To correct the effect of the transverse thrust,
initiate a port swing of the bow before applying astern power.
Although this chapter concerns berthing without tugs, larger ships that are not fitted with a
bow thruster will require tug assistance for this manoeuvre.
Points to remember:
r Current has a greater effect at slow speed
As speed is reduced approaching the berth, the current exerts a proportionally greater
influence which may cause the ship to start to drop astern with the danger of contacting
the ship astern.
Direction
of current
Danger of drifting
back to ship astern
Tugs are usually employed according to the practice of the port after taking into account
the capabilities of the available tug types.
Towage has a number of potential hazards, and tug masters will give priority to the safety of
their own tugs in dangerous situations. There are several points to remember, not only with
regard to safety, but also to ensure that tugs are used in the most effective manner.
Factors to take into account when determining the number of tugs to be employed:
r practice in the port for the particular size of ship and the designated berth
r under-keel clearance
r anticipated strength and direction of wind and its likely effect on berthing
r windage area of the ship
r stopping power and handling characteristics of the ship
r state and height of tide
r proximity of other ships and quay structures
In general, tugs have difficulty operating at high speed. Interactive forces between the ship
and the tug can become very large. High speed increases the possibility of capsizing a
conventional tug and masters should be aware of this danger.
The effectiveness of a tug is proportional to the distance between its point of contact and
the ship’s pivot point. For instance, when the ship has headway with two tugs attached, one
forward and one aft, the aft tug will have more effect than the forward one because the
distance from the aft tug’s connection to the ship’s pivot point is greater. If both tugs are
applying the same power, the result will be a swing of the ship in favour of the aft tug.
Points to remember:
r when a tug attached by a line leading forward applies a turning force there will also be
a marginal increase in the ship’s speed
r anticipate any changes in tug positioning on the ship and allow sufficient time for the
tugs to reposition and be ready to assist
r be aware of any space or other limitations that may give the tug master difficulty in
carrying out the ship’s requirements
r tugs are most effective when the ship is navigating at slow speed. For berthing purposes,
they should not be attached to a ship navigating at a speed of 5 knots or more
r it is important for masters to discuss with a pilot the position where a tug will attach
before the tugs arrive. A tug acting with a long lever from the ship’s pivot point will be
more effective than a tug with a short lever. The effectiveness of a tug will depend
upon the position where it is attached
r propeller wash from tugs operating close to a ship, and pulling, could initially cause a
ship’s bow or stern to move away from the direction in which the tug is pulling
r conventional tugs connected by a line can exert excessive force on a small ship, which
may require corrective action
r masters should understand the different performance characteristics of tugs and that
conventional tugs are likely to be less manoeuvrable than water tractor tugs. A ship’s
master can decide on the number of tugs employed but usually have no influence on
the tug type
r conventional tugs are likely to be less manoeuvrable than water tractor or Zpellar tugs
r small ships particularly when in ballast or a light condition should be aware that large
tugs can have a dramatic pulling or pushing effect. Tug size should be noted
Port-side berthing
A bow thruster can be used to position the bow with a degree of precision, however, bow
thrust will not help to control the stern. Transverse thrust can be used to bring the stern of
small ships alongside. However, on a larger ship that is not fitted with a stern thruster, a tug
can be secured aft to control the stern while bow thrust is used to control the bow.
The recommended procedure is to stop the ship off the berth and then work her alongside,
using bow thrust and a tug to provide lateral power.
Starboard-side berthing
A bow thruster enables the bow to be positioned with a degree of precision. However,
without tug assistance, the difficulty of getting the stern alongside remains. Consequently,
positioning the stern remains a priority. The use of bow thrust alone to bring the bow
alongside, before the stern, is likely to cause the stern to move away from the berth. This
situation is difficult to remedy. Once the ship is in position, berthing can be completed using
bow thrust until the bow is alongside. When a tug is secured aft, control of the stern is
greatly improved.
Anchors are an effective berthing aid. Anchors can be used for berthing without tug
assistance on ships without bow thrusters and, in an emergency, to stop any ship.
The intention is for the anchor to drag and not to dig in. If the anchor does dig in, it could
cause the ship to stop and necessitate breaking the anchor out again. Digging in can also
damage the ship, anchor or windlass. It is therefore important to use as little cable as
possible; typically a length of cable that is between one and a half and two times the depth
of the water.
Local knowledge regarding the nature and condition of the seabed is important to avoid
dredging in an area where the bottom is foul. Dredging an anchor can be used to control
the bow when manoeuvring into a downwind berth.
Emergency anchoring
In an emergency, anchors can be very effective in stopping a ship, provided the anchor is
lowered to the seabed and the cable progressively paid out. Initially, the anchor should be
allowed to dredge and gradually build up its holding power until its braking effect begins to
reduce the ship’s speed. This is why only experienced personnel should be posted forward
on stand-by. Care should be taken when trying to stop any ship in this way, especially a
large ship, as the anchor and its equipment may ‘carry away’ causing damage or injury
particularly if the anchor should snag.
Planning
The key to any port approach is planning and both anchors should be made ready before
a port approach or river transit. A part of the passage plan and/or pilot exchange should be
the use of anchors and where the dangers are in relation to sub-sea pipe lines and cables.
These should be highlighted on the charts. It is too late to check in an emergency.
It is evident from the other chapters of this Master’s Guide dealing with the technical
aspects of ship berthing that the effective use of pilotage and towage services is crucial in
avoiding accidents. It is therefore important to reflect briefly on the legal responsibilities
of pilots, those engaged in towage services, and the ships that they assist.
Pilotage
The relationship between the master and the pilot is fraught with potential difficulties and
conflict. The pilot directs the navigation of the ship, but the master still retains overall
command and control. The freedom that the master gives to the pilot varies from master to
master but also depends upon the circumstances in which the pilotage takes place. The
master of a large foreign-going ship entering a difficult channel will tend to adopt a more
passive attitude to the pilot than a coastal master who knows the area intimately.
The way in which the law interprets this relationship, and the rights and responsibilities of
each to the other and to third parties, obviously differs from country to country and the
following is therefore offered as a general overview. In many legal systems, the customary
rules and statutory enactments provide a confused and sometimes contradictory picture,
which tends to the conclusion that a master, when considering how to operate with a pilot,
should be guided more by common sense and self-preservation than by precise legal principles.
The pilot owes a professional duty of care to those whom he serves, which assumes a
knowledge and awareness of local conditions. The pilot is therefore generally liable to the
shipowner, and to third parties, for a failure to exercise such care. In practice, however, such
a responsibility is largely illusory since the pilot, as an individual, has few assets with which
to satisfy any award of damages. Also the extent of his liability is often restricted at law or
limited in amount, although he may also be subject to criminal sanctions under any relevant
legislation as a result of his actions.
Where there is injury or damage to the property of a third party caused by the pilot’s
negligence, the third party will naturally look to the shipowner for compensation. Commonly,
the pilot is seen as the servant or agent of the master/shipowner. His faults or errors are
therefore taken to be those of the master/shipowner. There may be a possibility of a
recourse action against the harbour authority, port commission or canal company that
employs the negligent pilot. If, however, the relevant body merely acts as a licensing
authority, it will not be liable for pilot error. Pilot associations are also generally immune from
liability for the actions of their members.
Given the lack of practical accountability of the pilot, it is tempting to ignore any detailed
legal analysis of the relationship between the master and the pilot. This would be a mistake
since the principles which have been articulated in various legal jurisdictions provide a well
considered view on the way in which the relationship should operate most effectively. In
terms of engagement, the master is only legally bound to employ a pilot in an area of
compulsory pilotage. However, the master may be found liable for not employing a pilot
where it can be shown that such failure caused or contributed to an accident. Whilst the
pilot may assume control of the navigation of the ship, this does not relieve the master of his
command of the ship. The master therefore retains both the right and the responsibility to
intervene in the actions of the pilot, for example, where he perceives the threat of an
imminent danger to the ship or when the pilot is obviously incapacitated in some way.
Towage
Towage has been defined as ‘a service rendered by one vessel to aid the propulsion or
to expedite the movement of another vessel’. Towage can take place in many different
circumstances and can be part of salvage or wreck removal operation following a casualty.
It can also occur when a ship is in distress in order to avoid a casualty occurring. In the vast
majority of cases, however, towage is a routine operation, particularly within the confines of
a port. This is referred to as customary towage.
An agent of the ship, or the charterer, usually requests the services of a tug for port towage.
Once engaged, however, the tug may take its orders from any pilot on board the towed ship
and therefore the presence of tugs adds to the complexities of the relationship between the
master and pilot referred to above. The pilot and the master should be fully aware of each
tug’s power and handling characteristics but the responsibility for engaging tug assistance,
where required, rests with the ship’s master, and the ship’s master may be found negligent
in not engaging a tug to assist where the circumstances warrant it and an accident occurs.
Every shipowner should leave the question of tug assistance to the discretion of the master
who must make a judgement based on the prevailing circumstances.
The rights and responsibilities of the tug and the towed ship, with regards to each other and
in relation to third parties, are generally dealt with in the applicable towage contract. In most
cases, the contract will be based on industry standard terms that lay down clearly the
division of responsibility between the two entities. Specific port user agreements exist, but
standard form contracts, such as the UK Standard Towage Conditions, the Netherlands
Towage Conditions or the Scandinavian Conditions, are used in most cases. These all
favour the tug, although in the USA, the Supreme Court has held that any clauses in a
towage contract purporting to relieve the tug owner of liability for negligence are invalid as
being against public policy. In Japan, the tug owner must exercise due diligence to make the
tug seaworthy at the time she leaves the port and is liable for any damage to the tow caused
by any failure to do so. Generally, in the absence of clear wording to the contrary, a court
will apply as an implied term of the towage contract that the tug owner warrants to exercise
due diligence to make the tug seaworthy at the commencement of the towage.
The master has the ultimate responsibility for the safe navigation of his ship. He must be
cooperative with the pilot, yet assertive. He must remember that he is in command not
the pilot. He must be confident that the pilot is doing his duties correctly and he must be
ready to take over if the pilot is not fulfilling his duties.
In most occasions, pilotage is compulsory. The majority of accidents during berthing occur
with a pilot on the bridge. No berthing guide would be complete without reference to the
master/pilot relationship. With kind permission of the International Chamber of Shipping,
Intertanko and OCIMF we have reprinted the following text from their guide ‘International
Best Practices for Maritime Pilotage’.
1.1 Efficient pilotage is chiefly dependent upon the effectiveness of the communications
and information exchanges between the pilot, the master and other bridge personnel
and upon the mutual understanding each has for the functions and duties of the
others. Ship’s personnel, shore based ship management and the relevant port and
pilotage authorities should utilise the proven concept of “Bridge Team Management”.
Establishment of effective co-ordination between the pilot, master and other ship’s
personnel, taking due account of the ship’s systems and the equipment available to
the pilot is a prerequisite for the safe conduct of the ship through pilotage waters.
1.2 The presence of a pilot on the ship does not relieve the master or officer in charge of
the navigational watch from their duties and obligations for the safe conduct of the ship.
2.1 Ships should provide the relevant port or pilotage authority with basic information
regarding their arrival intentions and ship characteristics, such as draught and dimensions,
as required by the port or other statutory obligations. This should be completed well in
advance of the planned arrival and in accordance with local requirements.
2.2 In acknowledging receipt of this information, the appropriate port or pilotage authority
should pass relevant information back to the ship (either directly or via agents) as soon
as it becomes available. Such information should include as a minimum: the pilot
boarding point; reporting and communications procedures; and sufficient details of the
prospective berth, anchorage and routing information to enable the master to prepare
a provisional passage plan to the berth prior to his arrival. However, masters should
recognise that not all of this information may be available in sufficient detail to
complete the passage plan until the pilot has boarded the ship.
3.1 The pilot and the master should exchange information regarding the pilot’s intentions,
the ship’s characteristics and operational parameters as soon as possible after the
pilot has boarded the ship. The ICS Master/Pilot Exchange Forms (Annexes A1 and A2
of the ICS Bridge Procedures Guide) or the company equivalent format, should be
completed by both the master and pilot to help ensure ready availability of the
information and that nothing is omitted in error.
3.2 The exchange of information regarding pilotage and the passage plan should include
clarification of:
r roles and responsibilities of the master, pilot and other members of the bridge
management team
r navigational intentions
r local conditions including navigational or traffic constraints
r tidal and current information
r berthing plan and mooring boat use
r proposed use of tugs
r expected weather conditions
After taking this information into account and comparing the pilot’s suggested
plan with that initially developed on board, the pilot and master should
agree an overall final plan early in the passage before the ship is committed.
The master should not commit his ship to the passage until satisfied with the
plan. All parties should be aware that elements of the plan may change.
3.3 Contingency plans should also be made which should be followed in the event of a
malfunction or a shipboard emergency, identifying possible abort points and safe
grounding areas. These should be discussed and agreed between pilot and master.
4.1 The pilot, master and bridge personnel share a responsibility for good communications
and mutual understanding of the other’s role for the safe conduct of the ship in
pilotage waters. They should also clarify their respective roles and responsibilities so
that the pilot can be easily and successfully integrated into the normal bridge
management team.
4.2 The pilot’s primary duty is to provide accurate information to ensure the safe navigation
of the ship. In practice, the pilot will often con the ship on the master’s behalf.
4.3 The master retains the ultimate responsibility for the safety of his ship. He and his
bridge personnel have a duty to support the pilot and to monitor his actions. This
should include querying any actions or omissions by the pilot (or any other member
of the bridge management team) if inconsistent with the passage plan or if the safety
of the ship is in any doubt.
5.2 In supporting the pilot, the master and bridge personnel should:
r ensure they are adequately rested prior to an act of pilotage, in good physical
and mental fitness and not under the influence of drugs or alcohol
r draw upon the preliminary information supplied by the relevant port or pilotage
authority along with published data (for example, charts, tide tables, light lists,
sailing directions and radio lists) in order to develop a provisional passage plan
prior to the ship’s arrival
r prepare suitable equipment and provide sufficient personnel for embarking the
pilot in a safe and expedient manner
r establish communications with the pilot station to confirm boarding details
6.1 The boarding position for pilots should be located, where practicable, at a great
enough distance from the port so as to allow sufficient time for a comprehensive
face-to-face exchange of information and agreement of the final pilotage passage
plan. The position chosen should allow sufficient sea-room to ensure that the ship’s
safety is not put in danger, before, during or directly after such discussions; neither
should it impede the passage of other ships.
6.3 In supporting the pilot, the master and ship’s personnel should:
r ensure that the means of pilot embarkation and disembarkation are properly
positioned, rigged, maintained and manned in accordance with IMO
recommendations and, where applicable, other port requirements
r the master should liaise with the pilot station/transfer craft so that the ship is
positioned and manoeuvred to ensure safe boarding
7.1 It is essential that a face-to-face master/pilot exchange (MPX) described in section 3.1
results in clear and effective communication and the willingness of the pilot, master
and bridge personnel to work together as part of a bridge management team. English
language or a mutually agreed common language or the IMO Standard Marine
Communication Phrases should be used, and all members of the team share a
responsibility to highlight any perceived errors or omissions by other team members,
for clarification.
8.1 The necessity of co-operation and a close working relationship between the master
and pilot during berthing and unberthing operations is extremely important to the
safety of the ship. In particular, both the pilot and the master should discuss and agree
which one of them will be responsible for operating key equipment and controls (such
as main engine, helm and thrusters).
8.3 In supporting the pilot, the master and bridge personnel should:
r ensure that the pilot’s directions are conveyed to the ship’s crew and are
correctly implemented
r ensure that the ship’s crew provide the bridge management team with relevant
feedback information
r advise the pilot once his directions have been complied with, where an omission
has occurred or if a potential problem exists
9.2 The master, having the ultimate responsibility for the safe navigation of the ship has
a responsibility to request replacement of the pilot, should he deem it necessary.