Paradigm Colleges of Science and Technology

Roxas, Oriental Mindoro

Tel. No. (043) 289-2827
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LEARNING MODULES

INTRODUCTION TO CULINARY
OPERATIONS
(The Basics of Professional Cooking)

Table of Contents
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Paradigm Colleges of Science and Technology
Roxas, Oriental Mindoro
Tel. No. (043) 289-2827
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Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

 I. Kitchen Organization and Layout
a. Functions of the Kitchen, Operating Units
b. Organizing the Job – Division of Work
c. Kitchen Layout
d. Job Description of Kitchen Staff

II. Kitchen Tools and Equipment

a. Kitchen Machines
b. Equipment, Tools and Their Uses
c. Baking Tools
d. Proper Use and Operation of Kitchen Tools/Equipment
e. Proper Cleaning of Kitchen Equipment

III. Sanitation and Safety in Culinary Operations

a. Definition and Importance of Sanitation and Food Safety
b. Bacteria and How They Multiply
c. Causes of Food Poisoning and Food Borne Diseases
d. HACCP Analysis and Control
e. Food Safety Standards
f. Quality Standards for Perishable Items
g. Meat Inspection and Grading
h. Food Safety in the Storage of Food
i. How long Can Foods be Stored
j. Food Safety in Food Preparation
k. Reheating Foods
l. Thawing Foods
m. Food Safety in Serving Food
n. Time Control – Keeping Foods Out of the Danger Zone
o. Sanitation Maintenance Concerning Utensils/Equipment
p. Protection Against Chemical/Physical Hazards
q. Prevention of Cross Contamination
r. The Safe Food Handler – Personal Hygiene
s. Proper Hand Washing
t. Safety and Accident Prevention

IV. Basic Preparations Before Cooking

a. Basic Preparations Before Cooking
b. Making Requisition of Kitchen Stocks
c. Washing Ingredients for Cooking
d. Preparation of Vegetables and Other Ingredients
e. How to Slice, Dice, Chop, and Mince with pictures
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Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

 f. Different Cuts of Vegetables
g. Preparing Sea Foods for Cooking
h. Cutting and Filleting Fish
i. Preparations for Chicken

V. Basic Cooking Methods

a. Blanching and Deep Fat Frying
b. Boiling, Simmering, Poaching and Stewing
c. Steaming and Braising
d. Grilling, Broiling, Marinating
e. Glazing, Roasting, Marinating and Baking
f. Meat and Fish Preservation
g. Stock and Sauces
h. Thickening and Binding Items
i. Recipes for Sauces

VI. Preparation of Cold Dishes, Fruit and Vegetables Carving

a. Classification of Cold Dishes
b. Hors D’ oeuvres and Classification
c. Canapes and Relishes
d. Salads and Salad Dressing
e. Tips in the Preparation of Garnishes
f. Carving Tools, Containers for Platters/Cold Dishes
g. Fruit Carving Procedures

VII. Menu Planning, Recipe Preparation and Costing

a. Steps Planning a Menu
b. Analysis of the Market
c. Components of a Menu
d. Menu Format
e. Recipe Standardization and Costing and Pricing the Recipe
f. Recipe Testing, Menu Analysis and Menu Engineering

VIII. Stewarding Operations

a. Organization and Operations of the Steward Section
b. Manual Dishwashing
c. Sanitizing and Cleaning Procedures
d. Mechanical Cleaning and Sanitizing
e. Storage and Handling Equipment
f. Cleaning Food Storage Equipment
g. Garbage Disposal and Waste Management
IX. Herbs and Spices
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 a. Forms and Uses of Herbs
b. Various Herbs and Spices Used for Cooking

X. References

XI. A Syllabus for Introduction to Culinary Operations

(The Basics of Professional Cooking)

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Paradigm Colleges of Science and Technology
Roxas, Oriental Mindoro
Tel. No. (043) 289-2827
Email Add. pcst.roxas@yahoo.com

Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

 Lesson I: Kitchen Organization and Layout
 Functions of the Kitchen, Operating Units
 Organizing the Job – Division of Work
 Kitchen Layout
 Job Description of Kitchen Staff

The basic principles and standards of food preparation isn’t just knowing how to cook a
meal – it’s also about having a fundamental understanding of kitchen operations.

Kitchen organization
This is a typical kitchen organizational chart seen in hotel and restaurant operations. Some of the
positions seen here may not apply in smaller scale operations, but understanding the
organizational chart will allow you to create a system that best suits your type of establishment.

The kitchen is usually divided according to the following responsibilities:

 The kitchen or brigade de cuisine headed by the chef de cuisine or executive chef (in
Asian kitchens, the head chef is called the chef or the chief cook).
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Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

  The sous chef who supervises menu preparation at the different stations under the chefs
de partie.

 The pastry chef is in charge of baked goods such as bread and desserts. Under him is the
baker.
 The pastry area or cold kitchen area is separate from the hot kitchen area.

 The butcher takes care of butchering requirements.

 The chief steward is in charge of the kitchen’s cleanliness. Below him is the steward.

 The banquet chef heads banqueting and functions.

 The garde manager is in charge of cold food.

 The assistant chef or assistant cook prepares the menus at the different stations. This is
also known as the commis.

 The person in charge of the pantry handles the dry goods and stored items, and the
commis is an assistant chef working under the chef de partie.

Common kitchen equipment

Apart from knowing the roles of different persons in the kitchen, one should also be familiar
with the different pieces of equipment used. In general, there are 3 broad types of equipment:
storage, production, and cooking equipment.

1. Storage equipment

 Chillers – Where food items that do not require freezing are stored. Items that should be
kept cold but not frozen include vegetables, because their quality will deteriorate.

 Freezers – An example of food items that are stored in freezers are frozen meats. This is
important to prolonging the shelf life of the meat.

 Warmer – These are temporary storage equipment where finished products or dishes are
stored until served.

2. Production equipment

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Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

  Mixers – For combining ingredients in large batches. Mixed ingredients are usually of
the solid form. This can be for cake and pastry ingredients or ground meat mixes. Mixers
come with different attachments depending on the use, such as the paddle attachment to
mix ingredients, or whisk attachment to whip ingredients through incorporating air and
making food fluffy.
2 types of mixers are the table top (smaller ones such as the Kitchen Aid) and floor
(large industrial ones).

 Slicers – For slicing meats and baked products

 Choppers – One example is a food processor. This is used for chopping various
ingredients into smaller pieces, such as vegetables.

These items help chefs prepare food faster, rather than doing things by hand.

3. Cooking equipment

 Steam cooking – These are steam kettles, steamers, combination cookers and microwave
ovens. This type of equipment makes use of steam for cooking.

 Dry heat – Dry heat cooking equipment makes use of cooking methods without liquid or
oil. Examples include ovens and stoves.

 Grills – Also use dry heat, but by exposing food to open flame.

 Fryers – Make use of oil for cooking. An example is a deep-fryer.

Aspects of kitchen layouts

There are two aspects of kitchen layouts. Before deciding on a suitable kitchen layout, you
should also know what type of kitchen is needed. These kitchen types are classified in terms of
special equipment, stations or logistics/transportation needs as follows:

 Quick service restaurant

Characterized by speed and high-volume activity

 Hotel food service

A huge kitchen that prepares high-volume banquet service, with satellite kitchens

 Hospital kitchen
Requires the highest standard of sanitation

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Tel. No. (043) 289-2827
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Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

  Mid-scale restaurant
Medium-sized, the size of a hotel kitchen station

 In-flight food service kitchen

Commissary-type; operates round the clock and usually located very near the airport
 Cruise ship kitchen
Has large storage units to keep enough food for the duration of the cruise

Kitchen layout flow

The layout should flow as such:

 Receiving and storage area should be close together

 Next to storage should be the mise en place and production area
 Once ready, food should move quickly to the plating and pick-up area near the dining
room.

Criteria for a well-designed kitchen

The kitchen layout should be designed according to your menu to ensure the right equipment,
workspaces and capacity are available. Consider these criteria and how they fit your restaurant
concept and menu:

 Division of areas for proper distribution of labor

 Smooth traffic flow
 Sanitary and hygiene standards
 Equipment selection
 Determining capacity
 Purchasing system

Basics of Kitchen Operations

Kitchens come in many shapes and sizes and evolve into their current format for many reasons,
from historical accident to mechanics particular to an existing set-up to the training and
experience of the lead chef or kitchen manager. Setting up a basic kitchen operation is beyond
the scope of this book. However, it is helpful to briefly review how different formats drive
specific choices in the basic operational requirements of a kitchen and the elements and
incentives it should optimize.

1. Basic Elements of Kitchen Operations

a. Prep Production

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Tel. No. (043) 289-2827
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Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

Prep production is the unsung hero in the success of restaurants and catering companies. A well-
designed prep plan ensures that the team succeeds in front of customers due to:
 Sufficient quantities of prepared ingredients on hand to fulfill customer orders
 High quality of ingredient at the right temperature, consistency, thickness, saturation,
shape, resiliency, etc

It also helps the business to be more successful by:

 Reducing the number of staff required to be present at one time to execute service or
events (which allows for use of smaller kitchen facilities, reduces overtime, etc)
 Reducing the number of steps that need to be performed during service
 Enables menus including food that require time to cook, marinate, etc
 Consolidating work that needs to happen across multiple recipes (e.g., common
ingredients)
b. Finishing
Finishing is when the pressure is on! Customers may be standing right in front of you or their
ticket may be on your board. The team’s ability to finish multiple orders, group them together
where necessary for parties, and deliver them with the right presentation and at the right
temperature is often the difference between a rabid fan and a disappointed former patron.

Finishing quality adds the distinctive tastes, textures, and presentation that often helps clients to
distinguish your food, and can literally be your “secret sauce”.

However, finishing speed and equipment is often forgotten as a potential bottleneck for capacity
as you scale or during peak service hours, and will be addressed in later sections.

c. Packaging
Packaging is often given little thought, but a well-designed packaging step can have a large
impact on:

 Ingredient waste: Things like locking in moisture for herbs/ vegetables, locking out
moisture for breads and crackers, and reducing handling damage can dramatically
improve the shelf life and yield of perishable goods. At another level, techniques like
canning and cryovac can change the way ingredients are ordered
 Perceived product quality: Packaging’s first function is to deliver the contents inside in
appropriate condition. Anyone who has ordered takeout and opened a steaming package
of soggy fries at home has seen a failure of the selected packaging to maintain a high
quality product. Beyond issues impacting the quality of food,

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Tel. No. (043) 289-2827
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Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

  Business margins: Packaging is often a hidden expense for operations. Minimizing the
use of unnecessary packaging, consolidating delivery platters where possible, using lower
cost package formats for smaller orders, and other methods to reduce unnecessary cost
with no value for the customer can uncover substantial hidden profits.

d. Staffing
Your team works to create your food. Ensuring you have enough people at the right times can be
the difference between handling a busy night and having angry customers due to a backed up
service. Labor laws dictate a number of requirements around paying staff that drive a number of
important operations:

 Time Tracking: However your staff clocks in, keeping an accurate record of working
time and breaks is important in addressing any labor questions or regulatory inquiries.
 Overtime: Overtime laws vary by states and country, so make sure you know the
requirements in your area. Arranging your team and schedules to minimize overtime can
significanly change labor costs, as each overtime hour can cost 50-100% or more extra
over existing base wages + payroll taxes.
 Payroll, Payroll Taxes, and Benefits: Administering payroll to meet local laws, on time,
and with appropriate taxes, wage garnishments, etc can be challenging and often requires
a 3rd party to ensure appropriate reporting.

e. Ordering
The variability of catering makes ordering a challenging job that can make a large swing in the
quality, efficiency, and profitability of the kitchen. Restaurants face a more consistent menu
week to week and here the challenge is adjusting to take into account the existing inventories
based on daily variation in the items ordered.

Strangely, unlike other industries, the ordering process today is largely one that still requires a
phone call and the manual processing by an account rep, leaving room for communication and
processing errors and taking a substantial amount of time of both the chef placing the order and
the account rep.

Chefs approach ordering in Three Basic Strategies today:

 Pars: Chefs will bring inventories up to “par” or a set number that indicates the top end
of the desired inventory for that item. While a common practice that is easy to
understand, it is at the heart of a lot of waste and extra activity that occurs in kitchens.
In our kitchen, moving away from par ordering and looking at ingredient consumption uncovered
a significant shortage of eggs in pastry relative to amounts ordered. A quick investigation
uncovered the 6 egg omelettes of a chef on the morning shift who was on a new diet and exercise
regimen. We never noticed while the par system was in effect.

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Paradigm Colleges of Science and Technology
Roxas, Oriental Mindoro
Tel. No. (043) 289-2827
Email Add. pcst.roxas@yahoo.com

Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

  Specials Driven: Chefs will look at the order list for the day and the current inventory
levels and the vendor driven specials and then guesstimate the things they think they
need. They’ll put in place some specials that use up the excess ingredients they have, so
that it those ingredients don’t spoil and go to waste. They’ll also leverage any vendor
specials or farmer’s market ingredients to drive some special dishes of the day. This
strategy often includes use of large wholesale quantities of items that can be obtained for
a unit price discount.
 Emergency Driven: Chefs will often realize that they’re out of a couple of ingredients
that they need right now…so someone will get sent to the local store to retrieve those
ingredients

 Just in Time: Chefs will calculate the ingredients required for the day’s prep and
finishing work and order so that those ingredients come in the right quantities to be
consumed by that day’s work. This strategy will be a focus later in this book, as it ties the
most closely with lean principles. It requires the most preparation and reliable supply
chain. Its benefits are that it most reduces the chances for waste and enables the shortest
cycle times/ highest capacity operations.

f. Receiving
The receiving step occurs when ordered ingredients are delivered to the kitchen. Ideally, the
received ingredients are:

 immediately checked for accuracy against the order;

 examined for required levels of quality;
 moved to the appropriate kitchen station for immediate use or to store in inventory.
 With any discrepancy, the supplier and the kitchen manager should both be notified, to
ensure that appropriate resolution occurs to solve the issue with the supplier as well as
enabling the kitchen manager as much time as possible to address the ingredient shortfall.

In kitchens where the order reconciliation isn’t a given, emergency shops or over inventory of
ingredients as buffer is the norm.

g. Storage
Storage areas hold a mix of food, equipment, and event supplies. While they can never be too
organized, a non-functioning organization spends a disproportionate amount of time buying
things they already have and running around looking for things.

In an effective kitchen, everything has its place and there is plenty of open space with
appropriate containers allocated to hold ingredients needed for upcoming jobs. Items are
arranged in a way that’s easy to see, easy to access (if commonly used), and easy to move.

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Tel. No. (043) 289-2827
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Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

If possible, storage is nearest to where the item will be used (location and height), to reduce the
distance traveled to reach it. Common storage areas include:

 Dry goods
 Walk-in refrigerators and freezers
 Under-counter or station refrigerators and freezers
 Equipment racks
 Under-table shelves
 Secured storage
 Warehouse storage
 Outdoor storage

h. Inventory
Keeping track of what’s in inventory in a fast moving food business is a major challenge. Issues
include:

 Perishable product/ spoilage

 Inconsistent physical space required for same product
 Lack of inventory controls
 Lack of systems to track items in use
 Shrinkage/ theft
Since it’s hard to track inventory in the computer, in many organizations spreadsheets, white
boards, and visual cues are used to keep a running count or approximate what’s in stock.

i. Maintenance/ Cleaning
A clean and well maintained kitchen is a key to passing health department requirements.
Working clean is often the sign of an experienced prep chef. Daily cleaning of stations, floors,
and restrooms is often a closing task. Regular interval deep cleans including drains, hoods, and
hoses.

While cleaning is embedded in most kitchens, maintenance also needs to be scheduled regularly
to ensure reliable equipment function.

In both cleaning and maintenance, the best kitchens assign these jobs to specific individuals and
make them accountable for following through. Simple things like job descriptions and initialled
checklists are often enough to do the trick.

j. Quality Control
Making sure the items that come out of the kitchen are up to specifications is the difference
between consistently good reviews and feedback that pings between great and angry.

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Tel. No. (043) 289-2827
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Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

In many kitchens, it’s up to a senior chef to review all food going out and make sure it’s up to
standard - taste, temperature, texture, look, smell. In better kitchens, there is often a strong
cultural understanding of what the requirement is for any item going out, so that anyone is able
to spot errors prior to food reaching the customer. In the best kitchens, errors are tracked and
underlying issues of common errors are addressed so that the error is subsequently eliminated.

2. Formats Dictate Kitchen Operations

Kitchen operations tend to be varied in how they work. While they all share a goal of getting
food to customers, the format and its related expectations can dramatically change the work
required and therefore the operational approach of the kitchen.

Quick Service (QSR): Food is generally ordered from a counter. Food types and quality may
vary dramatically, but the overall customer expectations center around speed.
Buffet/ Cafeteria: Food is generally prepared in larger batches and organized into stations. It may
be selected directly by the customer onto their plate or their selection is finished quickly in front
of them.

Casual Dining: Diners experience table-service and food is ordered off a mid-priced menu.
Generally, these restaurants have a fairly wide selection of items and moderately skilled chefs
are able to execute the food on the menu.

Fine Dining: Diners experience table-service and the expectations (and price point!) is
substantially higher than the casual dining restaurant. Many items are made from scratch and
significant chef skill may be required to execute the items on the menu.
Logistical additions to the above formats:

Delivery: Delivery format may be available for any of the service models above, with the added
complexity that the food must be packaged to survive the trip to its destination and arrive with
some level of quality attributed to the appropriate temperature, presentation, and
accompanyments.

Catering: Catering format may be available for any of the service models above, with the added
complexity of needing to prepare and setup food for a group of people in an outside location that
may or may not have facilities, kitchen equipment, or tableware required to execute the job. All
items sold must be designed with the requisite logistical complexities in mind.

Quick Service Restaurant (QSR)

Quick Service Restaurants include fast food and an emerging fast casual segment. The overall
structure of the operation is driven by customers ordering at the counter with a quick turnaround
of food.
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Paradigm Colleges of Science and Technology
Roxas, Oriental Mindoro
Tel. No. (043) 289-2827
Email Add. pcst.roxas@yahoo.com

Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

Operational Priority: QSR restaurants are driven by short wait times between an order being
placed and the customer receiving food, even under high volumes. To accomodate, menus are
often narrow, specialty equipment cuts preparation time, and stations are well stocked with pre-
prepared items where possible.

Pay Then Pickup model (e.g., Panera, McDonald’s)

 Food is ordered at a counter and inputted into a register or Point of Sale (POS) system
 Customer is given an order number and waits near the counter or at a table
 Ordering information is generated and communicated to the kitchen
 Kitchen often has multiple stations, which are routed the specific food type relevant to
the order
 Stations are set up to quickly finish and assemble the
 Single Line model (e.g., Subway, Chipotle)
 Initial order is given to the first person preparing food
 Food is passed down the assembly line and various elements are added per customer
request
 Final food preparer packages the food
 Order is rung up at a register
 Customer pays for and receives food

3. Buffet/ Cafeteria
Buffets and cafeterias are characterized by arranging food in stations, providing a wide variety of
different options, many arranged in a “self-serve” format.

4. Casual Dining
5. Fine Dining
A restaurant must service customers who order off the menu, and so the line charges with
adrenaline during peak hours as dishes are finished, orders are completed, and service takes the
finished product away…hopefully to bring back compliments and not a dish the customer turned
away.

6. Delivery
7. Catering
8. Common Economic Models

The measure of the restaurant kitchen is typically driven by the number of “covers” and the
average price of the ticket…as non-ingredient costs appear to be driven by a largely fixed
overhead, revenue is the focus of the kitchen after the recipes have been costed out.

THE 5 FUNDAMENTAL KITCHEN LAYOUTS

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The kitchen layout is the shape that is made by the arrangement of the countertop, major
appliances and storage areas. This floor plan creates the kitchen's work triangle - the path that
you make when moving from the refrigerator, to the sink, to the range to prepare a meal. When
designing your new kitchen and choosing the best cabinetry solutions for your home, one of the
first considerations is the overall layout of the kitchen.

There are five fundamental layouts for most kitchens - the G, L, U, single, and galley. While
certain floor plans create a more spacious, efficient kitchen, each kitchen layout can be enhanced
with the right cabinetry and decorative accents. Depending on the overall size of your kitchen, a
kitchen island can be added to many of these layouts to expand storage and create additional
counter space. The width of walkways between cabinetry and the island is important and your
kitchen designer will help determine if you have enough space to accommodate an island.
Kitchen islands can be created in all shapes and sizes and you are not limited to a standard square
or rectangular shape.

Review the five basic kitchen layouts to identify which is most similar to your current kitchen.
You and your kitchen designer may need to work within the space of your current kitchen, OR
you may decide to remove or reconfigure walls to expand the space which would give you
additional options for your kitchen layout. When looking at each layout, focus on the work
triangle created in the room - you may find a kitchen floor plan that you prefer over your own.
Keep in mind - even if you're not making significant structural changes to the kitchen, you can
still enhance the layout with the right cabinetry.

THE L-SHAPED KITCHEN:

L-Shaped Kitchen Layout Example Blueprint. Kitchen Design 101.

In an L-shaped kitchen layout, a natural work triangle is created from continuous counter space
and work stations on two adjacent walls. The benefit of this kitchen floor plan is that it not only
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Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

provides the cook with an efficient work area, but it typically opens to a nearby room, making it
easy for the cook to interact with guests.

THE U-SHAPED KITCHEN:

U-Shaped Kitchen Layout Example Blueprint. Kitchen Design 101.

The U-shaped kitchen design is the most versatile layout for kitchens large and small because the
layout offers continuous countertops and ample storage, which surround the cook on three sides.
In larger kitchens, this floor plan is spacious enough to be divided into multiple work stations for
cooks to easily prepare a meal together without getting in each other's way.

How to enhance the U-shaped kitchen layout:

To maximize storage and keep countertops clutter free, conceal the microwave in a base or wall
cabinet and store large cooking essentials in a corner lazy susan.

THE G-SHAPED KITCHEN:

G-Shaped Kitchen Layout Example Blueprint. Kitchen Design 101.

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The G-shaped kitchen layout is a version of the U-shaped kitchen layout, with the same amount
of counter space and storage options that surround the cook on three sides. However, the
difference with the G-shaped kitchen floor plan is the peninsula or partial fourth wall of
additional cabinets.

How to enhance the G-shaped kitchen layout:

Depending on the size of the kitchen, G-shaped kitchens can seem cramped. To make the room
feel more spacious, open up the wall in a nearby room and create a pass-through or breakfast bar
for the family.

THE SINGLE-WALL (OR STRAIGHT KITCHEN):

Single Wall or Straight Kitchen Layout. Kitchen Design Tips.

The single-wall kitchen floor plan is ideal for smaller homes. The work triangle in this kitchen
layout is less like a triangle and more of a work line with all three kitchen zones along one wall.

How to enhance the Single-wall kitchen:

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Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

Add additional storage and maximize the space by stacking cabinetry such as the wall pantry
pull-out above the base pantry pull-out.

THE GALLEY KITCHEN (OR CORRIDOR KITCHEN):

Kitchen design tips for the Corridor or Galley Kitchen Layout.

The galley kitchen layout has a workspace large enough for one cook. In this kitchen floor plan,
the work stations face each other on parallel walls, creating a small work triangle.

How to enhance the Galley kitchen:

Similar to the single-wall kitchen floor plan, stack storage solutions to maximize space. If
possible, add a pass-through or remove a wall to open the kitchen, but still allow for base
cabinetry and countertop space.

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Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

 Name: Date:
Course/Year: Score:

ACTIVITY 1:

I. Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the letter before the
number.

1. Which of the following sub section in the kitchen is the part of the kitchen that handles
the preparation of all hot items like stock, soup, sauces and main dishes?
a. Cold Kitchen
b. Hot Kitchen
c. Pastry Shop
d. Butchering Section
2. Why is a daily check of the temperature and humidity of the cold storage is essential?
a. To maintain the quality of cold/frozen items during storage
b. To avoid possible fraud and pilferages
c. To control the key from the storeroom
d. All of the foregoing
3. What is the temperature level for frozen food?
a. +6˚C to +8˚C
b. +4˚C to +6˚C
c. +1˚C to 3˚C
d. +18˚C to +25˚C
4. Which of the following is the duty and responsibility of the Executive Chef (Kitchen
Head)?
a. Checks processed items before they are dispatched
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Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

 b. Evaluates and supervises the performance of kitchen staff
c. Supervises the allocation and segregation of finished products
d. All of the foregoing
5. This sub section in the kitchen handles the preparation of bread, pastries and baked
products.
a. Butchering Section
b. Pastry Shop
c. Stewarding Section
d. Hot Kitchen
6. In this area, dry food stuffs are stored such as cereals, spices, herbs, tinned and bottled
food.
a. Daily Dry Storeroom
b. Cold Rooms
c. Still Room / Pantry
d. Wash – Up (Steward Section
7. This room must be located near the food production area.
a. Chefs Office
b. Cost Control / Warehouse Office
c. Garbage Area
d. Still Room / Pantry
8. He is responsible for overseeing butchering operations in the kitchen.
a. Chef de Partie (Head of a Kitchen Outlet or a Hot Kitchen
b. Chief Butcher
c. Cook Helper
d. Chief Steward
9. He is responsible for preparing mis- en place and check items needed in the daily
preparation.
a. Cook Helper
b. Commis 3 (Third Cook)
c. Senior Cook (Commis 1)
d. Steward Dishwasher
10. Which of the following is the responsibility of the food preparation department or
kitchen?
a. Set up and display of buffet and food counters
b. Preparation and submission of required reports
c. Production and presentation of quality foods using a tested recipe
d. All of the foregoing
11. What does an organized kitchen have to indicate the distribution of work duties and
assignments one week in advance?
a. Duty Roster
b. Executive Chef
c. Chef Officer
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 d. Chief Butcher
12. He is responsible for monitoring and directing all aspects of the kitchen operations from
menu planning, mis-en place requirements, actual production, set up food counters and
buffet and dispatching/distribution of finished products.
a. Chef de Partie
b. Chief Butcher
c. Sous Chef
d. Senior Cook
13. He is responsible for cleaning and maintaining walk-in and reach-in refrigerators and
freezer (inside and outside) as well as the proper maintenance of work area during
operations.
a. Chief Steward
b. Cook Helper
c. Chief Butcher
d. Second Cook
14. This is the one who headed the small restaurant.
a. Chef de Partie
b. Chief Cook
c. Executive Chef
d. Senior Sous Chef
15. This is the one who headed the large hotels.
a. Chief Cook
b. Executive Chef
c. Senior Sous Chef
d. Duty Roster

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 Lesson II: Kitchen Tools and Equipment
a. Kitchen Machines
b. Equipment, Tools and Their Uses
c. Baking Tools
d. Proper Use and Operation of Kitchen Tools/Equipment
e. Proper Cleaning of Kitchen Equipment

Below are some equipment and tools used for cooking.

A. For roasting, boiling and deep-fat frying equipment.

a. Bain Marie Heated by radiation, steam or hot water, thermostatically

controlled
b. Broiler High temperature broiler with its top eat coming from infrared,
gas or electric power
c. Deep fat fryer For deep fat frying. It is heated electrically or with gas, and
equipped with automatic control and fat filler
d. Fry pan A frying pan that is either fixed or of with tilting that is equipped
with automatic control
e. Griddle Has independent or built in units, thermostatically controlled hot
plates and drip pans for excess oil or fat
f. Grill Has bottom and top contact heat, direct or indirect infrared heat
g. Infrared Oven Used for baking and re-heating food
h. Microwave The energy generated is in form of short microwaves.
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 Oven Heat is not conducted from the heat source but developed inside
the food itself by electromagnetic field
i. Pizza Oven This oven is heated by electricity or by gas
j. Pressure For all pressure steam cooking methods
Cooker
Kitchen Tools
k. Roasting spit Thermostatically controlled equipment for spit roasting, has
horizontal spit with lateral heating
l. Steamer Used for all pressure steam methods, heating and preparation
m. Steam jacket This kettle is either fixed or tilting and is heated either by heat
kettle radiation, or direct or indirect steam heating
n. Toaster A conveyor type of toaster used for toasting bread rolls; heated
conveyor by electricity or gas
Chilling and Freezing Equipment
o. Blast freezer For fast freezing of raw products, prepared dishes and prepared
meals
p. Ice cream It is either in horizontal or vertical design; for continuous or
freezer batch production
q. Ice machine Used for making ice cube or cracked ice
r. Refrigerators Reach in or walk in
s. Storage freezer Reach in or walk in

Temperature Requirements for Walk-in Refrigerators/Freezer

1. Fruits and Vegetables 40°F to 45°F
2. Potatoes 45°F to 50°F
3. Meat 30°F to 35°F
4. Frozen items 5°F to 10°F
5. Beverage 45°F to 55°F
6. Milk 35°F to 40°F
7. Pastry product 40°F to 45°F
8. Short term cold 35°F to 40°F

B. Kitchen Machines
a. Blender For chopping fruits, vegetables and nuts, for whipping or
pureeing food, for mixing cocktails, for making dressings and
for emulsifying small quantities of sauces and creamer
b. Bread slice A semi- or full automatic machine with a revolving knife that
slices bread
c. Food chopper For preparing force meat, vegetable and fish force and meat
stuffing
d. Food mill For making soaps, purees and jam
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 e. Fruit/vegetable For making fruit and vegetable juices
press
f. Grinder For grinding meat and vegetables
g. Meat For chopping red meat, poultry, game or meat for tartar
chopper/slice
h. Meat saw For sawing frozen and dehydrated products
i. Meat tenderizer For tenderizing steak and cutlets
j. Mechanical For rolling all kinds of pastry dough pie crusts. Pasta, and for
pastry roller making crescent
k. Food mixer For mixing dough’s, filling, sauces and cheese
l. Scales A semi or fully mechanical or electrical portable or stationary
scale
m. Slicing machines For slicing meat, vegetables and cheese
n. Vegetable cutter For making uniform strips, sticks or cubes of vegetables, bread
or potatoes in various sizes and thickness
o. Vegetables/potato For peeling potatoes and vegetables
peeler

How to Use a Steamer: What Every Cook Should Know When Steaming Veggies
Steaming is a great way to cook your food without sacrificing the nutrient quality, or the taste. It
is also one of the simplest ways to prepare your veggies after a long day of work. Despite the
nutritional advantages of steamed vegetables, many home chefs are left wondering how to use a
food steamer in the everyday hustle-and-bustle of their lives.

The answer is simple: You boil some water and let the steam cook the food.

While it may sound pretty simple and self-explanatory, this style of cooking does take a bit of
patience and learning to master. You’ll make some mistakes and probably ruin a few dishes
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along the way, but don’t let this discourage you. As you learn to cook with steam, you’ll quickly
start to notice that your veggies taste better and the process will become easy.

To help get you started, let’s take a closer look at different types of food steamers, as well as
some of our favorite tips and tricks to help you learn how to steam your veggies like a pro.

Select Your Steamer: Electric vs. Stove-top

Before you learn how to use a food steamer, you must first have a general understanding of the
type of steamer you are using. Here is a quick summary of two food steamers that you will most
likely be using.

Steamer Basket:
A steamer basket is the most common way to steam vegetables. This simple houseware is
inserted directly into a pot or pan, and then used on the stove or in the microwave.

The concept is rather simple, you just add a little bit of water into the pot, place your veggies in
the basket and then close the lid to the pot. As you boil the water, the steam will stay contained
and cook your veggies.

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For vegetables, the overall cooking time will vary based on the type and amount you are
cooking. Typically, you’ll want the veggies to be soft enough that a fork can easily go through
them, but still have a bit of firmness to them. Soggy vegetables are a sign they’ve been cooked to
long.

Steaming meat is a little trickier. Fish should start to flake away at the thickest part when it is
done. Chicken should always be cooked all the way through the middle.

Electric Steamer:
An electric steamer follows the same concept as the steam basket, but it’s a standalone cooking
appliance that is designed to do the work for you, right there on your countertop.

You add the water and the vegetables you plan on steaming, close and lock the lid, and then
select the appropriate setting available on your appliance. That’s it.

Much like other small cooking appliances, there are many different types of steamers available
for you to choose from. Some food steamers feature multiple tiers that allow you to cook your
entire dinner all inside one appliance at the same time.

Others are smaller and will only cook one item. The most common example is an electric rice
cooker.

No matter what type you decide to use, all food steamers have their own set of pros and cons. It’s
always wise to read the reviews before you buy any appliance for your home.

6 Tips to Using a Steamer

Now that you know the type of steamer you’ll be using, here are some general tips to help you
learn how to use the steamer, as well as make the best tasting dishes possible.

Steamed Vegetables
1. Don’t Add Too Much Water
First things first, the most important component of steam cooking is the water. Of course, adding
the right amount of water is where the key lies.

When you are using a steam basket on the stove, you’ll want to start by adding about one or two
inches of water to the pot. You do not want the water to go above the steamer basket once it is
placed in the pot, as this is one of the fastest ways to ruin the meal.

However, you do not want to put too little water, as this could lead to you burning the pan if the
water boils up before you are done cooking your food.

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 2. Boil the Water First
As you start to learn how to steam vegetables, it is pretty common to want to just throw it all in
the pot at the same time and turn it on. However, you might find that the final dish is better when
you first bring the water to a boil, and then add your vegetables or other food items.

Once the water is boiling, simply add all your veggies, close the lid and allow the steaming
process to start. You may also want to experiment with turning the heat up or down while your
food is steaming.

3. Don’t Steam For Too Long

This is where it starts to gets tricky. One of the most difficult tasks that a home chef faces is to
get everything on the table at the same time while keeping everything hot and tasty.

Steam Cookbooks on Amazon

Steamed vegetables take just a few minutes to cook, so they make a great last item on the to-do
list. However, there are still times where you might find that your vegetables or other food have
completed steaming before you are ready for them.

If you find yourself in this scenario, simply turning off the steamer or heat source will not be
enough. Rather than leaving them in the pot where they will slowly continue to cook, becoming
soggy, place them in a bowl filled with ice water. This will help keep your veggies crisp.

4. Enhance the Steam By Using Stock & Herbs

Although the most common way to steam food is by using water, but don’t limit yourself to this.
Get creative. Infuse your food with a slightly different flavor.
Instead of using just plain ole water, try using chicken or vegetable broth. Perhaps add some salt
or lemon to the water before it starts to boil. If you feel extra adventurous, add some herbs to the
water, such as rosemary sprigs, sliced garlic, dill sprigs or lemongrass.

You will get a hint of flavor, but it will be less than if you used the herbs directly on the food.
Just keep in mind as you experiment, that these may change the amount of time it takes to get to
a boil, which might impact the overall cooking time.

5. Make Sure the Seal is Air-Tight

For your food to properly cook with a steamer, the steam must actually touch the food. If you
have a loose-fitting lid, then a small amount of the steam will escape and you’ll find it more
difficult to cook your food.

Steamed Broccoli
In the majority of instances, this may just be an inconvenience that lengthens the process or
slightly alter the way the food tastes. However, in more severe cases, such as if you’re cooking

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chicken, you might end up with under-cooked food. A meat thermometer is the best way to
prevent you from serving ill-prepared food.

If you’re using a steam basket on the stove, a loose fit will sometimes occur. When you see this,
try adding a tea towel between the top of the steamer and the lid. If your electric steamer has a
loose lid, then you should not use it at all.

6. Prepare the Food Before Steaming

Another way to create a delicious meal with steaming, is to prepare your food before you start
the cooking process.

For vegetables, you might wish to add some herbs, spices or garlic to the mix. Rather than just
sprinkling the herbs in the pot, roll the vegetables into a bowl that has some olive oil and herbs
mixed together. You can also sauté garlic and olive oil and add to the vegetables at the end.

You can also do the same when you cook fish or chicken. You may also want to consider
allowing your meat to marinate for a short period of time.

The Takeaway on Steam Cooking

Steaming is a simple way to cook, especially once you know how to use a food steamer. Like
any new appliance, it may take a little bit of experimenting to learn. But once you get the hang of
it, you’ll be able to whip up a flavorful bowl of veggies or a juicy chicken breast without
breaking a sweat, all while retaining the full nutrient profile of your food.

Steam Traps
A steam trap is a mechanical device that automatically traps steam in an enclosed space and
simultaneously allows condensate to be drained away. Many configurations of steam traps exist.
The type of trap recommended depends on the kettle configuration. The two main types of
kettles are fixed, gravity drained and tilting, siphon drained. The recommended trap for gravity-
drained kettles is the inverted bucket style with a large vent. The large vent allows excess air to
quickly escape. Alternate choices for the gravity-drained kettle are the float and thermostatic or
thermostatic style traps. Siphon-drained tanks are preferably trapped with a differential
condensate controller or an inverted bucket trap with a large vent. Steam traps should be sized
approximately two-to-three times larger than the estimated condensate flow to allow for a safety
factor.

Air Removal
Air is present in equipment and pipelines before steam is turned on. Air can continue to enter the
system with steam and mix with it. Stagnant air-steam mixtures tend to settle out in time, with air
dropping to the bottom of an enclosure. The presence of air will inhibit steam condensation and
reduce the effectiveness of a kettle. Air vents must be installed to remove trapped air. Air vents
on steam kettles should be located at a point farthest from the steam entry. Also, a steam trap
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with air venting capabilities is necessary. Each installation should be reviewed carefully to
determine where pockets of air would tend to collect with regard to gravity, steam flow and
equipment geometry.

Condensate Return
Heat transfer efficiency is improved if condensate is trapped and returned to the boiler as make-
up water or used to preheat boiler make-up water. Other uses for condensate may be possible,
depending upon the process requirements and the ingenuity of the designer. Many steam
equipment suppliers sell packaged condensate return systems. These systems can be purchased
and plumbed directly into a system. The choice of motive force used to return the condensate to
the boiler is important. Electric pumps or steam power are common. In the case of electric
pumps, electricity powers pumps that force condensate back to the boiler. For steam-powered
units, boiler steam is used to drive the condensate back to the boiler. Steam powered pumps are
often selected since fewer mechanical components are involved compared to electrically driven
pumps. However, if steam is in short supply, or relatively expensive, steam pumping may not be
the best choice.

Hookup
A typical, fixed, gravity-drained kettle hookup. A licensed, professional engineer with expertise
in steam utilization can properly design and specify a system or check your design. Some steam
equipment suppliers offer advice and diagrams for equipment hookup. An experienced steam
fitter or plumber should be contracted for installation. Some hookup tips follow:

 The team supply should be ample in size with the kettle inlet located high in the kettle
jacket.
 Slot the steam inlet pipe at the kettle entrance to promote steam flow around the entire
jacket area.
 Install traps close to the kettle.
 Never connect more than one kettle to the same trap to avoid short-circuits.
 Install unions and ball valves to facilitate installation and maintenance.
 Install filters and “dirt legs” to protect equipment from particles.
 Include one or more ball valves in the piping to facilitate system “blow-down” to a drain.
A blow-down valve is often installed on a strainer.

Safety
All installations should include a pressure relief valve at each pressure vessel (e.g. kettle jacket
and boiler). The setting on the pressure relief valve should be equal to or preferably less than the
labeled, maximum pressure rating for the vessel. Older equipment, or equipment with an
unknown history, should be pressure tested with air or water before connecting steam to
determine containment integrity. All steam lines and steam-heated equipment should be insulated
or guarded to protect operators from burn injuries.
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Conclusion
A well-installed steam kettle system will provide many hours of trouble-free operation, improve
product quality and increase process performance. When principles of steam heating are
understood and applied, installation is a straightforward matter that requires making the best and
safest use of available components.

Gas Grills

Someone once told me that her dad made it his goal to teach his kids how to turn on a gas grill. It
sort of went like this: “Turn the gas on from the propane tank.” Then he paused here, actually
pausing a long time in case she misunderstood. “Open the lid on the grill and punch that starter
button to ignite the flames.”

But learning how to use a gas grill isn't hard. Most gas grills are propane-tank equipped with a
button-type ignition switch. All you need to do is open the lid (before you do anything else), turn
on the gas at the propane tank, turn the burner knobs on, punch the switch and you're done. Most
come with temperature gauges on the lid that show you when the grill is hot and ready for
cooking.

Gas grills come in all shapes and sizes and some have side stove tops you can cook an entire
meal on. If you’re lucky enough to have one of these, while your chicken, pork or steaks are
grilling, you can heat up your homemade baked beans on the stove portion.

If you don’t have a side stove element, create veggie packets with aluminum foil, add some
butter or your favorite salad dressing and cook on the upper tray while meats cook on the bottom.

Charcoal Grills

Again, learning how to use a charcoal grill is fairly simple. That lighter fluid you throw on the
charcoal doesn’t mean the whole bottle! A few squeezes followed by a lit match is all you need.

Essentially, to use a charcoal grill all you need is a bag of charcoal, some lighter fluid and a
firestick to get it going. Most have covers to ensure heating temperatures are reached fast and
some even come with temperature gauges for no-brainer cooking.

A tip for the charcoal grill is allowing the coals to get hot enough to cook your steaks, burgers
and chicken. Putting food on too early risks overcooking – or it may dry out just from the smoke.

Those who swear by their charcoal grills often use wood chips like apple, cherry, smoke or
hickory to flavor up grilled meals. Veggies also cook nicely on charcoal grills, and the aluminum
foil pack idea ensures no burning.
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Electric Grills and Smokers

Electric grills and smokers are becoming more popular. You can use these much as you would
gas or charcoal grills and most of them (like gas grills) feature a thermometer so you know when
the grill is right for the cooking. Smokers work nicely for cooking entire meals.

All electric grills or smokers should have at least a 120-volt grounded plug so when you fire up
the grill, you won’t get shocked.

Electric grills come with electric heating elements under the cooking surface and are a snap to
plug in. Again, depending on the model you have, temperature gauges guide you. These are great
for condos or apartments where gas and charcoal grills are a no-no.
Smoker-type grills gain their heat from many sources, depending on the type you buy. Some are
of the charcoal type, there are electric ones and even those where wood chips are added for slow-
cook smoking that makes meat fork-tender.

No matter what type of grill you have, remember to keep the grill’s cooking surface clean with a
wire brush, use no-stick cooking sprays before you heat the grill, and keep all utensils clean.

The Benefits of Owning a Tilting Skillet

Tilting skillets are used to cook a large quantity of food including scrambled eggs, braised
meats, soups, stews, pasta dishes and more. You can use a tilting skillet for a variety of purposes
including: grilling, frying, simmering, and braising. Many chefs refer to a tilting skillet as a
braising pan and use it for braising meats. Tilting skillets are popular among schools, hotels,
hospitals, and governmental organizations for their ability to evenly cook and hold a large
amount food in a short period of time.

Tilting skillets are typically identified based on their gallon size and have a capacity between 10-
60 gallons. The 30-40 gallon model is the most popular capacity bought by customers.

Features
 Large capacity allows for preparation of large amounts of food
 Easy to clean and maintain
 Reduces cooking time by more than 20%
 Maintains flavor and nutrients
 Tilt design allows for more convenient transfer of foods to serving pans and storage
containers
*Please Note: A water filtration system should be bought to ensure you are preparing food with
clean steam water.

Benefits of using a Tilting Skillet

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Size, Capacity, and Footprint
Due to continued evolutions in design, the footprint of tilting skillets have significantly reduced
over the years. A typical 30 gallon skillet is 33” wide x 33” front to back x 33” tall.

Energy Source
Tilting skillets are manufactured in gas and electric models

Temperature Range
Tilting skillet temperatures can range between 100-450 °F

Construction
The majority of tilting skillets are constructed for heavy use and made with a stainless steel
interior and exterior. Tilting skillets are usually built with a condensate vent and a box-shaped
braising pan, with a hinged cover. They are most often supported by a stainless steel open leg
frame base.

Maintenance
 Allow the unit to cool down
 Scrub out the interior surface with a brush and cleaning detergent solution.
 Place a bucket near the skillet
 Tilt the skillet to drain the cleaning solution.
 Rinse, dry, and wipe down the interior and exterior surfaces.

No matter what the size, all meat slicers work on the same principles. You attach food to a
sliding tray and then pass the tray over a rotating razor blade, cutting a thin slice from the bulk of
the food. Meat slicers can be dangerous, as you are working with a large rotating blade, but they
are not difficult to learn to operate. With the proper precautions and techniques, you can operate
a meat slicer safely and effectively.

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  Wash your hands thoroughly and dry them on a paper towel. Put on a pair of plastic
gloves to keep the food sanitary.

 Lift up the clamp arm and swing it away from the surface of the slicer. Place the bulk
meat onto the carriage and swing the clamp arm back over the surface and down onto the
meat. This will hold the chunk of meat in place on the carriage surface.

 Turn the adjuster knob to choose the desired thickness of your meat slice. Place a piece of
wax paper or deli tissue on the bottom of the slicer to receive your sliced meat.

 Turn the switch to the "On" position. Push the handle on the carriage to move the bulk
meat over the rotating blade. Cut one sample slice and check for the desired thickness.
Adjust the dial if your sample slice is too thick or too thin.

 Push the carriage back and forth over the blade with your right hand, using your left hand
to help keep the falling slices of meat on the paper.

 Turn off the slicer when you have cut enough slices. Wrap the leftover bulk meat with
plastic wrap and store it in the refrigerator. Store your sliced meat in a cool place.

 Wipe down the entire slicer, including the carriage, bottom level and blade, carefully and
thoroughly. Turn the dial to adjust the blade to a "0" thickness to prevent accidental cuts
to the next user.

Threshing machines and now combines have taken the place of removing chaff by hand in the
US. Chaff is the inedible stalks, leaves and seed casings found on grain plants such as wheat,
corn and soybeans. Before the invention of the threshing machine, people separated grain from
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chaff by trampling or beating harvested plants. Modern machinery uses similar techniques that
shake chaff from the grain, allowing the weight of the seeds to collect at the bottom and fall
through a metal mesh separator.

 Place a tarp on the ground or a hard surface. Lay your harvested wheat on top of the tarp.

 Beat the stalks with a shovel or stick. Thrashing and flailing the stalks helps release the
grains from their seed casings

 Lift the tarp off the ground and carefully shake it until the grains collect at the bottom.

 Sweep the large pieces of chaff off the grain and allow the wind to blow the lighter pieces
away.

 Pull the sides of the tarp upward to make a funnel for the grain. Hold the tarp about 2 feet
above the bucket and slowly pour the grain. The weight of the grain will help it land
directly into the bucket while excess chaff will blow away. Repeat this step until all the
chaff has been separated.

Food choppers are designed to do exactly as their name suggests—chop food so that you don't
have to. If you're making a dish that requires lots of chopping, such as salsa, chutney, or soup,
then a chopper can make quick work of these ingredients, leaving you with more free time. Food
choppers are also handy for slicing up hard-to-chop ingredients like nuts, herbs, and cooked
meat.

Whether electric or manual, a food chopper can cut your food preparation time and help you get
to the serving stage sooner. Options range from hand-slap, spring-blade choppers to fancy
electric models.

Types of Food Choppers

There are a number of different types of food choppers to suit your needs and budget. They all fit
into two categories:

Manual: Manual food choppers are powered by you rather than electricity. They tend to be more
affordable than electric models and don't require plugging in. Basic models often to use a hand-
slap design that requires the user to press, or slap, on a top mechanism to force the spring blades
down.

Other manual models use turning mechanisms, lever press, or a pull-cord similar to a
lawnmower. The most basic models are simply a serrated metal ring with a handle attached.
Choose the chopper that is most comfortable for you ergonomically.

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Electric: Electric food choppers work similarly to a food processor, but are much smaller in size
and more specialized in their functionality. These models use electricity to spin the central blade
and chop food—all you have to do is push a button. Electric choppers tend to be more expensive
than manual choppers, with their price ranging depending on the brand and model.

Using a Food Chopper

Since food choppers are small, you often have to downsize vegetable portions accordingly before
chopping. Larger veggies like onions should be cut into quarters for best results before chopping.

Food choppers come in different styles and sizes, but they all have a similar function—to chop,
coarse or fine. For a coarser chop for dishes like stews, chop or pulse for a short amount of time.
To get finely chopped results, you need to pulse or process longer.

Food choppers can be used anytime a recipe calls for chopped, diced, or minced ingredients.
However, you should always read the manual first to avoid inserting any foods that are not
recommended with your unit. Foods that are too hard can damage or bend the blades in your
chopper.

Common Uses
Food choppers are a handy device when you want to cut down on using a knife and shorten your
prep. Some common uses for a food chopper include:

 Chopping onions, celery, garlic, and carrots for soups, stews, and other dishes
 Dicing fresh herbs for sauces and dips
 Making salsas, condiments, and dressings
 Chopping nuts for baking or garnish
 Making breadcrumbs or cracker crumbs

Cleaning and Maintenance

It's important to read the manual for your specific food chopper and follow the guidelines for
maintenance. Choppers tend to be easiest to clean right after use, and most are at least partly
dishwasher safe. Make sure the unit is completely dry before putting away to resist any rust.

How to Use a Conventional Oven

Hunker may earn compensation through affiliate links in this story.

Many homeowners have ovens, but a majority may not realize that there are two types of ovens:
conventional and convection.

Though the two are nearly indistinguishable, they do differ on one defining feature. Convection
ovens contain an additional fan and exhaust system that blows heated air through the entire space
while your food cooks. In fact, this feature can be switched on and off, so a convection oven
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could, technically, be used as a conventional oven. And if you're wondering why one would get a
convection oven over a conventional oven, it all comes down to a more even distribution of heat
and faster cook time. But convection ovens can dry out food and cook the outside before the
inside is finished rising. You can avoid this by using a conventional oven and knowing how to
use it properly.

Setting a timer on the microwave oven

How to Use a Conventional Oven

When to Use a Conventional Oven

Certain recipes should only be baked in a conventional oven. Those recipes include anything
delicate that can be blown about the oven with a convection fan, such as cakes, flans, custards
and soufflés.

Preheating
Cooking times are based on a preheated oven, so preheating is essential before the food goes in
to cook. Most ovens will beep once they've reached their desired temperature, signaling that it's
okay to put the food inside and start the timer.

The Difference Between Bake and Broil

Baking is used to cook foods, such as chicken, potatoes, fish, cookies and cakes. It cooks your
food from the outside in, and you can check if your food is done baking by examining internal
temperatures with an oven thermometer. Make sure to keep the oven door closed while your food
is baking, as opening the door may extend cooking time.

Broiling, on the other hand, cooks foods, such as steaks, hamburgers and chicken breasts, under
direct heat and can be done on an outdoor grill. Some ovens require the door to be closed for the
broiler to work, others require it be open. Take heed of where you position your racks – if they're
positioned too close to the broiler, your food may get burned. Also, make sure you're using a safe
baking dish. Pyrex dishes, for example, are not broiler safe.
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Warming Drawer
A warming drawer keeps your food warm, and is great if you're having a party and waiting for
your guests to arrive. The oven remains at a warm temperature, keeping your meal hot and
delicious.

A bain marie (ban mah-REE) is the fancy term for a hot water bath. It’s used for cooking
delicate foods like custards and terrines to create a gentle and uniform heat around the food.
Here’s how!

 Find a baking dish with high sides that will hold all your individual custards (or other
dish being baked). We usually use a roasting pan or casserole dish. A broiler pan could
work in a pinch, but avoid a dutch oven – the sides of a dutch ovens hold too much heat
for this kind of cooking and could over-cook your food.

 Line this dish with a clean kitchen towel. This keeps the ramekins from slipping once you
pour in the water. Fill the ramekins with whatever you’re baking and nestle them inside
the baking dish.

 Bring a large pot of water to boil and then pour the water into the larger baking dish and
around the ramekins. Avoid splashing water into your nicely filled custards! The water
should come about halfway up the sides of the ramekins. If you don’t have quite enough
water, you can just add hot tap water instead of boiling another batch.

We find it easiest to do this last step with the dish in the oven already. By pulling out the oven
rack and filling the dish with water right there, we avoid the danger of splashing hot water into
the custards (or on ourselves!) when transferring the dish to the oven.

Check the bain marie frequently while your dish is cooking. The water should be at a barely
discernible simmer. If the water is boiling, the oven is too hot and you should reduce the oven
temperature. If the water evaporates before the custards are done cooking, add more hot tap
water.

The water will create a barrier between the food and the direct heat of the oven, helping the
custard cook slowly and evenly. This is the key to getting a creamy custard without rubbery
edges or a dry surface!

Why and how to use a blast chiller?

Blast chiller for trays
These regulations aim to control microbiological dangers during the cooling down food
temperatures after cooking. Most of the pathogenic bacteria are killed at a temperature of + 63 °
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C and they are blocked at a temperature lower than + 10 ° C. The critical range is between + 10 °
C and + 63 ° C when bacterial multiplication and environmental contamination, including from
equipment and staff is present. Therefore it is important that this temperature range passes
through quickly to minimize microbial growth.

Blast chilling of foods must be performed in a way that the core temperature does not remain
between + 63 ° C and + 10 ° C values for more than two hours. An exception is possible (Article
5) if the risk analysis shows that a lower blast chilling time is still sufficient to ensure food
safety. After cooling down, these foods must be stored in a chamber in which the temperature
value is between 0 ° C and + 3 ° C.

Art. 22 – The regeneration temperature of food preparation to serving hot must be performed in a
way that the temperature does not remain for more than one hour between the value + 10 ° C and
the consumer service temperature. In any case, this temperature cannot be lower than + 63 ° C.
An exception is possible (Article 5) if the risk analysis shows that a lower temperature does not
present a risk to consumer health. These culinary preparations must be eaten on the same day
they were reheated for the first time."

WHAT DISHES TYPES MUST TREATED BY FAST COOLING?

 Dishes which are cooked by the Cook and Chill process (e quiches, lasagna, meat,
vegetables ...)
 Desserts / pastries that require cooling (eg creams desserts, pies, cakes, puddings ...)
 Dishes using hot preparations which are processed in Cook & Serve
In general, all meat preparations, unprocessed in Cook & Serve, have to process a blast chilling
process.

BLAST CHILLING RULES TO FOLLOW

 Complete the blast chilling tracking sheet before cooling
 If necessary, transfer immediately after cooking all hot dishes in Gastro containers or
fitted plates.
 Place the plates or GN containers on the blast chiller
 Close the door
 Set a fast cooling cycle (time or temperature to reach)
 Check the core temperature with a core probe. If the heart temperature set point is
reached, stop cooling.
 Complete the blast chilling tracking sheet. If the temperature and time parameters are
correct, immediately store preparations in positive cold room / storage system at + 3 ° C
maximum (DLC D+ 3). Remember to indicate production date and to cover with film if
possible.

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Note: Like all appliances in the kitchen, the blast chiller should be cleaned / disinfected before
and after use. Maintenance operations must be performed regularly to increase its lifespan and
ensure its effectiveness.

CAUTION
 The cooling time transition from + 63 ° C to + 10 ° C must be less than 120mn. No
difference is allowed. It is not an obligation but this does provide the best results.
 Do not let the core temperature of the food product wait for the blast chilling to fall
below 63 ° C.
 Avoid too many thick layers of the food product to facilitate the cold penetration.
 Do not substitute a blast chiller by a cold chamber because heat and steam will impact the
quality of other foods contained inside.

How Your Walk In Freezer Works

Understanding your walk in freezer will save you money and frustration. Many refrigeration
problems are caused by not understanding the operation of commercial refrigeration equipment.
The basic cycle of cooling and warming is the same as with a walk in cooler. The walk in
freezer in this example comes on at 0 degrees Fahrenheit and runs until the box pulls down to -5
degrees.

Then the condensing unit turns off. The air in walk-in warms from door opening, heat gain
through the walls and the product. When the temperature reaches 0 degrees, the condensing unit
comes on again to repeat the cycle.

The evaporator fan runs during the cooling and warming phases described above. The fans do
not run if the box is too warm or the unit is in defrost.

The Big Difference between Coolers and Freezers

The air in a cooler is warm enough to defrost the evaporator during the off cycle. If the air
temperature in the box is below 35 degrees, a timer needs to be used to insure adequate defrost.
The condenser is cut off and the evaporator fans continue to run. In a freezer the air is too cold to
defrost the evaporator. A defrost clock cuts the condenser off and cuts on electric heaters. Some
units use hot gas to defrost the coil.

The evaporator fans are off during the defrost cycle. After the defrost cycle ends the fans are
delayed until the evaporator coil has cooled down. This prevents the water from the melted frost
from being blown into the walk in freezer.

If the thermostat on a cooler is turned too low, the evaporator will freeze. The heaters on a
freezer prevent this from happening to freezer.

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What You Need To Know About Your Walk In Freezer

The air in the box may warm during defrost, especially if there is not much product in the
freezer. The product temperature should not rise. If the box is warm and the evaporator fans are
off, check to see if the product is still frozen solid. Then give the defrost cycle enough time to
end. If the unit does not start cooling, something is really wrong.

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ACTIVITY 2:
I. Picture Identification: Look at the picture and identify what kitchen tools are the
following

1. ___________________

2. ____________________

3. ____________________

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 4. _________________

5. ____________________

6. _______________________

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 7. _________________

8. ___________________

9. ___________________

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 10. ________________

11. __________________

12. _________________

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 13. _____________

14. ____________________

II. Usage. Identify the uses of the following tools and equipment
1. Food mixer –
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

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 2. Griddle –
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. Steamer –
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4. Meat saw –
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

5. Food mill –
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

III. True or False. Write T before the number if the statement is correct, then F if it is
incorrect.
1. All machines must be switched off during cleaning.
2. A Bain marie, like other equipment should not be washed with soap.
3. It is alright to heat cup of coffee in a microwave oven.
4. Racks in the refrigerator should not be removed when the equipment is being
cleaned inside.
5. In steaming with a steamer, it is important to vent the steam away from you.
6. The whole mixer can be filled with food to the rim when mixing.
7. Fir a griddle, use a thermostatically controlled hot plate with drips pan for excess
oil.
8. Baking oven should be pre-heated at 250-340˚F for at least 15 minutes.
9. A griller should be pre-heated to no less than 400˚F.
10. Gloves used for broiling should be at elbow length.

IV. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the letter before the
number.
1. A broiler should be pre-heated before broiling food by at least
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 a. 15 minutes
b. 30 minutes
c. One hour
d. Two hours
2. Broiled at well done is at least
a. 1-2 inches from heat
b. 4 inches from heat
c. 3 inches from heat
d. 5 inches from heat
3. Food chopper should be filled by a bowl of no more than ___________ before switching.
a. ½ full
b. 1/3 full
c. ¾ full
d. None of the foregoing
4. Place pans in conventional oven
a. As close as possible
b. At least 2 inches away
c. 3 inches away
d. 5 inches away
5. The safest apron to use during grilling and other cooking is
a. Plastic apron
b. Cloth apron
c. Cartoon apron
d. No apron
6. Fats used for deep fat frying must be heated by
a. No more than 400˚F
b. No more than 450˚F
c. Less than 400˚F
d. None of the foregoing
7. After frying, it is advisable to place food
a. In a plate
b. In an absorbent paper
c. In the frying pan
8. Infrared oven is pre-heated at
a. 345˚F
b. 300˚F
c. 400˚F
d. 500˚F
9. Steam pressure in a pressure cooker is
a. 10 psi
b. 8 psi
c. 7 psi
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 d. 6 psi
10. Temperature of frozen items should be
a. Less than 5˚F
b. 1-5˚F
c. 5-10˚F
d. 1—15˚F

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 Lesson III: Sanitation and Safety in Culinary Operations
a. Definition and Importance of Sanitation and Food Safety
b. Bacteria and How They Multiply
c. Causes of Food Poisoning and Food Borne Diseases
d. HACCP Analysis and Control
e. Food Safety Standards
f. Quality Standards for Perishable Items
g. Meat Inspection and Grading
h. Food Safety in the Storage of Food
i. How long Can Foods be Stored
j. Food Safety in Food Preparation
k. Reheating Foods
l. Thawing Foods
m. Food Safety in Serving Food
n. Time Control – Keeping Foods Out of the Danger Zone
o. Sanitation Maintenance Concerning Utensils/Equipment
p. Protection Against Chemical/Physical Hazards
q. Prevention of Cross Contamination
r. The Safe Food Handler – Personal Hygiene
s. Proper Hand Washing
t. Safety and Accident Prevention

Sanitation refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe management of human
excreta from the toilet to containment and storage and treatment onsite or conveyance, treatment
and eventual safe end use or disposal. More broadly sanitation also included the safe
management of solid waste and animal waste. Inadequate sanitation is a major cause of
infectious diseases such as cholera, typhoid and dysentery world-wide. It also contributes to
stunting and impaired cognitive function and impacts on well-being through school attendance,
anxiety and safety with lifelong consequences, especially for women and girls. Improving
sanitation in households, health facilities and schools underpins progress on a wide range of
health and economic development issues including universal health coverage and combatting
antimicrobial resistance.

Bacteria and how they multiply

In this second issue about microbiology, we’re going to focus on bacteria and how they multiply.
We’ll first look at a bacteria cell and explain the various parts then the various shapes and

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multiplication process. We’ll also explain about something you may have heard of – gram
positive and gram negative.
Bacteria
A bacteria, when we’re talking about just one – is called a bacterium. A bacterium is made up of
just one single cell. Here is an example of what the single cell bacterium looks like:

On the outside of the cell are fimbriae. The bacteria use these to attach themselves to other
bacteria or surfaces.
As you can see in this example, this bacterium also has three long strands called flagella. The
bacteria use these flagella to give them motion, to help them ‘swim along’ if you like.
The bacterium cell is contained by a cell wall. The cell wall is protected by a capsule layer and
inside the cell well there is a flexible membrane called the plasma membrane.
The inside of the cell is made up of cytoplasm, ribosomes and DNA. These elements make up
the ‘machine’ of the bacterium cell. Allowing it to produce energy and also to multiply.
The different bacteria shapes…
There are many shapes of bacteria, as you can see from the picture below.

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Bacteria are asexual. This means that they are not like us, as they do not need a partner to
multiply. A bacterium can become two bacteria all by itself. Then those two bacteria can each
multiply again on their own and so, they become four bacteria.

The process that the bacteria use to multiply, is called binary fission. Binary fission literally
means, splitting in half. Let’s walk through the process, step-by-step.

STEP 1

The bacterium starts as just one cell.

STEP 2

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In order to become 2 cells, the bacterium starts to replicate all of the internal parts of the cell –
the mechanics of the cells that we talked about earlier, the cytoplasm, ribosomes and DNA. As it
does this the size of the cell gets bigger, so it also makes extra cell wall, capsule layer and more
of the plasma membrane – you can see in this picture as the cell gets bigger it starts to separate as
it starts to look more like 2 cells stuck together.

STEP 3

With all the internal parts of the cell complete, the internal parts of the cells divide completely.
The cell now just has to complete the production of the outer elements.

STEP 4

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And when this is complete, the bacteria divide completely. One has now become two.

So how long does this take?

The speed at which a bacterium can divide, is a really key point for us when we are trying to
manage food safety. There are many factors which affect the speed at which a bacterium can
divide. And it is these factors that we use to our advantage to stop them from dividing and
growing to unsafe levels.

In the right conditions, a pathogenic (remember pathogens are the baddies) bacterium can divide
every 10 to 20 minutes. This means if you start off with 1 bacterium, even with a multiplication
time of 20 minutes, after 4 hours you would have over 8,000 bacteria.

FOOD-MOISTURE-TIME-TEMPERATURE-OXYGEN
All bacteria need is food and moisture to survive. Time; we know is needed, to allow them to
multiply. The temperature has to be right for the specific type of bacteria, but most like
temperatures within what we call the ‘danger zone’.

The danger zone is between 8°C and 63°C. Colder than 8°C growth is slowed right down.
Hotter than 63°C growth also slows and bacteria start to die off.
Oxygen is an interesting one – because some bacteria need oxygen to grow and others like to
grow where there is no oxygen. Again, we’ll go into this in more detail when we look at
preservation hurdles and product intrinsic.

Gram positive or gram negative?

You may have heard people talking about whether bacteria are gram positive or negative.
Personally, I wouldn’t worry about this too much, it’s above and beyond what we need to know
to manage food safety effectively.
But just in case someone is talking about it and you don’t want to feel like you don’t know what
they’re on about – here are the basics.

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There once was a man called Hans Christian Gram, who invented a staining technique – so he
called it Gram staining after himself.

The staining technique will stain gram positive bacteria violet. Gram negative bacteria do not
pick up the stain, hence why they’re ‘negative’.

There are lots of reasons why the gram positive bacteria stain violet and gram negative bacteria
don’t, but we don’t need to know that level of detail. The most important thing that you need to
remember is that you can get both gram negative pathogenic bacteria (e.g. Salmonella) and gram
positive pathogenic bacteria (e.g. Listeria).

Bacterial Food Poisoning

Food borne illness is an ever-present threat that can be prevented with proper care and handling
of food products. It is estimated that between 24 and 81 million cases of food borne diarrhea
disease occur each year in the United States, costing between $5 billion and $17 billion in
medical care and lost productivity.

Chemicals, heavy metals, parasites, fungi, viruses and bacteria can cause food borne illness.
Bacteria related food poisoning is the most common, but fewer than 20 of the many thousands of
different bacteria actually are the culprits. More than 90 percent of the cases of food poisoning
each year are caused by Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella, Clostridium perfringens,
Campylobacter, Listeria monocytogenes, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Bacillus cereus, and Entero-
pathogenic Escherichia coli. These bacteria are commonly found on many raw foods. Normally a
large number of food-poisoning bacteria must be present to cause illness. Therefore, illness can
be prevented by (1) controlling the initial number of bacteria present, (2) preventing the small
number from growing, (3) destroying the bacteria by proper cooking and (4) avoiding re-
contamination.

Poor personal hygiene, improper cleaning of storage and preparation areas and unclean
utensils cause contamination of raw and cooked foods. Mishandling of raw and cooked foods
allows bacteria to grow. The temperature range in which most bacteria grow is between 40
degrees F (5 degrees C) and 140 degrees F (60 degrees C). Raw and cooked foods should not be
kept in this danger zone any longer than absolutely necessary. Undercooking or improper
processing of home-canned foods can cause very serious food poisoning.

Since food-poisoning bacteria are often present on many foods, knowing the characteristics of
such bacteria is essential to an effective control program.

Staphylococcus aureus

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Man's respiratory passages, skin and superficial wounds are common sources of S. aureus. When
S. aureus is allowed to grow in foods, it can produce a toxin that causes illness. Although
cooking destroys the bacteria, the toxin produced is heat stable and may not be destroyed.
Staphylococcal food poisoning occurs most often in foods that require hand preparation, such as
potato salad, ham salad and sandwich spreads. Sometimes these types of foods are left at room
temperature for long periods of time, allowing the bacteria to grow and produce toxin. Good
personal hygiene while handling foods will help keep S. aureus out of foods, and refrigeration of
raw and cooked foods will prevent the growth of these bacteria if any are present.

Salmonella

The gastrointestinal tracts of animals and man are common sources of Salmonella. High protein
foods such as meat, poultry, fish and eggs are most commonly associated with Salmonella.
However, any food that becomes contaminated and is then held at improper temperatures can
cause salmonellosis. Salmonella are destroyed at cooking temperatures above 150 degrees F. The
major causes of salmonellosis are contamination of cooked foods and insufficient cooking.
contamination of cooked foods occurs from contact with surfaces or utensils that were not
properly washed after use with raw products. If Salmonella is present on raw or cooked foods, its
growth can be controlled by refrigeration below 40 degrees F.

Clostridium perfringens

C. perfringens is found in soil, dust and the gastrointestinal tracts of animals and man. When
food containing a large number of C. perfringens is consumed, the bacteria produce a toxin in the
intestinal tract that causes illness. C. perfringens can exist as a heat-resistant spore, so it may
survive cooking and grow to large numbers if the cooked food is held between 40 degrees F and
140 degrees F for an extensive time period. Meat and poultry dishes, sauces and gravies are the
foods most frequently involved. Hot foods should be served immediately or held above 140
degrees F. When refrigerating large volumes of gravies, meat dishes, etc., divide them into small
portions so they will cool rapidly. The food should be reheated to 165°F. prior to serving.

Clostridium botulinum

Botulism accounts for fewer than one of every 400 cases of food poisoning in the U.S., but two
factors make it very important. First, it has caused death in approximately 30 percent of the
cases; and secondly, it occurs mostly in home-canned foods. In 1975, for example, 18 or 19
confirmed cases of botulism were caused by home-processed foods, and the other was caused by
a commercial product that was mishandled in the home. Cl. botulinum can exist as a heat-
resistant spore, and can grow and produce a neurotoxin in under processed, home-canned foods.
An affected food may show signs of spoilage such as a bulging can or an off-odor. This is not
true in all cases, so canned foods should not be tasted before heating. The botulinum toxin is
destroyed by boiling the food for 10 minutes.
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Vibrio parahaemolyticus

V. parahaemolyticus is found on seafoods, and requires the salt environment of sea water for
growth. V. parahaemolyticus is very sensitive to cold and heat. Proper storage of perishable
seafoods below 40 degrees F, and subsequent cooking and holding above 140 degrees F, will
destroy all the V. parahaemolyticus on seafoods. Food poisoning caused by this bacterium is a
result of insufficient cooking and/or contamination of the cooked product by a raw product,
followed by improper storage temperature. It is a major problem in Japan where many seafoods
are consumed raw. Vibrio vulnificus is another member of the vibrio genus that is found in the
marine environment. V. vulnificus is truly an emerging pathogen, but it can be controlled with
proper cooking and refrigeration.

Bacillus cereus

B. cereus is found in dust, soil and spices. It can survive normal cooking as a heat-resistant
spore, and then produce a large number of cells if the storage temperature is incorrect. Starchy
foods such as rice, macaroni and potato dishes are most often involved. The spores may be
present on raw foods, and their ability to survive high cooking temperatures requires that cooked
foods be served hot or cooled rapidly to prevent the growth of this bacteria.

Listeria

Before the 1980's most problems associated with disease caused by Listeria were related to cattle
or sheep. This changed with food related outbreaks in Nova Scotia, Massachusetts, California
and Texas. As a result of its widespread distribution in the environment, its ability to survive
long periods of time under adverse conditions, and its ability to grow at refrigeration
temperatures, Listeria is now recognized as an important food-borne pathogen.

Immunocompromised humans such as pregnant women or the elderly are highly susceptible to
virulent Listeria. Listeria monocytogenes is the most consistently pathogenic species causing
listeriosis. In humans, ingestion of the bacteria may be marked by a flu-like illness or symptoms
may be so mild that they go unnoticed. A carrier state can develop. Death is rare in healthy
adults; however, the mortality rate may approximate 30 percent in the immune compromised,
new born or very young.

As mentioned earlier Listeria monocytogenes is a special problem since it can survive adverse
conditions. It can grow in a pH range of 5.0-9.5 in good growth medium. The organism has
survived the pH 5 environment of cottage cheese and ripening cheddar. It is salt tolerant
surviving concentrations as high as 30.5 percent for 100 days at 39.2 degrees F, but only 5 days
if held at 98.6 degrees F.

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The key point is that refrigeration temperatures do not stop growth of Listeria. It is capable of
doubling in numbers every 1.5 days at 39.5 degrees F. Since high heat, greater than 170 degrees
F, will inactivate the Listeria organisms, post-process contamination from environmental sources
then becomes a critical control point for many foods. Since Listeria will grow slowly at
refrigeration temperatures, product rotation becomes even more important.

Yersinia enterocolitica

Even though Yersinia enterocolitica is not a frequent cause of human infection in the U.S., it is
often involved in illness with very severe symptoms. Yersiniosis, infection caused by this
microorganism, occurs most commonly in the form of gastroenteritis. Children are most severely
affected. Symptoms of pseudoappendicitis has resulted in many unnecessary appendectomies.
Death is rare and recovery is generally complete in 1-2 days. Arthritis has been identified as an
infrequent but significant sequel of this infection.

Y. enterocolitica is commonly present in foods but with the exception of pork, most isolates do
not cause disease. Like Listeria this organism is also one that can grow at refrigeration
temperatures. It is sensitive to heat (5%) and acidity (pH 4.6), and will normally be inactivated
by environmental conditions that will kill Salmonellae.

Campylobacter jejuni

C. jejuni was first isolated from human diarrhea stools in 1971. Since then it has continually
gained recognition as a disease causing organism in humans.

C. jejuni enteritis is primarily transferred from animal origin foods to humans in developed
countries. However, fecal contamination of food and water and contact with sick people or
animals, predominates in developing countries.

Although milk has been most frequently identified throughout the world to be a vehicle for
Campylobacter, one anticipates that future investigations will identify poultry and its products
and meats (beef, pork, and lamb) as major reservoirs and vehicles.

C. jejuni dies off rapidly at ambient temperature and atmosphere, and grows poorly in food.

The principles of animal science will play a significant role in the control of this ubiquitous
organism. Hygienic slaughter and processing procedures will preclude cross-contamination while
adequate cooling and aeration will cause a decrease in the microbial load. In addition, thorough
cooking of meat and poultry products followed by proper storage should assist in maintaining
food integrity and less contamination.

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli

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Enteropathoginec E. coli is a significant cause of diarrhea in developing countries and localities
of poor sanitation. In the U.S. it has been associated with "travelers' diarrhea." However the
latest outbreak in North America occurred in a nursing home in Ontario. This was a severe
outbreak of E. coli0157:H7 associated hemorrhagic colitis.

There are at least four subgroups of enteropathogenic E. coli: enterotoxigenic, enterinvasive,

hemorrhagic, and enteropathogenic. Each strain has different characteristics.

The major source of the bacteria in the environment is probably the feces of infected humans, but
there may also be animal reservoirs. Feces and untreated water are the most likely sources for
contamination of food.

Control of enteropathogenic E. coli and other food-borne pathogens such as Salmonella and
Staphylococcus aureus can be achieved. Precautions should include adequate cooking and
avoidance of recontamination of cooked meat by contaminated equipment, water or infected
food handlers. Food service establishments should monitor adequacy of cooking, holding times,
and temperatures as well as the personal hygiene of food handlers.

Prevention

 The first step in preventing food poisoning is to assume that all foods may cause food-
borne illness. Follow these steps to prevent food poisoning:
 Wash hands, food preparation surfaces and utensils thoroughly before and after handling
raw foods to prevent recontamination of cooked foods.
 Keep refrigerated foods below 40 degrees F.
 Serve hot foods immediately or keep them heated above 140 degrees F.
 Divide large volumes of food into small portions for rapid cooling in the refrigerator.
Hot, bulky foods in the refrigerator can raise the temperature of foods already cooled.
 Remember the danger zone is between 40 degrees F and 140 degrees F.
 Follow approved home-canning procedures. These can be obtained from the Extension
Service or from USDA bulletins.
 Heat canned foods thoroughly before tasting.
 When in doubt, throw it out

Infants, older persons, women who are pregnant and anyone with a compromised immune
system are especially susceptible to food-borne illness. These people should never consume raw
fish, raw seafood, or raw meat type products.

You are the key to preventing food-borne illness. By observing the simple rules of good
handling, food poisoning can be eliminated.
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Bacteria
Staphylococcus aureus
 Produces a heat-stable toxin
 Nose and throat of 30 to 50 percent of healthy population; also skin and superficial
wounds.
 Meat and seafood salads, sandwich spreads and high salt foods.
 Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea within 4 to 6 hours. No fever.
 Poor personal hygiene and subsequent temperature abuse.
 No growth below 40°F. Bacteria are destroyed by normal cooking but toxin is heat-
stable.

Salmonella
 Produces an intestinal infection
 Intestinal tracts of animals and man High protein foods - meat; poultry, fish and eggs.

 Diarrhea nausea, chills, vomiting and fever within 12 to 24 hours.

 Contamination of ready-to-eat foods, insufficient cooking and recontamination of cooked
foods.
 No growth below 40°F.
 Bacteria are destroyed by normal cooking.

Clostridium perfringens
 Produces a spore and prefers low oxygen atmosphere.
 Live cells must be ingested.
 Dust, soil and gastrointestinal tracts of animals and man.
 Meat and poultry dishes, sauces and gravies.
 Cramps and diarrhea within 12 to 24 hours.
 No vomiting or fever.
 Improper temperature control of hot foods, and recontamination.
 No growth below 40 degrees F.
 Bacteria are killed by normal cooking but a heat-stable spore can survive.

Clostridium botulinum
 Produces a spore and requires a low oxygen atmosphere.
 Produces a heat-sensitive toxin.
 Soils, plants, marine sediments and fish.
 Home-canned foods.
 Blurred vision, respiratory distress and possible DEATH.
 Improper methods of home-processing foods.
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  Type E and Type B can grow at 38°F.
 Bacteria destroyed by cooking and the toxin is destroyed by boiling for 5 to 10 minutes.
Heat-resistant spore can survive.

Vibrio parahaemolyticus
 Requires salt for growth.
 Fish and shellfish
 Raw and cooked seafood.
 Diarrhea, cramps, vomiting, headache and fever within 12 to 24 hours.
 Recontamination of cooked foods or eating raw seafood.
 No growth below 40°F.
 Bacteria killed by normal cooking.

Bacillus cereus
 Produces a spore and grows in normal oxygen atmosphere.
 Soil, dust and spices.
 Starchy food.
 Mild case of diarrhea and some nausea within 12 to 24 hours.
 Improper holding and stroage temperatures after cooking.
 No growth below 40°F.
 Bacteria killed by normal cooking, but heat-resistant spore can survive.

Listeria monocytogenes
 Survives adverse conditions for long time periods.
 Soil, vegetation and water. Can survive for long periods in soil and plant materials.

 Milk, soft cheeses, vegetables fertilized with manure.

 Mimics meningitis.
 Immuno- compromised individuals most susceptible.
 Contaminated raw products.
 Grows at refrigeration (38-40°F.) temperatures.
 May survive minimum pasturization tempertures (161°F. for 15 seconds.)

Campylobacter jejuni
 Oxygen sensitive, does not grow below 86°F.
 Animal reservoirs and foods of animal origin.
 Meat, poulty, milk, and mushrooms.
 Diarrhea, abdomianl cramps and nausea.
 Improper pasteuriztion or cooking. cross-contamination.
 Sensitive to drying or freezing.
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  Survives in milk and water at 39°F for several weeks.

Versinia enterocolitica
 Not frequent cause of human infection.
 Poultry, beef, swine. Isolated only in human pathogen.
 Milk, tofu, and pork.
 Diarrhea, abdominal pain, vomiting. Mimics appendicitis.
 Improper cooking.
 Cross-contamination.
 Grows at refrigeration temperatures (35-40°F.)
 Sensitive to heat (122°F.)

Enteropathogenic E. coli
 Can produce toxins that are heat stable and others that are heat-sensitive.
 Feces of infected humans.
 Meat and cheeses.
 Diarrhea, abdominal cramps, no fever.
 Inadequate cooking.
 Recontamination of cooked product.
 Organisms can be controlled by heating.
 Can grow at refrigeration temperatures.

Physical requirements
a. Temperature
Bacteria have a minimum, optimum, and maximum temperature for growth and can be divided
into 3 groups based on their optimum growth temperature:

1. Psychrophiles are cold-loving bacteria. Their optimum growth temperature is between -

5C and 15C. They are usually found in the Arctic and Antarctic regions and in streams
fed by glaciers.

2. Mesophiles are bacteria that grow best at moderate temperatures. Their optimum growth
temperature is between 25C and 45C. Most bacteria are mesophilic and include common
soil bacteria and bacteria that live in and on the body.

3. Thermophiles are heat-loving bacteria. Their optimum growth temperature is between

45C and 70C and are commonly found in hot springs and in compost heaps.

4. Hyperthermophiles are bacteria that grow at very high temperatures. Their optimum
growth temperature is between 70C and 110C. They are usually members of the Archaea
and are found growing near hydrothermal vents at great depths in the ocean.
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 b. Oxygen requirements
Bacteria show a great deal of variation in their requirements for gaseous oxygen. Most can be
placed in one of the following groups:

1. Obligate aerobes are organisms that grow only in the presence of oxygen. They obtain
their energy through aerobic respiration .

2. Microaerophils are organisms that require a low concentration of oxygen (2% to 10%) for
growth, but higher concentrations are inhibitory. They obtain their energy through
aerobic respiration .

3. Obligate anaerobes are organisms that grow only in the absence of oxygen and, in fact,
are often inhibited or killed by its presence. They obtain their energy through anaerobic
respiration or fermentation .

4. Aerotolerant anaerobes , like obligate anaerobes, cannot use oxygen to transform energy
but can grow in its presence. They obtain energy only by fermentation and are known as
obligate fermenters.

5. Facultative anaerobes are organisms that grow with or without oxygen, but generally
better with oxygen. They obtain their energy through aerobic respiration if oxygen is
present, but use fermentation or anaerobic respiration if it is absent. Most bacteria are
facultative anaerobes.

c. pH
Microorganisms can be placed in one of the following groups based on their optimum pH
requirements:
1. Neutrophiles grow best at a pH range of 5 to 8.

2. Acidophiles grow best at a pH below 5.5.

3. Alkaliphiles grow best at a pH above 8.5.

d. Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane from an area of higher water concentration
(lower solute concentration) to lower water concentration (higher solute concentration). Osmosis
is powered by the potential energy of a concentration gradient and does not require the
expenditure of metabolic energy. While water molecules are small enough to pass between the
phospholipids in the cytoplasmic membrane, their transport can be enhanced by water
transporting transport proteins known as aquaporins. The aquaporins form channels that span the
cytoplasmic membrane and transport water in and out of the cytoplasm.
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To understand osmosis, one must understand what is meant by a solution. A solution consists of
a solute dissolved in a solvent. In terms of osmosis, solute refers to all the molecules or ions
dissolved in the water (the solvent). When a solute such as sugar dissolves in water, it forms
weak hydrogen bonds with water molecules. While free, unbound water molecules are small
enough to pass through membrane pores, water molecules bound to solute are not (see Figure 4C
and Figure 4D).Therefore, the higher the solute concentration, the lower the concentration of free
water molecules capable of passing through the membrane.

A cell can find itself in one of three environments: isotonic, hypertonic , or hypotonic . (The
prefixes iso-, hyper-, and hypo- refer to the solute concentration).

In an isotonic environment, both the water and solute concentration are the same inside and
outside the cell and water goes into and out of the cell at an equal rate.
Flash animation showing osmosis in an isotonic environment.
If the environment is hypertonic, the water concentration is greater inside the cell while the
solute concentration is higher outside (the interior of the cell is hypotonic to the surrounding
hypertonic environment). Water goes out of the cell.

In an environment that is hypotonic, the water concentration is greater outside the cell and the
solute concentration is higher inside (the interior of the cell is hypertonic to the hypotonic
surroundings). Water goes into the cell.

Most bacteria require an isotonic environment or a hypotonic environment for optimum growth.
Organisms that can grow at relatively high salt concentration (up to 10%) are said to be
osmotolerant. Those that require relatively high salt concentrations for growth, like some of the
Archaea that require sodium chloride concentrations of 20 % or higher halophiles.

Nutritional requirements
In addition to a proper physical environment, microorganisms also depend on an available source
of chemical nutrients. Microorganisms are often grouped according to their energy source and
their source of carbon.

a. Energy source

1. Phototrophs use radiant energy (light) as their primary energy source.

2. Chemotrophs use the oxidation and reduction of chemical compounds as their primary
energy source.

b. Carbon source

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Carbon is the structural backbone of the organic compounds that make up a living cell. Based on
their source of carbon bacteria can be classified as autotrophs or heterotrophs.

1. Autotrophs : require only carbon dioxide as a carbon source. An autotroph can synthesize
organic molecules from inorganic nutrients.

2. Heterotrophs : require organic forms of carbon. A Heterotroph cannot synthesize organic

molecules from inorganic nutrients.

Combining their nutritional patterns, all organisms in nature can be placed into one of four
separate groups: photoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs, chemoautotrophs, and chemoheterotrophs.

1. Photoautotrophs use light as an energy source and carbon dioxide as their main carbon
source. They include photosynthetic bacteria (green sulfur bacteria, purple sulfur
bacteria, and cyanobacteria), algae, and green plants. Photoautotrophs transform carbon
dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen gas through photosynthesis.

Cyanobacteria, as well as algae and green plants, use hydrogen atoms from water to reduce
carbon dioxide to form carbohydrates, and during this process oxygen gas is given off (an
oxygenic process). Other photosynthetic bacteria (the green sulfur bacteria and purple sulfur
bacteria) carry out an anoxygenic process, using sulfur, sulfur compounds or hydrogen gas to
reduce carbon dioxide and form organic compounds.

2. Photoheterotrophs use light as an energy source but cannot convert carbon dioxide into
energy. Instead they use organic compounds as a carbon source. They include the green
nonsulfur bacteria and the purple nonsulfur bacteria.

3. Chemolithoautotrophs use inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, sulfur,

ammonia, nitrites, hydrogen gas, or iron as an energy source and carbon dioxide as their
main carbon source.

4. Chemooganoheterotrophs use organic compounds as both an energy source and a carbon

source. Saprophytes live on dead organic matter while parasites get their nutrients from a
living host. Most bacteria, and all protozoans, fungi, and animals are
chemoorganoheterotrophs.

c. Nitrogen source
Nitrogen is needed for the synthesis of such molecules as amino acids, DNA, RNA and ATP .
Depending on the organism, nitrogen, nitrates, ammonia, or organic nitrogen compounds may be
used as a nitrogen source.

d. Minerals
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 1. Sulfur

Sulfur is needed to synthesize sulfur-containing amino acids and certain vitamins. Depending on
the organism, sulfates, hydrogen sulfide, or sulfur-containing amino acids may be used as a
sulfur source.

2. Phosphorus

Phosphorus is needed to synthesize phospholipids, DNA, RNA, and ATP . Phosphate ions are
the primary source of phosphorus.

3. Potassium, magnesium, and calcium

These are required for certain enzymes to function as well as additional functions.

4. Iron

Iron is a part of certain enzymes.

5. Trace elements

Trace elements are elements required in very minute amounts, and like potassium, magnesium,
calcium, and iron, they usually function as cofactors in enzyme reactions. They include sodium,
zinc, copper,molybdenum, manganese, and cobalt ions. Cofactors usually function as electron
donors or electron acceptors during enzyme reactions.

e. Water

f. Growth factors

Growth factors are organic compounds such as amino acids, purines , pyrimidines, and vitamins
that a cell must have for growth but cannot synthesize itself. Organisms having complex
nutritional requirements and needing many growth factors are said to be fastidious.

Summary
Bacteria have a minimum, optimum, and maximum temperature for growth and can be divided
into 3 groups based on their optimum growth temperature: psychrophils, mesophils, thermophils,
or hyperthermophils.
Bacteria show a great deal of variation in their requirements for gaseous oxygen. Most can be
placed in one of the following groups: obligate aerobes, microaerophils, obligate anaerobes,
aerotolerant anaerobes, or facultative anaerobes.
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Microorganisms can be placed in one of the following groups based on their optimum pH
requirements: neutrophiles, acidophiles, or alkaliphiles.
A bacterium's osmotic environment can affect bacterial growth.
Bacteria can be grouped according to their energy source as phototrophs or chemotrophs.
Bacteria can be grouped according to their carbon source as autotrophs or heterotrophs.
Combining their nutritional patterns, all organisms in nature can be placed into one of four
separate groups: photoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs, chemoautotrophs, and chemoheterotrophs.
Bacteria also need a nitrogen source, various minerals, and water for growth.
Organisms having complex nutritional requirements and needing many growth factors are said to
be fastidious.

 Access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food is key to sustaining life and
promoting good health.
 Unsafe food containing harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances,
causes more than 200 diseases – ranging from diarrhoea to cancers.
 An estimated 600 million – almost 1 in 10 people in the world – fall ill after eating
contaminated food and 420 000 die every year, resulting in the loss of 33 million healthy
life years (DALYs).
 US$110 billion is lost each year in productivity and medical expenses resulting from
unsafe food in low- and middle-income countries.
 Children under 5 years of age carry 40% of the foodborne disease burden, with 125 000
deaths every year.
 Diarrhoeal diseases are the most common illnesses resulting from the consumption of
contaminated food, causing 550 million people to fall ill and 230 000 deaths every year.
 Food safety, nutrition and food security are inextricably linked. Unsafe food creates a
vicious cycle of disease and malnutrition, particularly affecting infants, young children,
elderly and the sick.
 Foodborne diseases impede socioeconomic development by straining health care systems,
and harming national economies, tourism and trade.
 Food supply chains now cross multiple national borders. Good collaboration between
governments, producers and consumers helps ensure food safety.
 Major foodborne illnesses and causes

 Foodborne illnesses are usually infectious or toxic in nature and caused by bacteria,
viruses, parasites or chemical substances entering the body through contaminated food or
water.

 Foodborne pathogens can cause severe diarrhoea or debilitating infections including

meningitis.

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  Chemical contamination can lead to acute poisoning or long-term diseases, such as
cancer. Foodborne diseases may lead to long-lasting disability and death. Examples of
unsafe food include uncooked foods of animal origin, fruits and vegetables contaminated
with faeces, and raw shellfish containing marine biotoxins.

Bacteria:
Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli are among the most
common foodborne pathogens that affect millions of people annually – sometimes with severe
and fatal outcomes. Symptoms are fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and
diarrhoea. Examples of foods involved in outbreaks of salmonellosis are eggs, poultry and other
products of animal origin. Foodborne cases with Campylobacter are mainly caused by raw milk,
raw or undercooked poultry and drinking water. Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli is
associated with unpasteurized milk, undercooked meat and fresh fruits and vegetables.

Listeria infection leads to miscarriage in pregnant women or death of newborn babies. Although
disease occurrence is relatively low, listeria’s severe and sometimes fatal health consequences,
particularly among infants, children and the elderly, count them among the most serious
foodborne infections. Listeria is found in unpasteurised dairy products and various ready-to-eat
foods and can grow at refrigeration temperatures.

Vibrio cholerae infects people through contaminated water or food. Symptoms include
abdominal pain, vomiting and profuse watery diarrhoea, which may lead to severe dehydration
and possibly death. Rice, vegetables, millet gruel and various types of seafood have been
implicated in cholera outbreaks.

Antimicrobials, such as antibiotics, are essential to treat infections caused by bacteria. However,
their overuse and misuse in veterinary and human medicine has been linked to the emergence
and spread of resistant bacteria, rendering the treatment of infectious diseases ineffective in
animals and humans. Resistant bacteria enter the food chain through the animals (e.g. Salmonella
through chickens). Antimicrobial resistance is one of the main threats to modern medicine.

Viruses:
Norovirus infections are characterized by nausea, explosive vomiting, watery diarrhoea and
abdominal pain. Hepatitis A virus can cause long-lasting liver disease and spreads typically
through raw or undercooked seafood or contaminated raw produce. Infected food handlers are
often the source of food contamination.

Parasites:
Some parasites, such as fish-borne trematodes, are only transmitted through food. Others, for
example tapeworms like Echinococcus spp, or Taenia solium, may infect people through food or

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direct contact with animals. Other parasites, such as Ascaris, Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba
histolytica or Giardia, enter the food chain via water or soil and can contaminate fresh produce.

Prions:
Prions, infectious agents composed of protein, are unique in that they are associated with specific
forms of neurodegenerative disease. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, or "mad cow
disease") is a prion disease in cattle, associated with the variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease
(vCJD) in humans. Consuming bovine products containing specified risk material, e.g. brain
tissue, is the most likely route of transmission of the prion agent to humans.

Chemicals:
Of most concern for health are naturally occurring toxins and environmental pollutants.

Naturally occurring toxins include mycotoxins, marine biotoxins, cyanogenic glycosides and
toxins occurring in poisonous mushrooms. Staple foods like corn or cereals can contain high
levels of mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin and ochratoxin, produced by mould on grain. A long-
term exposure can affect the immune system and normal development, or cause cancer.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are compounds that accumulate in the environment and
human body. Known examples are dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which are
unwanted by-products of industrial processes and waste incineration. They are found worldwide
in the environment and accumulate in animal food chains. Dioxins are highly toxic and can cause
reproductive and developmental problems, damage the immune system, interfere with hormones
and cause cancer.
Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury cause neurological and kidney damage.
Contamination by heavy metal in food occurs mainly through pollution of air, water and soil.

The burden of foodborne diseases

The burden of foodborne diseases to public health and welfare and to economies has often been
underestimated due to underreporting and difficulty to establish causal relationships between
food contamination and resulting illness or death.

The 2015 WHO report on the estimates of the global burden of foodborne diseases presented the
first-ever estimates of disease burden caused by 31 foodborne agents (bacteria, viruses, parasites,
toxins and chemicals) at global and regional level.

The 2018 World Bank report on the economic burden of the foodborne diseases indicated that
the total productivity loss associated with foodborne disease in low- and middle-income
countries was estimated to cost US$ 95.2 billion per year, and the annual cost of treating
foodborne illnesses is estimated at US$ 15 billion.

WHO estimates of the global burden of foodborne diseases

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World Bank estimates of economic burden of foodborne diseases in low- and middle-income
countries
The evolving world and food safety
Safe food supplies support national economies, trade and tourism, contribute to food and
nutrition security, and underpin sustainable development.

Urbanization and changes in consumer habits, including travel, have increased the number of
people buying and eating food prepared in public places. Globalization has triggered growing
consumer demand for a wider variety of foods, resulting in an increasingly complex and longer
global food chain.

As the world’s population grows, the intensification and industrialization of agriculture and
animal production to meet increasing demand for food creates both opportunities and challenges
for food safety. Climate change is also predicted to impact food safety.

These challenges put greater responsibility on food producers and handlers to ensure food safety.
Local incidents can quickly evolve into international emergencies due to the speed and range of
product distribution. Serious foodborne disease outbreaks have occurred on every continent in
the past decade, often amplified by globalized trade.

Examples include the contamination of ready-to-eat meat with listeria monocytogenes in South
Africa in 2017/18, resulting in 1060 cases of listeriosis and 216 deaths. In this case,
contaminated products were exported to 15 other countries in Africa, requiring an international
response to implement risk management measures.

Food safety: a public health priority

Unsafe food poses global health threats, endangering everyone. Infants, young children, pregnant
women, the elderly and those with an underlying illness are particularly vulnerable. Every year
220 million children contract diarrhoeal diseases and 96 000 die. Unsafe food creates a vicious
cycle of diarrhoea and malnutrition, threatening the nutritional status of the most vulnerable.

The International Conference on Food Safety held in Addis Ababa in February 2019, and the
International Forum on Food Safety and Trade held in Geneva in 2019, reiterated the importance
of food safety in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Governments should make food
safety a public health priority, as they play a pivotal role in developing policies and regulatory
frameworks, and establishing and implementing effective food safety systems.

Food can become contaminated at any point of production and distribution, and the primary
responsibility lies with food producers. Yet a large proportion of foodborne disease incidents are
caused by foods improperly prepared or mishandled at home, in food service establishments or at
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markets. Not all food handlers and consumers understand the roles they must play, such as
adopting basic hygienic practices when buying, selling and preparing food to protect their health
and that of the wider community.

Everyone can contribute to making food safe. Here are some examples of effective actions:
Policy-makers can:
 build and maintain adequate food systems and infrastructures (e.g. laboratories) to
respond to and manage food safety risks along the entire food chain, including during
emergencies;
 foster multi-sectoral collaboration among public health, animal health, agriculture and
other sectors for better communication and joint action;
 integrate food safety into broader food policies and programmes (e.g. nutrition and food
security);
 think globally and act locally to ensure that food produced domestically remains safe
when imported internationally.

Food handlers and consumers can:

 know the food they use (read labels on food packages, make informed choices, become
familiar with common food hazards);
 handle and prepare food safely, practicing the WHO Five Keys to Safer Food at home, or
when selling at restaurants or at local markets;
 grow fruits and vegetables using the WHO Five Keys to Growing Safer Fruits and
Vegetables to decrease microbial contamination.

WHO response
WHO aims to facilitate global prevention, detection and response to public health threats
associated with unsafe food. WHO works to ensure consumer trust in their authorities, and
confidence in the safe food supply.

To do this, WHO helps Member States build capacity to prevent, detect and manage foodborne
risks by:

 providing independent scientific assessments on microbiological and chemical hazards

that form the basis for international food standards, guidelines and recommendations,
known as the Codex Alimentarius, to ensure food is safe wherever it originates;
 assessing, in structured, transparent and measurable ways, the performance of food
control systems throughout the entire food chain, identifying priority areas for capacity

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 development, and measuring and evaluating progress over time through The FAO/WHO
food control system assessment tool;
 assessing the safety of new technologies used in food production, such as genetic
modification and nanotechnology;
 helping improve national food systems and legal frameworks, and implement adequate
infrastructure to manage food safety risks. The International Food Safety Authorities
Network (INFOSAN) was developed by WHO and the UN Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) to rapidly share information during food safety emergencies;
 promoting safe food handling through systematic disease prevention and awareness
programmes, through the WHO Five Keys to Safer Food message and training materials;
and
 advocating for food safety as an important component of health security and for
integrating food safety into national policies and programmes in line with the
International Health Regulations (IHR - 2005).

WHO works closely with FAO, the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) and other
international organizations to ensure food safety along the entire food chain from production to
consumption.

Understanding Food Labels

1. “Expiration” or “Exp” is the last date on which the product should be used. If the date
has passed away, throw the food away.
2. “Sell by” indicates the last day on which the product should be sold. The food can be
used within 2 to 3 days longer if it is refrigerated.
3. “Best if used by” is the date y which the manufacturer guarantees the freshness and
quality of the food. It is not dangerous to use it but the food may not have top quality or
top nutritional value after that date.
4. “Packed on” dates are sometimes found on canned and frozen foods. It does not indicate
when the food is processed. As a general rule, frozen foods can be kept 3 to 4 months
after that date. Canned goods can be stored only after a year beyond that date. Those
stored longer may use their nutritional value but not necessarily dangerous.

These are some points to consider as safeguard against chemical and physical hazards:
1. Make sure chemicals and pesticides are stored away from food. Immediately take them
away from the food preparation and service area after use.
2. Properly label all chemicals as they might be mistaken as salt or seasoning, etc.
3. Read all labels before using the item.
4. Never prepare food in an area where repair men are working. When a repair is being
done, cover or put away all food to protect them from contamination.
5. Never use any glass that is broken as it may contain broken pieces that may contaminate
the food or drink.

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 6. When opening a can, be sure that the can opener is not shredding pieces of tin from the
can to the food.
7. Some plastic packages are stapled. Make sure to discard the packaging plastic properly
and that the staple wire does not mix with the food. If an aluminum foil is used, remove
foil carefully ensuring that no single piece mix with food.

Biological Hazards may be produced by pathogens found in food. It may occur naturally in
plants or animals.

Chemical hazards can come from a variety of substance normally found in the establishment
including pesticides, toxic metals and cleaning products.

Physical hazards result from accidental infusion of foreign objects into foods such as glass,
pieces of metal or plastic, fingernails, staples from cartoons and metals shavings from cans.
These hazards mix with food when food handlers are reckless in doing their job.

ACTIVITY 3

I. True or False. Write T before the number if the statement is correct, then F if it is
incorrect.
1. Meat can be thawed by submitting them in cold water.
2. Foods that stay on the table at room temperature of 32˚C are considered to be at
the critical temperature zone.
3. To cook frozen vegetables, put them in the steam table a few hours before
cooking as a warm up.
4. Cooked leftovers should be chilled to a temperature under 45˚F in less than four
hours.
5. Wiping cloths should be stored in water and soap solution.
6. When stocking foods, put the new stock in front of the old stock.

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 7. When putting meats that need to thaw in the refrigerator, put them on any shelf
where there is a space.
8. Pesticides are considered food hazard.
9. Food at room temperature is safe to eat within 6 hours.
10. You can check the temperature of foods by feeling it.
11. Cans that are cracked or damaged can cause botulism.
12. Foods should be cooled at 50 – 100˚F or less.
13. The temperature for meats should be placed at the thickest part.
14. It is safe to prepare food a day or more before serving.
15. Shallow containers are the safest for storage of food in the refrigerator.
16. It is not safe to wrap meat packages in aluminum foil.
17. It is safe to refrigerate canned goods in their original can.
18. There should be a separate sink for washing hands and for preparing food.
19. Foods being thawed at the refrigerator should be placed at the highest shelf.
20. Potentially hazardous foods that have been cooked and refrigerated maybe rapidly
reheated at 150˚F

II. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the letter before the
number.
1. When thawing meats under cold running water, do so for not more than
a. 4 hours
b. 3 hours
c. 2 hours
d. One hour
2. Leftovers should be heated to
a. 140˚F
b. 150˚F
c. 165˚F
d. 180˚F
3. Throw out foods that
a. Fall on the floor
b. Exposed to hazardous chemicals
c. In the danger zone for over 3 hours
d. All of the foregoing
4. The critical temperature for bacteria to grow is
a. 45-140˚F
b. Below 45˚F
c. 100-140˚F
d. 120-180˚F
5. Ideal storage temperature for fruits and vegetables is between
a. 39-43˚F
b. 50-65˚F
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 c. Below 45˚F
d. 75˚F
6. The best storage temperature for meat and meat products is between
a. 34-37F
b. 35-50˚F
c. Below 34˚F
d. 65˚F
7. Foods should be reheated at what temperature using a microwave or high heat
steam pressure
a. 150˚F
b. 165˚F
c. 130˚F
d. 170˚F
8. Wash hands with
a. Cold water
b. Hot water
c. Any of the two
9. Cook foods quickly at
a. 140˚F
b. 130˚F
c. 150˚F
d. Below 140˚F
10. At all times, the temperature of potentially hazardous foods should be
a. 45˚F
b. 50˚F
c. 60˚F
d. 70˚F

III. Enumeration. Enumerate the following.

1-5. Give five conditions that contribute to multiplication of bacteria
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6-10. Give at least five microbiological sources of food poising

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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 11-14. Give at least four safe ways of thawing frozen meats and sea foods.
11.
12.
13.
14.

15-20. Give at least 6 rules of personal hygiene for a food handler

15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21-25. Give five examples of potentially hazardous foods.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.

Lesson IV: Basic Preparations Before Cooking

 Basic Preparations Before Cooking
 Making Requisition of Kitchen Stocks
 Washing Ingredients for Cooking
 Preparation of Vegetables and Other Ingredients
 How to Slice, Dice, Chop, and Mince with pictures
 Different Cuts of Vegetables
 Preparing Sea Foods for Cooking
 Cutting and Filleting Fish
 Preparations for Chicken

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Preparing food safely
It's very important to prepare food safely to help stop harmful bacteria from spreading and
growing. You can take some steps to help protect yourself and your family from the spread of
harmful bacteria.

 Wash your hands

 Keep worktops clean
 Separate raw food from ready-to-eat food
 Check the label
 Use by dates
 Best before dates
 Wash your hands

Your hands can easily spread bacteria around the kitchen and onto food. It's important to always
wash your hands thoroughly with soap and warm water:

 before starting to prepare food

 after touching raw food such as meat, poultry and vegetables
 after going to the toilet
 after touching the bin
 after touching pets
 Don't forget to dry your hands thoroughly as well, because wet hands spread bacteria
more easily.

Keep worktops clean

Before you start preparing food, its important worktops, kitchen utensils and chopping boards are
clean. If they’ve been touched by raw meat, poultry, eggs or vegetables you'll need to wash them
thoroughly.

You should change dish cloths and tea towels regularly to avoid any bacteria growing on the
material.

Separate raw food from ready-to-eat food

Raw foods such as meat, fish and vegetables may contain harmful bacteria that can spread very
easily by touching:

 other foods
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  worktops
 chopping boards
 knives

You should keep raw foods away from ready-to-eat food, such as salad, fruit and bread. This is
because these types of food won't be cooked before you eat them, so any bacteria that get onto
the food won't be killed.

To help stop bacteria from spreading:

 don't let raw food such as meat, fish or vegetables touch other food
 don't prepare ready-to-eat food using a chopping board or knife that you have used to
prepare raw food, unless they have been washed thoroughly first
 wash your hands thoroughly after touching raw meat, fish or vegetables and before you
touch anything else
 cover raw meat or fish and store on the bottom shelf of the fridge where they can't touch
or drip onto other foods
 don’t wash raw meat before cooking
 wash, peel or cook vegetables unless these are described as 'ready-to-eat' on the
packaging

Check the label

It's important to read food labels to make sure everything you’re going to use has been stored
correctly (according to any storage instructions) and that none of the food is past its ‘use by’
date.

Food that goes off quickly usually has storage instructions on the label that say how long you can
keep the food and whether it needs to go in the fridge.

This sort of food often has special packaging to help keep it fresh for longer. But it will go off
quickly once you’ve opened it. This is why the storage instructions also tell you how long the
food will keep once the packaging has been opened. For example, you might see ‘eat within two
days of opening’ on the label.

Use by dates
You will also see ‘use by’ dates on food that goes off quickly. You shouldn’t use any food after
the ‘use by’ date even if the food looks and smells fine, because it might contain harmful
bacteria.
Best before dates

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The 'best before' dates marked on most foods are more about quality than safety. When this date
runs out, it doesn't mean that the food will be harmful, but its flavor, color or texture might begin
to deteriorate.

An exception to this is eggs, which have a best before date of no more than 28 days after they are
laid. After this date the quality of the egg will deteriorate and if any salmonella bacteria are
present, they could multiply to high levels and could make you ill.

If you plan to use an egg after its best before date, make sure that you only use it in dishes where
it will be fully cooked, so that both yolk and white are solid, such as in a cake or as a hard-boiled
egg.

Good food hygiene means knowing how to avoid the spread of bacteria when cooking,
preparing, and storing food. Foods that aren't cooked, stored and handled correctly can cause
food poisoning and other conditions.

Four Steps to Food Safety

There are 4 basic steps to food safety at home, these are known as the four C's:

cleaning - making sure your hands, surfaces and equipment are clean before, during and after
cooking
cooking - making sure food is cooked throughout to kill harmful bacteria
chilling - making sure foods are stored at the correct temperature to prevent growth of harmful
bacteria
avoiding cross-contamination - preventing the spread of bacteria to surfaces and ready to eat
food

Clean: Wash Hands, Utensils, and Surfaces Often

Illness-causing germs can survive in many places around your kitchen, including your food,
hands, utensils, and cutting boards.

Wash your hands the right way:

 Use plain soap and water—skip the antibacterial soap—and scrub the backs of your
hands, between your fingers, and under your nails for at least 20 seconds.
 Wash your hands often, especially during these key times when germs can spread:
 Before, during, and after preparing food
 After handling raw meat, poultry, seafood, or their juices, or uncooked eggs
 Before eating
 After using the toilet
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  After changing diapers or cleaning up a child who has used the toilet
 After touching an animal, animal feed, or animal waste
 After touching garbage
 Before and after caring for someone who is sick
 Before and after treating a cut or wound
 After blowing your nose, coughing, or sneezing
 Wash surfaces and utensils after each use:
 Wash cutting boards, dishes, utensils, and countertops with hot, soapy water especially
after they’ve held raw meat, poultry, seafood, or eggs.
 Wash dish cloths often in the hot cycle of your washing machine.
 Wash fruits and vegetables, but not meat, poultry, or eggs:
 Cut away any damaged or bruised areas, then rinse fruits and vegetables under running
water without soap, bleach, or commercial produce washes.
 Scrub firm produce like melons or cucumbers with a clean produce brush.
 Dry produce with a paper towel or clean cloth towel.
 Don’t wash meat, poultry, eggs, or bagged produce marked “pre-washed”.

Separate: Don’t Cross Contaminate

 Use separate cutting boards and plates for produce, meat, poultry, seafood, and eggs:
 Use one cutting board for fresh produce or other foods that won’t be cooked before
they’re eaten, and another for raw meat, poultry, or seafood. Replace them when they are
worn.
 Use separate plates and utensils for cooked and raw foods.
 Wash thoroughly all plates, utensils, and cutting boards that touched raw meat, poultry,
seafood, or eggs before using them again. Use hot, soapy water.

Keep certain types of food separate:

 In your shopping cart, separate raw meat, poultry, seafood, and eggs from other foods and
place packages of raw meat, poultry, and seafood in plastic bags if available. When you
check out, place raw meat, poultry, and seafood in separate bags from other foods.
 At home, place raw meat, poultry, and seafood in containers or sealed plastic bags.
Freeze them if you’re not planning to use them within a few days.
 In the fridge, keep eggs in their original carton and store them in the main compartment
—not in the door.

Cook to the Right Temperature

Food is safely cooked when the internal temperature is high enough to kill germs that can make
you sick:

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Use a food thermometer to be sure your food is safe. When you think your food is done, place
the food thermometer in the thickest part of the food, making sure not to touch bone, fat, or
gristle.
Refer to our Minimum Cooking Temperatures Chart to be sure your foods have reached a safe
temperature.
Keep food hot (140˚F or above) after cooking:
If you’re not serving food right after cooking, keep it out of the temperature danger zone by
using a heat source like a chafing dish, warming tray, or slow cooker .

Microwave food thoroughly (165˚F or above):

Read package directions for cooking and follow them exactly to make sure food is thoroughly
cooked.
If the food label says, “Let stand for x minutes after cooking,” follow the directions — letting
microwaved food sit for a few minutes enables colder areas to absorb heat from hotter areas.
Stir food in the middle of heating. Follow package directions for commercially prepared frozen
food; some are not designed to be stirred while heating.

Chill: Refrigerate and Freeze Food Properly

 Refrigerate perishable foods within 2 hours:

 Bacteria that cause food poisoning multiply quickest between 40°F and 140°F.
 Your refrigerator should be set to 40°F or below and your freezer to 0°F or below. Use an
appliance thermometer to be sure.
 Never leave perishable foods out of refrigeration for more than 2 hours. If the food is
exposed to temperatures above 90°F (like a hot car or summer picnic), refrigerate it
within 1 hour.
 Leftovers should be placed in shallow containers and refrigerated promptly to allow
quick cooling.
 Never thaw or marinate foods on the counter. The safest way to thaw or marinate meat,
poultry, and seafood is in the refrigerator.
 Freezing does not destroy harmful germs, but it does keep food safe until you can cook it.
 Know when to throw out food by checking our Safe Storage Times chart. Be sure you
throw food out before harmful bacteria grow.

Try These 10 Methods for Cooking Flavorful Vegetables

Are you getting bored with your vegetable dishes? If you are, maybe it’s because you are
cooking the same vegetables the same way every time. We all know that we need to eat our
vegetables because they are good for us, and our bodies need all those vitamins and minerals to
be healthy. Besides our bodies, our minds, taste buds and appetites need to be nourished as well.

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Our vegetable dishes should be exciting, appetizing and delicious, motivating us to eat even
more vegetables.

There are over a dozen different ways to cook vegetables, so if you usually steam or saute them,
maybe it’s time to try something new. All veggies are not created equal, and some may taste
better roasted while others are best grilled. The more you know, the more you will get the most
delicious taste out of your veggies.

1. Raw Veggies
Sometimes the best way to enjoy vegetables is to not cook them at all. Even when I am prepping
veggies for cooking, I always munch on a few pieces raw. That’s the way you really taste the
vegetable in its natural state and keep all those nutrients. Of course, not cooking veggies doesn’t
mean you have to just eat them plain like a rabbit. Enjoy all sorts of greens and other vegetables
in refreshing salads tossed in amazing dressings. Make soups in the blender or noodles out of
squash. There are plenty of ways to prepare raw vegetables with marinades, sauces, herbs and
spices and turn them into a beautifully composed dish.

Try this Zucchini Pasta with Pumpkin Seeds and Garlic, Raw Lasagna with Cilantro Pesto,
Sundried Tomatoes and Marinated Veggies, Avocado Kale Chili Salad, and this Creamy and
Raw Butternut Squash Soup with Marinated Mushrooms.

2. Boiling Veggies
Boiling is an easy and fast way to get crisp, bright veggies, though you need to do it right or they
could end up gray and mushy with no nutrients left inside them. The key is to make sure the
vegetables spend the minimum amount of time necessary in the boiling water. Hearty vegetables
like broccoli, green beans and cauliflower are good choices for boiling. To boil vegetables,
simply bring a pot of water to a boil, add salt, and add your veggies.

Cook them for only a few minutes until they are bright in color and as tender as you like them.
That is called blanching. Remember that the veggies will continue to cook a bit after you take
them out of the water so either remove them a minute or two early or run them under cold water
to stop the cooking process. Use this method to make a Snap Pea Salad with Almonds in an
Herbed Vinaigrette.
Simmering is similar, except you add the veggies before the water boils and let them cook at a
lower temperature for a longer time. This method works well with veggies that need longer to
cook like potatoes, beets, turnips and yams. Use this method to simmer the vegetables in this
Eggplant, Onion and Tomato Stew.

3. Steaming Veggies
If you don’t want to submerge your veggies in water or cook them in oil, steaming might be the
choice for you. Steaming cooks vegetables, making them tender, bright, flavorful and retains

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many of their nutrients. Steaming is a good method for delicate vegetables such as asparagus or
greens, or those that need to get softened before sautéing like Brussels sprouts or carrots.

To steam vegetables, bring some water in a pot to a rapid simmer or easy boil, add a steamer
basket or colander on top and place the veggies in the basket. You can add aromatics like garlic
or ginger to the water to add flavor to the vegetables. Let the veggies steam until they are bright
in color and as tender as you want them. After steaming, sprinkle your veggies with salt, fresh
lemon, herbs or dip them in a savory sauce. Indulge in Chinese food without all the oil with my
Steamed Vegetables in Garlic Sauce.

4. Sautéing Veggies
Sautéing is one of my favorite ways to cook vegetables, mainly because it’s quick, easy and the
veggies get a ton of flavor. They also keep a lot of their nutrients since it is such a fast method of
cooking. Sautéing involves cooking veggies over high heat in a pan with a bit of oil and
aromatics. This method works for almost any vegetable including greens, asparagus, mushrooms,
peppers, zucchini, onions and green beans. Cut your veggies into equally sized pieces for even
cooking.

Heat your pan over medium-high heat, add oil and let the oil heat up until it starts to shimmer.
Add any aromatics such as onion, garlic, ginger or chile pepper, and saute them until they are
softened. Add the veggies, being careful not to crowd the pan. Season the veggies with your
favorite herbs and spices. Stir the veggies often in the pan and cook until they are crisp-tender.

Practice sautéing by making this Early Light Summer Veggie Saute, Sauteed Broccoli Rabe with
Red Chile Flakes and Sauteed Spinach in Tomato Fennel Sauce. Also check out 10 Creative
Ways to Saute Spinach for even more ideas.

5. Stir-Frying Veggies
Some people use the terms “saute” and “stir-fry” interchangeably, but they are not the same
thing. Stir-frying happens at a much higher heat than sautéing does and at a much faster speed.
The food also has to be constantly stirred and tossed so it doesn’t burn. Stir-frying is seen in
Asian cuisine, and it is a fast way to make dinner for the whole family. With stir-frying, it is
important to prep all your ingredients before you start cooking. Since the food cooks so fast,
there is no time to chop veggies during the process. While stir-frying is usually done in a wok, a
saute pan works just as well as long as there is lots of surface area for the food.

To stir-fry, have all your veggies and aromatics ready as well as any sauce you are adding to the
dish. Heat the pan on high heat and then add oil that can stand up to the high cooking
temperature such as vegetable or peanut oil. Add the vegetables to the pan in order of longest to
shortest cooking times. Stir the veggies constantly until they are crisp-tender and bright. Add any
stir-fry sauce at the end and toss the veggies to coat them.

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Try these Stir-Fried Brussels Sprouts with Ginger and Curry Leaves, Indian Asparagus and
Carrot Stir-Fry and this Spicy Mushroom Stir-Fry with Garlic, Black Pepper and Chives. For
more stir-fry tips, read How to Make Delicious Stir-Fry Vegetables in 7 Easy Steps and Secrets
to Sautéing and Stir-Frying Chinese Style.

6. Braising and Stewing Veggies

Braising and stewing involve cooking ingredients slowly in flavorful liquid. It is done over low
heat and may take up to several hours. Vegetables that are cooked in these methods become soft,
tender and full of flavor. These are also methods that allow you to walk away from the stove and
do something else while the food cooks. Since the food cooks in liquid for a long time, braising
and stewing are best done with heartier veggies like root vegetables, potatoes, beans, squash and
celery. You can braise veggies in water, broth, wine or any flavorful liquid. For the most flavor,
saute the ingredients in oil with aromatics until they are browned and then add the liquids for
them to cook in.

For braising, try this Braised Red Cabbage with Apples and Beer, White Wine and Miso Braised
Baby Bok Choy, and Braised Seitan Short Ribs in Spicy Chile Sauce. For stewing, indulge in
this South Indian Lentil Stew and this African Groundnut Stew.

7. Roasting and Baking Veggies

Roasting veggies is probably the easiest way to cook them. It’s also the way I suggest preparing
a vegetable if you are worried you won’t like it. Roasting vegetables involves caramelizing them
in a hot oven. The natural sugars of the veggies come out leading to a sweet, savory intense
flavor that is like no other. Roasting is also a great method because you don’t need to be there for
the cooking. Simply preheat the oven to 400 degrees or so, line a baking sheet with parchment
paper and chop your veggies into whatever shape you want.

Toss them in a bit of oil and season them with your favorite herbs and spices. Let them roast
until they are tender on the inside with a crisp crust. You can roast any vegetable including
onions, garlic, tomatoes, broccoli, potatoes, and squash. For detailed cooking times and
temperatures, check out The Ultimate Guide to Roasting Vegetables.

Savor the taste of roasted vegetables by making Roasted Vegetables in a Lemon-Cannellini

Sauce, Green Tea Soba Noodles with Roasted Vegetables and Herbs, and Roasted Jerusalem
Artichokes with Braised Garlicky Kale.

Baking veggies is similar to roasting, except the food doesn’t get caramelized so you don’t need
to use lots of oil. Try Oven Baked Green Tomatoes and Baked to Perfection Fingerling Potatoes.
Also check out “How to Make the Perfect Baked Potato.”

8. Frying Veggies
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Fried food may not be the healthiest way to eat, but when you’re eating fried vegetables, it
becomes a balance of nutritious and indulgent. If you really want to get someone who is resistant
to eat vegetables, frying may be a good way to introduce them to it. That’s how I got my
husband to taste Brussels sprouts. Frying doesn’t have to mean deep-frying in quarts of oil. Pan-
frying will give you delicious, crispy coated veggies with not a lot of oil. To fry veggies so they
are golden brown, make sure the oil is around 375 degrees. Any higher and the food will burn
rather than become golden. Any lower and you will get greasy, soggy veggies. Check out Learn
How to Fry Food the Right Way for more detailed instructions.

Indulge in crispy Eggplant Fries, Zucchini Fritters with Lemon Basil Cashew Cream, Fried
Green Tomatoes with Red Pepper Aioli and Greek Spinach, Potato and Vegan Feta Latkes with
Tzatziki Sauce.

9. Grilling Veggies
Grilling veggies is easy and you get food with a rich, deep, smoky flavor. The veggies
caramelize so they get sweet and crisp. You can grill indoors or out and almost every vegetable
can be cooked this way. To grill veggies, let them sit in a tasty marinade for at least 30 minutes
or toss them in oil and seasonings and grill them according to the time necessary for that
particular vegetable. When grill marks form, flip the veggies to cook on the other side until they
are tender. Get specific grilling times and other grilling instructions in my article, How to Grill
Tasty Veggies Indoors and Out.

Exercise your grilling muscles by making Grilled Artichoke and Quinoa Lettuce Wraps, Grilled
Avocados and Roasted Tomatoes, and Grilled Beet Salad with Almonds and Dried Cranberries.

10. Pickling Veggies

If you hear the word “pickle” and only think about … well, pickles, I’m happy to tell you that
there are more vegetables to enjoy this way besides cucumbers. Veggies can be vacuum sealed in
canning jars and stored for up to a year or they can be quickly pickled without the canning jars
and stored in the fridge for up to two months. Pretty much any vegetable can be pickled but crisp
ones that won’t break down in the brine are the best choice. These might include radishes,
mushrooms, tomatoes and peppers. Quick pickling involves immersing veggies in brine made
with vinegar, water, herbs and spices. Boil the pickling liquid for five minutes and then pour the
hot brine over the vegetables. Let them cool before refrigerating them.

Try making Indian Radish Pickles, Homemade Kimchi or learn how to make your own Raw
Sauerkraut. Read How to Add More Pickled Foods to Your Diet for more ideas.
When you start using all the different methods of cooking vegetables, you will learn which ways
you like certain vegetables best and you will discover new favorite dishes. With all the possible
combinations of veggies and cooking methods, there is no possible way anyone will ever have to
convince you to eat your vegetables.

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Reducing your meat intake and eating more plant-based foods is known to help with chronic
inflammation, heart health, mental wellbeing, fitness goals, nutritional needs, allergies, gut
health and more! Dairy consumption also has been linked many health problems, including acne,
hormonal imbalance, cancer, prostate cancer and has many side effects.

Mise en place (MEEZ ahn plahs) is a French term for having all your ingredients measured, cut,
peeled, sliced, grated, etc. before you start cooking. Pans are prepared. Mixing bowls, tools and
equipment set out. It is a technique chefs use to assemble meals so quickly and effortlessly.
Practicing mise en place has several benefits:

Any missing ingredients can be spotted before it's too late for a quick trip to the store or your
neighbor next door.

Special preparation for ingredients -- such as toasting nuts, letting certain ingredients come to
room temperature, etc. -- can be handled BEFORE cooking rather than in the midst of another
preparation step when time delays may affect food quality.

There is time to clean the mixing area as you go along rather than face a counter full of mixing
equipment when you're done.

You can group ingredients or place them in the order used to assure all recipe steps are included.

It makes complicated recipes more fun to prepare when you're no longer doing a juggling act,
trying to complete several tasks simultaneously.
Hint: You may find it helpful and that it brings out your "inner chef" to buy a set of 4 or more
"pinch" or "mini" bowls.

They come in different sizes and may hold from about 1 to 3 ounces. You often will see TV
chefs using these to hold smaller amounts of such ingredients as spices, a single egg, a couple
tablespoons of cornstarch, etc. As another option, a set of smaller-sized custard cups may work
as well for you.

The Different Types of Vegetable Cutting Styles

Following are vegetable cutting and chopping styles that every serious cook should master.
Taking time to learn and practice these techniques will go a long way in simplifying and
expediting your cooking process. One thing that is important regardless of the cutting technique
you use is having a quality set of cutting knives and a good wood cutting board, like the ones
sold at woodcuttingboards.com, will help reduce food contamination and protect the blades of
your knives.

1. Brunoise (Fine Dice)

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This particular technique will allow you to fine diced vegetables and fruit. Normally, the food is
cross cut and then sliced across the sticks in order to create fine cubes. Foods that are commonly
brunoised include turnips, onions and carrots.

2. Chiffonade (Shredding)
The chiffonade technique is usually used on leafy vegetables and herbs. Some examples include,
spinach, lettuce, basil herbs and cabbage. This is accomplished by first cutting the food into long
strips, and then cross cutting them in the preferred thickness.

3. Julienne (Match Stick Cuts)

The Julienne technique allows you to cut foods into long, thin match stick like pieces. This is a
cutting style that is normally used for zucchini, carrots, celery and capsicum, but it can be used
on virtually any type of vegetable.

4. Macedoine (Large Dice)

This particular technique is used to cut vegetables and fruit into large cubes, which is ideal for
preparing vegetables that will be used in soups. Cooks also cut melons and other types of large
fruit using this technique. When using this technique, it is important to have aflat surface to cut
on.

5. Slicing
Slicing is a technique in which you cut food into thin slices that are relatively broad in
comparison to the slice depth. You can use this technique on meats, fruit and vegetables for use
in any number of vegetables.
6. Mincing
Mincing creates a food with an even smaller consistence that you would be able to using the
brunoise technique. To use this technique effectively, you will need to hold your knife handle
with one hand and use your other hand to keep the blade's tip in contact with the cutting surface
— while bringing your blade down into the food.

7. Roll-Cutting
This is a common technique that is used to cut long fruit and vegetables, such as zucchini and
carrots. Using this technique will allow you to make more attractive pieces, while exposing more
of the food's surface.

8. Parallel Cutting
This is a technique that is used to cut broad, thin slices of vegetables and meat. You accomplish
this by laying your food flat on a cutting surface and angling your knife blade parallel to the
cutting surface, in order to cut through the food.

9. Crushing
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This is a technique that is used to crush foods like garlic and ginger, and it is best accomplished
by using a flat surface like a walnut cutting board and using a large blade to press downward on
the food.

Each of these techniques are designed to produce foods with different sizes and consistencies in
order to improve taste and cooking consistency.

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91 | P a g e
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92 | P a g e
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93 | P a g e
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95 | P a g e
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96 | P a g e
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97 | P a g e
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98 | P a g e
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99 | P a g e
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100 | P a g e
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101 | P a g e
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102 | P a g e
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103 | P a g e
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104 | P a g e
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105 | P a g e
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106 | P a g e
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ACTIVITY 4

I. Matching Type. Match the letter that indicates the right definition for the following
terms.

A B
1. Slice a. To cut into thin pieces
2. Dice b. To cut into uniform slices or cross cuts
3. Chop c. To cut into small, thin strips about ½ inch by
½ inches long
4. Mince d. To cut into uniform cubes
5. Shred e. To chop very fine
6. Julienne

II. Bring vegetables (maybe carrot, turnips or potato) and demonstrate the various cuts of
vegetables, namely:

1. Julienne cut
2. Potato chips
3. Potato Vicky
4. Potato lorette
5. Potato Berny
6. Ana potato
7. Potato William
8. Potato croquette
9. Nut potato
10. Mirepoix

III. Demonstrate procedures in:

1. Cutting a whole chicken

2. De-boning a chicken
3. Filleting fish
4. Preparing boneless drumstick
5. Cleaning a squid
6. Cleaning a shell crab
7. Deveining shrimps
8. Quartering a chicken
9. Preparing chicken duet
10. Preparing boneless chicken drumstick

108 | P a g e Lesson V: Basic Cooking Methods

 Blanching and Deep
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 Boiling, Simmering, Email Add.Poaching

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 Steaming andMa. Braising

Jessica S. De Guzman
 Grilling, Broiling, Marinating
 Glazing, Roasting, Marinating and Baking
 Meat and Fish Preservation
 Stock and Sauces
 Thickening and Binding Items
You might occasionally come across a recipe that instructs you to blanch one of the ingredients
before doing something else to it, like peeling it, stir-frying it or adding it to a salad.

Now, a well-written recipe will not only instruct you to blanch the thing, but will also briefly
explain, and describe, what you are to do (and perhaps why you need to do it).

But not everything in the world is how it ought to be and that includes recipes. So let's talk about
what blanching is, what the technique accomplishes, and when you might want to use it. That
way, next time you come across the instruction to blanch something, you'll know exactly what it
means.

What Is Blanching?

Blanching is a food preparation technique in which food is briefly immersed in hot liquid, like
boiling water or oil, often but not always as a prelude to cooking it further. Fruits, vegetables,
and nuts are the foods that are most frequently blanched, each for different reasons.

Sometimes it might be to soften it, or to loosen the skin to make peeling it easier, or simply to
brighten the color of it.

Note the word "briefly" in the description above. Different recipes will call for different
blanching times, but with blanching, times are measured in terms of seconds rather than minutes.
Typical blanching times range from 30 to 60 seconds.

What Is Shocking?
Blanching is often done in conjunction with another step, known as shocking, which involves
plunging the blanched item directly into an ice water bath, so as to stop the cooking that was
initiated in the blanching phase.
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This is a clue that blanching is more of a prep technique than a cooking technique. Blanching
does not, and should not, cook the food. If the food is going to be cooked, that will happen later.
Otherwise, blanched food is still considered raw.

The key with shocking is that you don't want to let the food sit in the ice water for too long, or it
will start to absorb water and become soggy. What you want to do instead is just let it chill until
the food is no longer warm, then drain it thoroughly and either store it or set it aside for whatever
the next step is. You don't need to get it fully cold all the way through, but it shouldn't be warm
to the touch.

When to Use Blanching

As we said, blanching softens vegetables and it also intensifies their colors. Whereas long boiling
will turn green vegetables like asparagus or green beans a drab olive color, 30 seconds of
blanching will turn them a bright vivid green. The same is true for the orange color of carrots.
Freezing can likewise cause the colors of veggies to turn drab, so blanching is a common step as
a preliminary to freezing.

Vegetables such as green beans are often blanched in order to enhance their natural green color,
as well as softening them. You'd want to blanch and shock green beans before adding them to a
Niçoise salad, for example.

Another common use for blanching is to soften vegetables so that they can then be quickly
cooked over high heat, like in a sauté or stir-fry. The reason being, high-heat cooking methods
involve short cooking times, which isn't always enough to soften firm vegetables like carrots and
broccoli.

On the other hand, cooking them longer will tend to overcook the other items in the pan. The
solution: blanch the firmer vegetables separately, then add them to the pan with the other items.

A similar case is when we're adding raw veggies to a salad. Blanching and shocking is a good
technique to use for vegetables that will be featured in salads. They're softened just enough so
that you can eat them more or less raw, but they won't be excessively difficult to chew. And it
also brightens the colors, making for a more visually appealing salad.

Other Uses for Blanching

Another use for blanching is to help loosen the skins on tomatoes, peaches, and other foods. If
you're making your own marzipan, for instance, you'd need to blanch the almonds to remove
their skins first.

Blanching also comes into play when preparing white stocks such as chicken or veal stock, with
the bones being blanched beforehand in order to rid them of impurities.

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Blanching is also an excellent technique for preventing avocados from turning brown.
Finally, when making French fries, the cut potatoes are often blanched in medium-heat oil, then
cooled before frying them a second time at a higher temperature. This two-step procedure
ensures that the fries are cooked all the way through (the first step) and also crispy on the outside
(the second step).

Deep frying is a dry-heat cooking method that yields foods that have a crunchy golden brown
surface and tender interior. Learn how to deep fry, choosing the right oil, and the benefits of
using this technique.

Deep frying cooking method

Nothing is more satisfying than the taste and sound of biting into a crispy piece of fried chicken
or vegetable egg rolls. Deep frying gives that beautiful color and crunchy surface texture. First
off, don’t be intimidated by the process, it’s an easy cooking method to master. Once you
understand the proper techniques, the results will be mouthwatering.

What is Deep Frying?

Deep-frying is a dry-heat cooking method, utilizing fat or oil to cook pieces of food. The process
works by completely submerging food in hot liquid. Depending on the type of oil chosen and
food being fried, a high temperature of up to 400°F (204°C) is maintained to create golden-
brown surface textures in a short amount of time.

The Process- How it Works?

When food hits the hot oil you’ll see bubbles circulating around the item. The moisture from the
surface of the food rapidly turns into steam, allowing the process of crust formation to begin.
Typically the food being fried is starchy or coated first with a breading or batter. The starches on
the surface eventually dry, creating a crispy crust. Some oil may migrate inwards when moisture
moves out, but it mostly sticks on to the outside of the food. In general, the amount of oil
absorbed into the food is equal to the amount of water that is removed during frying.

Benefits of Deep Frying

 Time: The entire food item is being evenly and consistently cooked in hot oil, resulting in
a relatively faster way of cooking.
 Taste: Frying often occurs above 325°F (163°C), allowing for two flavor producing
things to happen; Maillard reaction and caramelization. Once the surface temperature
reaches 300°F (149°C), browning and new flavors are rapidly created.
 Texture: Fried foods have a characteristic crisp crust, which is achieved by the high
frying temperatures removing the surface moisture and drying out the exterior. When the
crust is properly formed, the food should be less greasy and retain its shape.
 Moisture: Breading or batter used helps to seal in the naturally occurring moisture in the
food and prevents excess oil from being absorbed.

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  Nutrition: The heat from the oil will cook the food and dry the surface, with only a small
amount of oil staying on the crust. If the oil is not hot enough, temperatures below 325°F
(163°C), it will make food soggy and greasy. When done correctly oil absorbed can be
minimized.
Metal tongs lifting egg roll from a pot of hot oil
Choosing the Right Type of Oil
Smoke point temperature is an essential indicator of when the oil will begin to break down and
smoke in the cooking vessel. When cooking foods in a significant amount of oil for a relatively
long duration of time, a neutral tasting oil with a high smoke point should be used.

Deep frying typically occurs between 325 to 375°F (163 to 191°C), above 400°F (205°C) the
exterior can brown or even burn too quickly before the inside is cooked. For long frying or
cooking times, choose an oil that has a smoke point higher than the recommended frying
temperature, around 400°F (205°C) or above. Canola, peanut, and soybean oils are most
commonly used for deep frying because they have a high smoke point.

How to Deep Fry Successfully

 Amount: Food should be able to completely submerge in oil for even cooking.
Depending on the size of the container, typically 1 to 3 quarts of oil is used.
 High Heat: The goal is to have the hot oil instantly seal the outside and cook the inside
without burning the surface. The temperature of the oil can be adjusted based on the type
that is selected. A typical range of 325°F to 375°F (160°C to 190°C) is used.
 Monitor: Make sure to have an instant-read or candy/oil thermometer that can read
above 400°F (149°C) before you start deep frying. The differences in oil temperature
change quickly and will significantly impact the fried product if not carefully monitored
throughout the process. Turn down the heat and wait for the temperature to lower before
continuing. If oil gets above 400 degrees, the interior will not cook and the outside will
burn so keep a careful watch.
 Batches: Fry in small quantities. The food is always colder than the oil so it will lower
the frying temperature once added. Low temperatures can cause sogginess. To prevent
this from occurring, add in a few items at a time. Allow for recovery time so the oil can
come back up to temperature before the next batch.
 Clean: Make sure to keep the oil clean while frying by removing any debris or particles
from breading or coating. Burnt particles can transfer their flavor to the oil, as well as
cause the oil to break down quicker. Use a fine-mesh stainless steel strainer or spider to
remove debris. Make sure to keep salt and water out of the oil as it also breaks down the
oil and can cause dangerous splattering.
 Absorb: Immediately transfer freshly fried food to a cooling rack or plate lined with
paper towel to quickly absorb any free oil left on the surface. However, do not let it cool
on paper towel, move it to a cooling rack to prevent it from losing the crunchy exterior.

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 Deep fried food can be kept warm on a baking sheet lined with a rack in a pre-heated
oven at 200°F (93°C) if working in batches or not eaten right away.

How to Dispose of Oil

Allow the cooking oil to cool completely before discarding or reusing. Leave it in the pot or fryer
covered. It can then be strained if still good to use again or disposed of in a glass jar or the bottle
it came in. Do not reuse oil if it becomes dark, smokes, foams or develops off flavors. Locate
where you can safely recycle used oil in your area. My nearby Jiffy Lube accepts oil, and I’ve
heard of local restaurants accepting it too. Never pour oil down the drain!

Tools for Deep Frying

Food can be fried using the basket method, similar to what french fries are cooked in, or the
swimming method. When using a large pot or dutch oven to deep fry, the swimming method is
often used by allowing the food to float and fry submerged in the hot oil. Tongs or a stainless
steel strainer can be used to turn or push the food down and around to encourage even browning.

Tools used for deep frying

 Stockpot
 Deep Fryer
 Cooling Rack
 Slotted Spoon
 Tongs
 Instant Read Thermometer
 Stainless Spider Strainer

Boiling and Simmering

While neither simmering nor boiling is difficult, both are essential techniques used to prepare
everything from pasta to green vegetables to stewed meats. They're really degrees of the same
thing, but the effect each has on food is profoundly different. These two basic cooking methods
are used in most kitchens every day and require little more than a heavy-bottomed pot or
saucepan to evenly distribute the heat.

Unlike the French, who are gifted with a vocabulary that describes the stages of a liquid about to
boil (such as fremir, which means to tremble or shake), we have no equivalent words to describe
variations in simmering. But for most purposes, a simmer is the stage when the water is in
motion but almost no bubbles break the surface; they're trying to, but the water's surface tension
holds them in place. Boiling, though, refers to liquid that's in full motion, with bubbles rapidly
rising to the surface. The recipes and tips in this package will distinguish between the two and
illustrate when each works best.

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Basic Boiling
This technique cooks food at a relatively high temperature―212 degrees is the boiling point for
water at sea level. When liquids boil, bubbles break through and pop on the surface while the
whole batch of liquid churns vigorously. Bubbles are caused by water vapor, a gas, rushing to the
surface.

What boiling does. In the case of pasta, churning, boiling water keeps the food in motion,
prevents sticking, and cooks quickly so the pasta doesn't get soggy. Green vegetables are tossed
into boiling water to cook as quickly as possible so they retain their flavor and bright color in a
process called blanching; if they were to simmer gently in a covered pot, their color would dull,
and they would lose much of their texture. Boiling causes speedy evaporation, a useful effect for
reducing sauces, where the volume of the liquid decreases and flavors are concentrated.

Boiling liquid. When ingredients are boiled, they are done so in water, sometimes containing salt
and oil or butter for flavor and texture. The food is usually added to the liquid once it reaches a
boil.

Best bets for boiling. This intense cooking method is well suited for pasta, some grains, and
green vegetables. Boiling is also useful for reducing sauces.

Simple Simmering
A cooking method gentler than boiling, simmering refers to cooking food in liquid (or cooking
just the liquid itself) at a temperature slightly below the boiling point―around 180 to 190
degrees. It's trickier than boiling because it requires careful regulation of the temperature so that
the surface of the liquid shimmers with a bubble coming up every few seconds.

What simmering does. Simmering cooks food gently and slowly. Delicate foods such as fish are
poached at or below a simmer to prevent them from breaking apart. Meats that are simmered
remain moist and fork-tender, while boiled meats are often dry and tough because the heat of
boiling liquid can cause their proteins to toughen. Stocks are simmered so the fat and proteins
released by any cooking meat or bones float to the top, where they can be skimmed off instead of
being churned back in, which can make the stock cloudy and greasy.

Best bets for simmering. This technique is more versatile than boiling and lends itself to a
variety of foods. Simmering is used to cook proteins (fish, poultry, and meats), often in the form
of poaching (cooking in enough liquid to cover the food) and braising (cooking in a small
amount of liquid). It's also essential when making broth or stock. Whereas boiling works well for
tender green vegetables, tough, fibrous root vegetables (such as potatoes, turnips, and beets) are
best simmered so they cook evenly throughout.

Maintaining a simmer. A constant simmer isn't always easy to regulate, especially on a gas
stovetop. Even at the lowest setting, the heat may be too intense and cause the liquid to boil.
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Turning the flame too low may cause it to extinguish, or the self-lighting mechanism may click
incessantly. To avoid this, put the pot to one side of the flame, or use a device called a flame
tamer or heat diffuser (or sometimes called a simmer ring) to absorb some of the stove's heat.

Simmering liquid. Food is usually simmered in flavored liquid, such as broth/stock or wine, but
sometimes water is used. As a general rule, add meat to cold liquid, and bring it up to a simmer.
If you add uncooked meat to already-simmering broth, the meat immediately releases proteins
that cloud the broth. When you start the meat in cold liquid, these proteins are released more
gradually and become entangled with one another in a frothy mass that's easy to skim off the
surface. Fish are an exception. If you start poaching small pieces of fish in cold liquid, by the
time it comes to a simmer, the fish will be overcooked.

The bottom line:

• When simmering, a small bubble or two should break through the surface of the liquid every
second or two. If more bubbles rise to the surface, lower the heat, or move the pot to one
side of the burner.

• If simmering meat or large pieces of fish, place the food in cold water, and then bring it up
to a simmer.

• When boiling vegetables or pasta, add the uncooked food to water that's fully churning.

Of all the conventional cooking methods, steaming is one of the most natural and healthful ways
to cook the food you eat; it’s a simple technique that allows you to experience the unique flavors
of the food itself. Let’s explore why this timeless moist-heat cooking method is worth using in
today’s modern diet.

When you steam food, you avoid the hidden calories of butter, oil, and other fats, leaving the
bright flavors and textures of the food intact. Unlike boiling and simmering, steaming doesn’t
agitate food, so it’s a perfectly gentle way to cook delicate items like seafood and shellfish. And
perhaps best of all, steaming keeps all those valuable nutrients inside the food, instead of in the
cooking liquid.

Steaming is a relatively quick way to cook food, so stay close. Your food is likely done cooking
when it’s tender, pierced easily with the tip of a sharp knife, or in the case of vegetables, brightly
colored and just barely soft. Be careful not to overcook vegetables, or your food can get mushy
and taste sub-par.

Steaming has been used to make tough vegetables tender and edible, improving the food we eat.
It’s also an economical and fast way to prepare food.

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What is Steaming?
Steaming is a moist-heat method of cooking that works by boiling water which vaporizes into
steam; it is the steam that carries heat to the food, cooking it. Unlike boiling food submerged in
water, with steaming the food is kept separate from the boiling water but comes into direct
contact with the hot steam. Water boils at 212 degrees, so the highest temperature the food cooks
at is 212 degrees.

Is it better to steam or boil vegetables?

When cooking vegetables, steaming is preferable to boiling because the food remains separate
from the hot water, allowing it to retain more nutrients in the cooking process. It also breaks
down the cellular structures of some vegetables and can increase the amount of certain nutrients
available within those vegetables. Steaming is a delicate process with little if any agitation, so
it’s ideal for baby carrots, green beans, cubed zucchini, and delicate greens.

Boiling is suitable for hardier vegetables such as corn on the cob, potatoes, and beets. During
boiling, some nutrients leach out of the vegetables and into the cooking water. The longer they
cook, the more this is likely to happen. When making a soup or stew, this may not be an issue, as
the liquid is eaten as part of the dish. However, when cooking vegetables intended as a side dish,
a snack or a meal, boiling will result in vegetables that have some level of diminished nutrients.
Overcooking by boiling also dulls color and flavor.

Tips to maintain a steam

The absolute best way to maintain the heat of steam is to keep the lid on your pot or steamer.
That keeps the steam inside the pot so it can cook your food, as well as maintains the water level
at the bottom. Once you arrive at the boiling point, you can turn the heat level down a bit but not
too much that you’ve stopped creating steam.

The steaming technique

Luckily, steaming is a straightforward cooking method that needs little more than a lidded pot
and maybe a steamer basket. Once you decide on the amount of food you’re going to cook, use a
pot that accommodates it, with a little room left over so you don’t end up crowding your food.

Fill the pot with a small amount of water, then place the basket down into the pot and arrange the
food inside the basket. If the water comes up into the basket, go ahead and pour some water out-
it’s likely that your food will boil, not steam- so the water level is below the basket.

Make sure the lid closes tightly on the pot and that there is some room between the lid and the
top of the food. Ideally, you need some space for the steam to surround the food and work its
magic. Then turn on the heat. If your pot lid is glass, it’s easy to visually check that steam is
forming—you can see it filling up the pot—but if your lid is opaque, you may have to crack the
lid to check your progress.

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If you like, add some aromatics, such as garden herbs or citrus slices to the bottom of the steamer
basket before you add the food. This naturally infuses some flavor into the food you steam.

Two beets on a silicone steamer

How to steam without a steamer
If you don’t have a steamer basket, try using a silicone or metal colander placed inside the pot
instead. Alternatively, you can crunch up 3 equal-sized balls of aluminum foil, place them on the
bottom of a large pot and place a heat-proof plate on top.

How to steam in the oven

Larger items like multiple ramekins of custard, or pudding can be steamed in the oven on a sheet
pan filled with water. Some recipes like my roasted brussels sprouts call for the pan to be
covered with foil, so check the recipe to make sure you have the right-sized equipment.

Brussels sprouts steaming on a pan covered with aluminum foil

How to steam in the microwave

You can successfully steam food in the microwave; it is actually a great appliance for steaming
since it heats the liquids in food. You can easily create your own steaming system by placing the
food in a microwave-safe dish, sprinkling it with water, and covering with plastic wrap with a
few holes poked into it. Cook for just a few minutes and you will be rewarded with perfectly
steamed food. Consider buying a steamer basket made for the microwave if you find yourself
using this method often.

Safe steaming
As with all cooking techniques, use caution. Steam is dangerous, because it is very hot, and can
cause significant burns if mishandled. Always open the lid of the pot away from you, and make
sure you use hot mitts and turn off the heat before handling the hot pot.

Four brown eggs on a silicone steaming basket inside a pot

What kind of foods can you steam

Steaming is ideal for foods that need moisture, and foods that should be soft and silken rather
than crunchy or caramelized.

Vegetables: Vegetables, including potatoes, benefit from being steamed when done properly.
Beets, broccoli, and cauliflower can turn soggy when simmered, so steaming is an excellent
cooking method for them. Furthermore, steaming can be a good first step to cooking certain
vegetables another way; for example, steaming broccoli before adding to a stir-fry will assure
they finish with a nice texture. And steaming potatoes before being sliced and pan-fried will
shorten their grilling time tremendously.

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Meat and poultry: While steaming may not be the first thing you think of when cooking
chicken or meat, it still gets the job done in a very healthful way. Many home cooks are steaming
their food because it needs no added fat or oil to cook. Even though most meat or pork would do
better browned and seared, foods containing those proteins, like dumplings, would cook very
nicely in a steamer.

Hard-boiled eggs: Electric mini counter appliances are available to steam eggs to your desired
level of doneness, but you can steam hard-boiled eggs on the stove as well.

Soufflés, custards, and pastries: Certain spongecakes, custards, and soufflés call for steaming,
giving silky and very moist textures to the dessert.

Fish and shellfish: Seafood is very well suited for steaming. The cooking liquid (usually a broth,
stock, or wine to add flavor) along with aromatic herbs, are gently simmered, creating flavorful
steam. The moist environment inside the steamer basket helps keep the fish tender and juicy.
Shellfish can also be steamed in their own broth.

Tamales: Masa inside the tamales needs to be steamed before eating. This can be done in a slow
cooker, on the stove, or in large batches in the oven.

Rice: Simmering a small amount of water and allowing the steam to cook rice is easy to do on
the stove, but a rice cooker is a worthy investment because of its foolproof and hands-free
abilities. Choose one that has a steam feature as well and you’ll get a workhorse of an appliance
that does a couple of things at once.

Chinese steamed buns: Fluffy and slightly chewy, baozi, or Chinese steamed buns, are filled
with various delicious ingredients, savory and sweet, and gently cooked in bamboo steamers.

Benefits of steaming

• Time: Depending on what you’re cooking, steaming can be a quick way to cook a handful of
greens or a gentle way to cook pudding or dumplings.
• Taste: One of the surest ways to experience the purest flavor of the food you cook is to
steam it. Flavors of the different foods you steam together don’t have the opportunity to mix
like they would in liquid.
• Texture: With steaming, food is left moist and tender. Because the cooking liquid never
touches the food, it’s less likely to jostle or absorb too much water. This means food retains
its shape, color, and texture.
• Nutrition: No oil is needed to steam, plus nutrients don’t leach out into the water, so the
vitamins and minerals are retained. Plus many cancer-fighting properties of the food are
maintained by steaming.

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Tools for steaming
• Stockpot with Glass Lid
• Stainless Steel Steamer
• Instant Pot Steamer Basket
• Universal Steamer with Lid
• Microwave Steamer
• Bamboo Steamer Basket
• Instant Pot

Not only is poaching is one of the most elegant ways to cook an egg, but it’s also the secret to
making, quite simply, the best chicken salad in the world. This understated culinary technique is
worth a second look, especially if healthy and nutritious eating is something you’re interested in.

Cooking method guide to poaching

Poaching is a very gentle way of cooking, a far cry from a flaming hot grill, but the results are
just as memorable. It’s a fabulous way to preserve the structure of delicate proteins like fish,
chicken, and eggs using very little fat or oil.

You can dress up the liquid any way you see fit, too, adding traditional aromatics, wine, or broth.
Other than a little bit of stove-side monitoring, poaching is an easy way to cook as long as you
have the right tools and know a few basics about the technique.

What culinary problem is this method solving?

Poaching is a gentle and effective way to cook food, preserving its flavor without adding extra
fat. It’s ideal for delicate foods, as this process requires no agitation or stirring.

What is Poaching?
Poaching is a moist heat method of cooking by submerging food in some kind of liquid and
heating at a low temperature. This is a technique that is used to cook delicate proteins such as
fish, chicken, and eggs, as well as some fruits and vegetables.

Poaching works by allowing the proteins in the food to break down without pulling moisture out
of the food. Because poaching uses a temperature that is even lower than simmering, it is
important to keep the heat low and to keep the poaching time to a bare minimum, which helps
preserve the flavor and structure of the food.

Liquid vs. butter poaching

Liquid poaching uses a broth, wine, or other liquid to cook the food. The liquid and food start off
together in a pot cold, then the heat is gradually increased to the correct cooking temperature.
And flavorings or aromatics infuse the food with subtle flavor while it poaches.

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While liquid poaching is the most common way to poach, butter poaching is a very elegant way
to cook fish and shellfish. It’s a very simple method of cooking, using seasoned butter, shallot,
and lemon juice. The fish cooks in the seasoned liquid until just flaky and cooked through; all the
butter gives the fish an otherworldly taste and texture. Other fats like olive oil can also be used
for poaching.

Poaching salmon in a pot of water

Advantages and disadvantages of poaching

• Moisture/tenderness: A definite advantage of poaching is that the food you cook will turn
out succulent and tender, which is certainly a desirable outcome for fish, which can dry out
using another method of cooking. Also, the low temperature makes overcooking almost
impossible.
• Delicate process: However, poaching is a delicate process that does require a certain
amount of finesse and patience. It isn’t something that can be rushed and produces results
that are quite a bit more subtle than perfectly executed grill marks or a crusty sear.
• No Maillard browning at low temperature: Because poaching is a low-temperature
method, it doesn’t take advantage of the Maillard reaction, which gives foods their brown,
caramelized and often crispy features. It isn’t the ideal way to cook a steak or a pork chop.

The shallow poaching technique

If you’re cooking boneless, naturally tender smaller servings, or sliced or cubed pieces of meat,
poultry or fish, consider shallow poaching. This method involves sometimes coating the inside of
the pan with butter and adding aromatics. The food is then placed on top of the aromatics, with
the presentation side up.

Cold poaching liquid gets poured into the pan until the food is only partially submerged. The
liquid is then heated, but should never be allowed to boil, instead, being kept as close to
poaching as possible. The liquid used for shallow poaching is called a cuisson, and it can be
reduced and used as a base for a sauce for the food.

The submersion poaching technique

This technique is similar to shallow poaching, but the food is completely submerged in the
cooking liquid. Whatever pot you use, it should hold the food, liquid, and aromatics comfortably,
with enough room to allow the liquid and the food to expand somewhat as it cooks. There should
also be enough space to skim any liquid off of the surface. Also, a tight-fitting lid may be helpful
for bringing the liquid up to temperature.

Poaching chicken in a pot of water with herbs

How much liquid to use?

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How much liquid you use depends entirely on how much food you plan on poaching. Make sure
that your pot is large enough to accommodate both the liquid and the food without overcrowding
or overflowing.

Minimal movement on the surface (how to visually check)

The poaching liquid is usually ready when you see small waves on the surface of the liquid, and
small bubbles forming at the bottom of the pot, but none that actually rise to the surface. If
you’re not sure, a thermometer can help you keep things accurate.

Using a thermometer to monitor water and food internal temperature

Poaching uses gentle heat at 160 to 180°F (71 to 82ºC) to cook the food, even lower than a
simmer at 185 to 205°F (85 to 96ºC). A clip-on thermometer helps monitor the temperature to
keep it in that sweet spot.

Covering food with parchment paper lid when poaching

Successful poaching relies on the food being submerged in order to cook. A piece of parchment,
cut to size to fit the inside dimension of your pot, can be placed over the food to hold it down and
keep your food from being exposed to air.

Covering food with parchment paper lid when poaching

Types of poaching liquid

• Water: Water will most likely make up the bulk of your poaching liquid, but if you can, add
something else for some subtle flavor.
• Milk: You can use milk or coconut milk to poach chicken or fish.
• Stocks: Chicken stock, vegetable, or fish stock are all good choices, depending on what you
poach, as long as you dilute them somewhat.
• Broths: Perfect for poaching, broths are the lighter version of stock.
• Aromatics: Traditional ingredients like bay leaves, herbs, celery, garlic, spices can be added
to the poaching liquid to enhance the flavor of what you’re cooking. For a twist, try
lemongrass, ginger, or kaffir lime leaves.
• Wine: Wine or port can be a beautiful way to poach fruit, and who wouldn’t appreciate a
white wine poached halibut?
• Court bouillon: Fish and seafood are traditionally poached in a liquid called court bouillon
which consists of an acid (wine, lemon juice) and aromatics (bouquet garni and mirepoix),
although any flavorful liquid can be used in poaching.

Court Bouillon Recipe

One of the most widely used of all poaching liquids, the mixture needs to simmer for half an
hour or so and then cool before the fish is added for poaching. (Yield: 10 cups)

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8 cups of water
4 cups dry white wine, like Pinot Grigio
2 large onions, peeled, chopped
2 carrots, peeled, chopped
3 ribs celery, chopped
6 sprigs fresh parsley or other green herbs
1 tablespoon salt
1/2 teaspoon black peppercorns

Combine water, wine, onion, carrots, celery, herbs and salt in a saucepan. Simmer, uncovered,
about 30 minutes. Add peppercorns; simmer only about 10 minutes, peppercorns can make the
broth bitter if overcooked. Strain before use. After poaching you may freeze any leftover liquid
for future use.

Foods to poach
• Chicken: Boneless, skinless chicken breasts are perfect for this cooking method, but you can
also use bone-in chicken breasts or even thighs or drumsticks, as long as you remove the
skin, which can make the liquid too greasy. The chicken will typically finish cooking in 10
to 14 minutes depending on the thickness of the meat and whether it is has a bone. When
poaching chicken, it is very important that the chicken reaches an internal temperature of at
least 165°F (74ºC), in order to be eaten safely. This is the best way to make chicken salad or
shredded chicken for tacos or enchiladas.
• Vegetables: Sturdier vegetables such as asparagus, carrots, and potatoes all work well with
this method.
• Seafood: Delicate seafood of all kinds shine when poached. Cod, salmon, shrimp, all are
excellent choices. For fish fillets, cook the fish for 10 minutes or until the center of the fish
seems opaque and it flakes easily when prodded with a fork. Poaching fish should begin by
placing it in the cold cooking liquid before heating it to a simmer.
• Fruit: Fruits with body, like stone fruit, pears, and apples, are prime choices for wine
poaching with honey, peppercorns, and star anise.

Poaching eggs
It’s tricky to get the round, satiny smooth poached eggs that a chef can whip up in a moment, but
with a little practice, you can come close. Poaching is the best way to take advantage of the
delicate, incredible egg. Use the freshest eggs you can find, and cook one at a time until you get
the hang of it.

Poaching an egg in water

Benefits of poaching
Once considered a boring technique only for the diet conscious, poaching is gaining popularity
for its health benefits. It definitely has its uses in today’s modern diets.
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• Time: While not action-packed, poaching is still a relatively quick technique that doesn’t
take the whole day.
• Taste: Poaching allows the actual flavor of the food to shine, front and center.
• Texture: Since it’s one of the gentlest cooking methods we explore, the texture of poached
food is tender, soft, and supple.
• Nutrition: Poaching in a liquid is one of the healthiest ways to cook your food, with
minimal fat and oil.

Tools for poaching

• Stockpot
• Parchment Paper
• Silicone Cups
• Slotted Spoon
• Tongs
• Instant Read Thermometer
• Cheesecloth
A close relative to braising, making a phenomenal stew is effortless, economical, and versatile.
This low and slow cooking method is the key to elegant and nutritious recipes from all over the
world; let’s find out what makes a good stew, shall we?

The ultimate one-pot meal made for thousands of years, a stew is, quite literally, what you put in
it. There’s no better way to render tough, close to the shank cuts of meat tender and delicious
than cooking them with a melée of vegetables, aromatics, and broth over the course of an
afternoon. Beans, vegetables, and seafood can all benefit from this technique. A good stew
makes the chef a hero, because every bite is better than the next.
What Culinary Problem is this Method Solving?
Stewing is a way to make tougher cuts of meats palatable and tender. It’s also a way to retain the
maximum nutritional value of the food you cook. Stews also make dried beans edible and soft.

What is Stewing?
Stewing is a combination cooking method that uses small, uniform pieces of meat that are totally
immersed in liquid and slowly simmered. In this case, the food and the liquid are served together
as one dish.

What is the Difference Between Braising and Stewing?

Both are very similar cooking methods, but the primary difference between a braise and a stew is
whether or not the protein is completely submerged in liquid. Braising usually uses whole, larger
cuts of meat and the least amount of added liquid, while stews require food to be cut into
uniform pieces and completely submerged in liquid. Sometimes these terms can be used
interchangeably in the kitchen, but it’s helpful to know the technicalities.

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If you’re making a larger pot roast, short ribs, or even a big batch of root vegetables, a braise
may be the way to go. But when what you’re cooking features a rich broth or gravy that’s just as
important as the main ingredient, you should use stewing as a technique.

Cast iron pot with chunks of lamb shoulder, vegetables and olives

Different Stewing Methods

• Stove Top Method: Cooking a stew on the stove is absolutely fine, but it’s harder to
regulate the temperature; depending on how hot your stove runs, and whether the lid is on or
off, you may need to check the liquid levels frequently to make sure there’s no burning on
the bottom or hot spots. You may be able to step away for a few minutes, but don’t wait too
long because of the quick evaporation of the cooking liquid.
• Slow Cooker Method: Modern slow cookers and Crock-Pot’s are versatile and convenient.
Who doesn’t love to come home to dinner already made at the end of a long day? Most slow
cooker enthusiasts adore using this countertop appliance, and for good reason. Plug it in, set
it, and forget it—it’s about as easy as it gets.
• Oven Method: Once you add all your ingredients and you’re ready to step away from things
for a bit, consider letting your stew finish cooking in the oven. The internal heat of an oven
is a wonderful way to get consistent heating with little fluctuation. Checking a large pot in
the oven can be tricky, though, and can be heavy to lift out when you need to do so.

The Stewing Technique

The key to a good stew is good advanced preparation of your ingredients. Cut your meats and
vegetables into evenly-sized pieces, preferably bite-sized. To help get the meat brown, as well as
add some extra body to the stew while cooking, dredge the chunks of meat in seasoned flour or
cornstarch.

Next, it’s time to brown the meat. Browning uses the Maillard reaction to caramelize the sugars
in the protein to give your stew a richer, deeper flavor. Once your pot is heated, add an oil or fat
(butter, lard, etc) and add your seasoned meat to the pot. The trick here is to get the meat deeply
browned on the surface, turning the pieces on all sides to accomplish this.

Once you’ve browned the meat, it’s likely you’ll have to remove it from the pot to add other
ingredients that will make up the rest of the dish. This might be the time to add onions, leeks,
garlic, fruits, vegetables, spices, or other aromatics into the fat that’s in the bottom of the pot.
Adding any of these ensures the flavors of your stew will be complex and delicious when it’s
ready to eat.

How Much Liquid to Use

Now it’s time to add the liquid. This can be broth, beer, wine, vinegar, tomato juice, or even
water. The liquid helps deglaze the bottom of the pot, where all the browned bits that you

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worked so hard to get end up. Once deglazed, you can add the browned meat back into the pot,
and top off the ingredients with more liquid until everything is submerged.

Once you’ve reintroduced the meat into the vegetables and liquid, get the whole mixture back to
just boiling, when large bubbles break through the surface of the liquid rapidly, then turn the heat
down to a gentle simmer, at the lowest temperature on a stove.

Submerged pieces of beef stewing in a slow cooker

Why Bring to a Boil and Then Simmer?
Making sure the food you’re cooking gets up to boiling before turning the heat back down is a
great way to visually determine where you are on the spectrum of moist heat cooking. Boiling
occurs when large bubbles break through the surface of the liquid rapidly. Don’t let the stew boil
too long, though, or what you end up with may be too tough.

What is the Stewing Temperature?

If you’re making a stew on the stove, use the lowest setting you can once you reach the initial
boil. If you’re using the oven, set the temperature somewhere between 250 and 325 degrees,
depending on the recipe you’re using, and cover the pot. Once you get the hang of the stew,
though, you’ll get more comfortable setting the temperature without a recipe.

How to Make a Sauce From the Stewing Liquid?

If your stewing liquid is too thin and you’d like to thicken it a little, simply continue to simmer
the liquid on the stove top to further concentrate the flavors, or consider adding a thickening
agent. Some cooks add a little slurry of cornstarch and water to the liquid, making sure to stir
thoroughly in between small additions to the pot.

Whisk the liquid while cooking to cook the flour and get rid of any raw taste the flour imparts.
You could also make a roux using flour and butter and add it to the stew. In the case of beans or
potatoes, you may consider puréeing some of the stew with an immersion blender to thicken
things right up without adding anything at all.
Stewing Vegetables
Celery, celery root, leeks, cabbage, fennel and almost any tough greens, such as collard greens,
chard, kale or mustard greens can be stewed. Beans are perfect stewing candidates, as are
summer vegetables like peppers, eggplant, and tomatoes in a Southern French ratatouille.

Grains and beans require slow stewing from anywhere between 25 minutes and 2 hours, while
vegetables usually cook quickly. Pierce vegetables like carrots, root vegetables with the tip of a
sharp knife; if they pierce easily, your dish has finished cooking. The best way to determine if a
bean is cooked is by fishing a couple beans out with a spoon and biting one. Precooked beans
can also be added to a stew for shorter cooking time.

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Stewing Seafood
Consider cod, halibut, snapper, grouper, shark and sea bass as appropriate candidates for fish-
based stew. Bouillabaisse and Italian cioppino are both classic fish stews that can be made easily
using this technique. Because of their delicate nature, they don’t have to be pre-browned.
Stewing fish or other seafood like in my San Francisco cioppino usually requires very little time
at all, as fish and shellfish tend to cook quickly, often within minutes.

Pieces of shrimp and mussels stewing in a large pot

Stewing Beef, Lamb, and Pork
Tougher cuts of beef, lamb, and pork can be cubed and stewed with excellent results over a few
hours at a low temperature. Prime stewing candidates include shank, brisket, chuck, oxtail and
round. The most delicious example of this is beef bourguignon. For really tender meat, cook the
stew low and slow, for approximately two hours.

Stewing Poultry
Fricassees and curries are excellent examples of stewed chicken; if cooked on the bone, the
chicken should usually be browned first to caramelize the skin and render the fat. Cook the
chicken until its internal temperature reaches 195 degrees. There’s no need to cook chicken for
hours, like a large cut of meat or pork.

Benefits of Stewing
• Time: If you have the time, stewing meats, grains, or beans low and slow in the oven or on
the stove makes the end result, all worthwhile.
• Taste: Stewing allows all the flavors in the pot to slowly meld together and develop
incredible taste over time.
• Texture: Fork-tender meats, beans, grains, and vegetables are guaranteed when they’re
slowly stewed in liquid.
• Nutrition: Food that is stewed retains almost all of the food’s nutrients, as the liquid the
food is cooked in is part of the meal. Also, stewing foods require little to no oil.
Tools for Stewing
• Large Pot
• Dutch Oven
• Oven Mitts
• Wooden Spoon
• Slotted Spoon
• Thermometer
• Slow Cooker

The braising cooking method is a chef’s best-kept secret for achieving succulent and tender
meats, poultry, and even vegetables. And perhaps best of all, this easy to master technique
requires little effort with big rewards.

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Informational guide on the braising cooking method

When you braise a tough cut of meat, cooking it low and slow with an assortment of other
vegetables and aromatics, you get not only fork-tender meat but a thick sauce that’s been
building its flavor all day long in the oven or on the stove.

There’s simply nothing better than meltingly tender pork shoulder, lamb shanks, or fall off the
bone short ribs cooked in their own juices for a few hours. Let’s explore this vital technique and
all the ways to use it.

What Culinary Problem is this Method Solving?

Braising is the best way to coax as much flavor and tenderness out of tough cuts of meat as
possible. It enhances the flavor of the food, and it improves the texture of what is cooked, too.

What is Braising?
Braising comes from the French verb braiser. It is a technique that uses both dry heat cooking
and moist heat cooking. First, the food is usually seared at a high temperature to brown it and
give it a nice crust, then a small amount of liquid is added and the temperature is turned down
low, to cook for a longer amount of time. Once the initial browning occurs, thanks to the
Maillard reaction, the food’s flavor is intensified. When liquid is added, all that heat, moisture
and cooking time breaks down the connective tissues into gelatin and softens muscle fiber for an
incredibly moist and tender dish.

What is the Difference Between Braising and Stewing?

The primary difference between a braise and a stew is whether or not the protein is submerged in
liquid. Braising usually uses whole, larger cuts of meat and the least amount of added liquid,
while stews require food to be cut into uniform pieces and completely submerged in liquid.
Sometimes these terms can be used interchangeably in the kitchen, though.

When what you’re cooking features a rich broth or gravy that’s just as important as the main
ingredient, you may consider stewing as a technique. But if you’re making a larger pot roast or
short ribs, or even a big batch of bitter green vegetables, a braise may be the way to go.

What is the Difference Between Braising and Slow Cooking?

While there really isn’t much difference between braising and slow cooking when you are
simmering the food in the liquid. However, you cannot brown in a slow cooker as you can in a
dutch oven that requires a separate step. Some contemporary slow cooker’s or Crock-Pot can run
quite hot. If not careful the heat can toughen the protein fibers of meats, resulting in a dry and
chewy meal. The goal is to keep the internal temperature of the meat at around 210ºF for at least
an hour to ensure the connective tissue and fat melts down.

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Different Braising Methods
• Stove Top Method– Braising on the stove is a fine way of starting out, but using one
burner, especially for a larger pot, can be difficult; it’s harder to regulate the temperature and
depending on how hot your stove runs, you may need to check the liquid levels frequently to
make sure there’s no burning or hot spots. You may be able to step away for a few minutes,
but not all that long because of the quick evaporation of the liquid.
• Oven Braising– Once you add all your ingredients and you’re ready to step away from
things for a bit, consider an oven braise. The internal heat of the oven is a wonderful way to
get consistent heating with little fluctuation. Checking a large pot in the oven can be tricky,
though, and can be heavy to lift out when you need to do so.
• Slow Cooker- Keep the lid on to maintain a consistently hot and moist environment.
Opening the lid multiple times causes the heat to leave, requiring extra time to come up to
temperature. Crock-Pot’s run about 209ºF at its simmering point, perfect for braising. The
braising liquid should be about halfway up the meat.

The Braising Technique

The first part of a successful braise is browning the meat. Browning uses the famous Maillard
reaction to swiftly and effectively caramelize the sugars in the food to give what you’re cooking
a richer, deeper flavor. Once your pot is heated, add an oil or fat (butter, lard, etc) and add your
seasoned meat to the pot. The trick here is to get the meat deeply browned on the surface.

Once you’ve browned the meat, most likely you’ll have to remove it from the pot to add other
ingredients that will make up the rest of the dish. This might be the time to add onions, leeks,
garlic, fruits, vegetables, or other aromatics into the fat that’s in the bottom of the pot. Adding
any of these ensures the flavors will be complex and delicious come dinner time.

How Much Liquid to Use

How much liquid you add depends on how you plan to serve it—add more if you want a more
soupy, stew-like meal, less if you want a more concentrated sauce. This can be broth, beer, wine,
vinegar, tomato juice, or even water, but be careful that you don’t add too much.

The liquid helps deglaze the bottom of the pot. Once deglazed, you can add the browned meat
back in, careful that the level of the liquid doesn’t rise over the meat. You still want all that meat
to rise above the liquid you’ve added.

Once you’ve reintroduced the meat into the vegetables and liquid, get the whole mixture back to
just boiling, when large bubbles break through the surface of the liquid rapidly, then turn the heat
down to a gentle simmer, at the lowest temperature on the stove.

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Why Bring to a Boil and Then Simmer?

Making sure the food you’re cooking gets up to boiling before turning the heat back down is a
great way to visually determine where you’re on the spectrum of moist heat cooking. Don’t let
the braise boil too long, though, or what you end up with may ultimately be too tough.

What is the Braising Temperature?

If you’re doing the braise on the stove, use the lowest setting you can. If you’re using the oven,
set the temperature somewhere between 250 and 325 degrees, depending on the recipe you’re
using. Once you get the hang of braising, though, you can probably set your own temperature
without a recipe.

Flip the Meat?

Because you’ve browned the meat in the first step, turning or flipping the meat isn’t really
necessary.

How to Make a Sauce From the Braising Liquid

If your liquid is too thin and you’d like to thicken it, simply continue to simmer the liquid on the
stovetop after you’ve removed the meat to evaporate the liquid and further concentrate the
flavors. Some cooks add a little slurry of cornstarch and water, or flour and water, to the liquid,
making sure to stir thoroughly in between small additions to the pot.

Whisk the liquid while cooking to cook the flour and get rid of any raw taste the flour imparts.
To make a full-fledged gravy, first, make a roux, then whisk some braising liquid into the roux
until a smooth consistency is formed and it thickens. Season to taste.

Braising Vegetables
If you like, you can braise vegetables along with a cut of meat, which gives the whole dish more
flavor, or they can be braised all by themselves for a deep, rich flavor. Unlike meat, vegetables
naturally don’t have any collagen, but slow cooking will help the tougher plant fibers become
tender. Harder root vegetables like turnips, winter squashes, and bitter greens like kale and chard
are perfect for braising.

Vegetables don’t need as much time as a roast or pork shoulder, but depending on their density,
check for tenderness after about 30 minutes. Greens will braise much faster than a turnip, so keep
that in mind, as well.
Braising Poultry
Chicken and capons, especially thighs and legs, can be made in coq au vin, a delicious French
dish using lots of red wine. The braising liquid is divine poured over mashed potatoes. Braise the
chicken until its internal temperature reaches 195 degrees. There’s no need to cook chicken for
hours, like a large cut of meat or pork.

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Honey garlic chicken thighs braising in the liquid of a slow cooker
Braising Beef, Pork, and Lamb
Most tough cuts of meat may be lean, but they contain lots of collagen which breaks down in the
cooking liquid and helps meld all the flavors together. Tougher, larger cuts of meat are
transformed by braising into mouthwateringly tender meals. Make pulled pork from a pork butt,
a Sunday pot roast, or braised lamb shanks from cuts that wouldn’t be as delicious cooked any
other way. Bone-in meats are good, too, because the bones impart more flavor into the dish.

A general guide for braising meats is about an hour per pound, so this could translate into 1 to 5
hours, potentially. You may want to check your pot at the 2-hour mark—if a fork can be inserted
into the roast with ease, you might want to pull it out of the oven early. Of course, this also
depends on what temperature you’re cooking at.

Benefits of Braising
• Time: If you have the time, braising food low and slow in the oven or on the stove makes the
end-result all worthwhile. Most of the time it takes is hands-off, so that’s a plus.
• Cost: With braising, you can make economical cuts of meat taste like a million dollars.
Braising is a great way to cook on a budget, too, especially if you’re doing meal prep for the
week.
• Taste: Braising allows all the flavors in the pot to slowly meld together with the meat’s
broken down collagen, resulting in a gelatinous broth with unparalleled taste.
• Texture: Fork-tender meats and vegetables are a sure thing when they’re slowly braised
with a little liquid.
• Nutrition: This cooking technique has the option to cook protein and vegetables all in one
pot for a balanced meal. It’s also easy to adjust the thickening agents to comply with diets
like Whole30 or Paleo.

Tools for Braising

• Large Pot
• Dutch Oven
• Oven Mitts
• Wooden Spoon
• Slotted Spoon
• Thermometer
• Slow Cooker

Broil vs. Grill: Know the Difference

In culinary terminology, broil vs. grilling are essentially comparable cooking processes. Grilling
employs that you can cook the food from the bottom. Whereas, you can do broiling in the oven
and it has a heat source on top.
This is the biggest difference, but obviously, there are slight variations in taste, texture, color,
temperatures, and even cooking time. In this article, we shall go over the numerous differences in
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broil vs. grill. Hence, you are able to decide which one is the best for you. We would recommend
reading through the entire thing, as every bit of info is crucial.

Broil vs. Grill: the definition

Broiling:
Broiling mainly refers to roasting the food with a dry heat source from the top rather than from
the bottom. The heat source could be fueled by gas, wood, charcoal, or even induction. Mostly
broiling is carried out in the oven or a special type of grill. It should be kept in mind that not all
ovens are suited for broiling, and many don’t even have that option. We will get on to the
benefits of broiling later. But first, let’s discuss the taste for the broil vs. the grill.

Broiling gives off a nice charred caramelized flavor. However, it fails to give that characteristic
“grilled” flavor that comes with the traditional grill. Moreover, the smokiness of a broil is
reduced, so your beef patties and steaks won’t have that same smoky flavor that you’re used to.
However, broiling has its own benefits. For example, it can be performed indoors with little to no
need for ventilation. It is also a great choice if you are unable to find or afford a grill.

Grilling:
We’re all a little too familiar with grills. Grilling is the process by which food is roasted via a dry
source of heat usually from the bottom. Seeing as how broiling and grilling are essentially the
same; you shouldn’t expect too much of a difference in flavor. But this difference usually arises
from using an oven to broil, and not the direction of heat itself.

For grilling, the food is cooked on grills, grill pans, skillets, or griddles. The taste is similar to
that of broiling, except with a special smoky chary taste that can’t be achieved by an oven. As a
side note, grilling is better for the outdoors and requires a lot of ventilation. This is the best
choice if you want to move the grill with you, throw a tailgate party, or have friends and family
over. But for indoor cooking, grills are not suitable.

Broil vs grill
Broil vs. Grill: The Taste
Now let’s have a look at the difference in taste in our broil vs. grill comparison.

Broiling:
As stated above, the taste is almost the same in broil vs. grill. In broiling, thinner slices of meat
are cut. Since the heat is easily dispersed through thin slices than through thicker broader ones.
This technique gives a slightly burnt taste to the food. You can combine this food with sauces
and fat to enhance the flavors. The only downside is that broiling isn’t able to create smoke
(since it’s done indoors). Hence, does not create a smoky taste or smell in the food. This can be
seen as the only difference between broiling and regular grilling in terms of taste.

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Grilling:
For grilling, the taste is almost the same as a broiling oven’s, except for one major game changer.
Grills provide a lot of smoke, and as such are able to get that perfect smoky flavor in the food.
We find grills to be best for smoky beef and chicken patties, burgers, kebabs, shrimp, seafood,
and mostly for steaks. For vegetables, we would recommend broiling or regular pan cooking.
Grilling makes the perfect sandwiches. However, it gives more of a burnt look and taste, so if
you want something softer then broiling may be your best option.

Broil vs. Grill - Benefits:

An integral component of our broil vs. grill comparison is the benefits of both these methods.

Broiling:
Broiling has a number of benefits and downsides. First, we shall focus mainly on the good
points. Most of these benefits arise not from the practice of broiling itself but are related more to
the use of the oven. In particular, if you choose to broil, you will get the following benefits:

• Indoor compatibility. Broiling is done indoors in the oven. So broiling is best for you if
you can’t go outside due to any reason. We like it since it can be done right from the comfort
of your own home. You don’t have to run rounds of the outdoors. The convenience is better
in the broil vs. the grill.
• Lesser smoke. Although smoke doesn’t necessarily harm the environment (since it’s just
carbon particles in the air), it can be deadly if left indoors. Which is why broiling is the
better option if you don’t want to use a grill or griddle inside. Smoke can be quite the
menace for your neighbors too. Therefore, if you don’t want to annoy anyone then broiling
is best. Or you can go for a smokeless electric grill.
• Affordability. A typical grill can cost you twice as much as an average broiling oven. The
latter can be used for baking as well. However, grills are only good for grilling. So you get a
two-in-one for half the price of a regular grill.

Grilling:
Grilling essentially has a few benefits too, although they don’t seem to compel us as much as
broiling. If you choose to grill your food instead of broiling, you’ll avail the following benefits:

• Smoky texture. A regular grill gives off a lot of smoke. This smoke mixes in with the
surface of the food. Smoke gives that extra smoky flavor that most of us crave. This
smokiness is absolutely absent in broiling. So if you really want to impress the hypothetical
judges, then grill is your best friend. The smokiness may hinder its usability indoors, but
being outdoors helps uplift a lot of people’s spirits. So by all means, in terms of flavor, a
grill is your best choice.
• Larger surface area. Grills provide a larger surface area as compared to broilers. While
broilers may only accommodate up to 5 or 6 different steaks, a grill can accommodate up to

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 8. The surface area is generally larger in grills, so we recommend it if you want to cook for
parties or gatherings.
• Higher temperature. One of the reasons why the “grilled” flavor is so unique and delicious
is high temperatures. Most steaks are cooked at relatively astronomical temperatures. This
amount of heat breaks down the compounds in the food. It gives the meat a delicate yet fiery
taste that can’t be achieved by any old oven broiler. A charred taste and feel are better
provided by the grill vs. the broil.
• Lesser fat. When cooking meat, fat tends to melt off. In ovens, pans, or griddles, fat forms a
pool at the bottom where it gets reabsorbed, leaving the steak extremely fatty and quite
unhealthy.

Broil vs. Grill: Drawbacks

Drawbacks can also be found in the broil vs. grill comparison. Although each of them has its
much-needed benefits, the drawbacks may hinder your final decision:

Broiling:
• No smoke. This gives a relatively bland and smokeless taste to the otherwise awesome in
flavor barbecue.
• Cannot be used outdoors or carried. Unlike the grill, you can’t really carry the oven
around to places, unless it’s specifically designed to be portable.
• Does not remove or melt away fat. Let’s the harmful fat reabsorb.
• Takes a lot of time to cook the food.

Grilling:
• Heavier and lesser portable, but can be carried around to places.
• Higher prices.
• Not good for lightly roasting the food. Only chars or smokes.
• If it’s not an electric grill it cannot be used indoors. Better for the outdoors due to the
immense amount of smoke produced.

Conclusion
In conclusion, both the broiler and the grill have their benefits and downsides. To summarize it
all, broiling is better for non-smoky, indoor, cheaper, light roasting of the food. While grilling is
best for smoky, outdoor, slightly expensive, and more intense roasting of the food. All in all,
both techniques are great. So choose whichever one you like the best in broil vs. grill.

Cinnamon-Rhubarb Muffins
Glazed vegetables are simply too good to make once or twice a year at Thanksgiving and
Christmas. Glazing not only gives vegetables a jewel-like sheen but also concentrates their
flavor. Another plus: glazed vegetables go well with all kinds of main courses, from a whole beef
tenderloin to roast goose. You can serve them on their own in a bowl, but I think they look
smashing arranged on a platter with the roast.
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Glazing means to cook a vegetable in a small amount of liquid, such as water or broth, with
some butter and sugar in a partially covered pan. As the vegetable cooks, it releases its own
savory juices into the liquid in the pan. Those juices become concentrated and turn into a light
natural syrup as the vegetable cooks. By the time the vegetable is tender, the liquid is almost all
gone and the vegetable is coated with a shiny, savory glaze that captures the vegetable’s sweet
essence. Two kinds of glazing: white and brown. The two kinds of glazing are determined by
how long the vegetable is cooked. A white-glazed vegetable is cooked only long enough for the
liquid to evaporate and glaze the vegetable lightly. For a brown glaze, the vegetable is cooked a
little longer—often uncovered—until the glaze on the bottom of the pan lightly caramelizes and
browns. A small amount of water or broth is then added to dissolve the caramelized juices so that
they’ll coat the vegetable. (A little cream added at this stage is also delicious.)

Two kinds of glazing: white and brown. The two kinds of glazing are determined by how long
the vegetable is cooked. A white- glazed vegetable is cooked only long enough for the liquid to
evaporate and glaze the vegetable lightly. For a brown glaze, the vegetable is cooked a little
longer—often uncovered—until the glaze on the bottom of the pan lightly caramelizes and
browns. A small amount of water or broth is then added to dissolve the caramelized juices so that
they’ll coat the vegetable. (A little cream added at this stage is also delicious.)

Pay attention to heat and timing

For the most even cooking, glaze the vegetable in a pan wide enough to accommodate the pieces
in a single layer. I usually add 1 or 2 tablespoons butter and 1/2 to 1 teaspoon sugar per pound of
vegetable, and then I season lightly with salt and pepper. I add enough liquid to come about
halfway up the sides of the pieces. Partially covering the vegetable for most of the cooking keeps
it moist and retains flavor. You can use the pan’s lid, slightly askew, or cut a round of kitchen
parchment to fit just inside the pan.

Glazing is fairly straightforward, but the variables involved—the type and size of vegetable, the
size of the pan, the amount of liquid, and the-temperature—mean you have to be ready to do
some tweaking as the vegetable cooks. Simmer the vegetable gently. If the heat is too high, the
liquid will evaporate before the vegetable is tender. This isn’t a problem as long as you’re paying
attention—simply add more liquid when needed. On the other hand, if the heat is too low, the
vegetable will overcook before the liquid cooks down to a sumptuous glaze. If the vegetable is
tender but there’s a lot of liquid left in the pan, turn up-the heat and remove the cover to boil
away the liquid.

Start checking for doneness after about 15 minutes, depending on the vegetable. It’s done when
all the liquid has evaporated, or, in the case of brown glazing, a brown glaze forms on the bottom
of the pan. When done to your liking, add a tablespoon of water to the pan and swirl the
vegetable pieces around until they’re coated with a shiny glaze. A sprinkling of finely chopped
herbs, such as parsley, basil, mint, or chervil, will give the vegetable a bit of color and a fresh
flavor.
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Glazed vegetables need a little sugar, butter, liquid, and time

Cut large vegetables into chunks or wedges and arrange in a sauté pan just large enough to hold
the pieces in a single layer. Add a few pats of butter and a sprinkling of sugar.

Add enough liquid to come halfway up the sides of the pieces. Water alone is good, or use half
water and half broth for a fuller flavor. A little wine or sherry added near the end boosts flavor.

Cover the vegetable pieces with a round of parchment (or a pot lid askew), bring the liquid to a
high simmer, and then lower the heat and simmer gently.

Start testing after 15 minutes. A knife should penetrate easily with just some slight resistance.
Adjust the liquid level depending on doneness.
Experiment with onions and root vegetables

Heartier vegetables work best because they take a while to cook, allowing the braising liquid to
become deliciously concentrated.

Glazed beets have a delicate flavor. I like to use baby beets because they require no peeling or
precooking. If you use large beets, boil or roast them first until almost tender and then cut them
into wedges before glazing.

Glazed carrots are classic. These are best made with fresh carrots bought with the greens still
attached. I cut the carrots into similarsize pieces, and if I’m feeling really fancy I round their
edges with a small paring knife. On lazier days, I grab a bag of baby carrots at the supermarket,
which already have their edges rounded off (no doubt by some giant machine).

Glazed chestnuts say Christmas and are great with game. I like to use a combination of port and
broth for the glazing.

Glazed onions and shallots are a favorite winter dish. Tiny pearl onions are pretty to look at and
fun to eat but tedious to peel. Instead, I often search for tiny white onions—walnut-size is best—
and glaze those. To make creamed onions, add a quarter cup of cream at the end instead of water
and simmer until the cream thickens slightly and coats the onions.

Glazed parsnips need less sugar since they’re naturally sweet. I sometimes leave the sugar out
completely when glazing parsnips because too much sugar will mask their subtlety and can also
make them too sweet to accompany roasted meats. I cut them in sections as I do carrots.

Glazed turnips are a pleasant surprise. The subtle bitterness of turnips makes a pleasing contrast
to the slightly sweet glaze. If you’re using turnips in the middle of winter, parboil peeled and cut-
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up turnips for 5 minutes to remove some of their bitterness. Glazed turnips are sublime topped
with bits of crisp bacon; use some of the bacon fat in place of the butter to glaze them.

While it is possible to glaze different vegetables together —they just need to be cut the same size
to cook in the same time—the flavors tend to merge and lose their distinction. To keep the
flavors more discrete, I glaze each vegetable separately and combine them just before serving.

Roasting
If you’re looking for an easy way to cook something that doesn’t need constant supervision,
consider roasting. It’s a time-tested way to get mouth-watering results with very little effort and
it all starts with the oven right in your kitchen.

Roasting cooking method guide

Roasting food in the oven is one of the most delicious ways to cook meat, poultry, and even
vegetables. Maybe because there’s one in every home, but your trusty oven is something that is
easily overlooked, especially with all the countertop appliances like pressure cookers, air fryers,
and crock pots.

Roasting food improves the texture of and deepens the flavor profile of what you’re cooking. It
takes advantage of the natural sugars inside of food and gives them a sweeter, more concentrated
taste. Even better, roasting doesn’t need you to be at its side; the oven does the work for you, so
you can tackle other things on your list.

What is Roasting?
Roasting is a dry heat method of cooking, where hot air from an oven, open flame, or another
heat source completely surrounds the food, cooking it evenly on all sides. Roasting is a great way
to take advantage of the extra flavor that a process called the Maillard reaction is responsible for,
giving roasted food its toasty brown color and sweet, caramelized flavors. It’s a simple and
straightforward way to cook, letting the heat do most of the work for you with little need to
interfere.

What Culinary Problem is this Method Solving?

Roasting is a way to uniformly heat and cook food, especially larger cuts, without having to
monitor an open flame. It also makes food taste incredible. A perfect example of this is Brussels
sprouts. Not many people would want to eat a boiled sprout, but roasted? They can’t get enough.

Roasting vs Baking
While both the terms roasting and baking can often be used interchangeably, for this article we’ll
be talking about cooking primarily savory food, like meat, nuts, and vegetables, that possess a
dense structure and don’t undergo a structural change like dough or batter, for example.

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Beef Roasts
• Tenderloin roast: The most tender beef roast that is known and loved for being lean and
succulent. Easy to carve with its velvety texture.
• Ribeye roast: Savory and fine-textured with lots of marbling. A classic holiday roast.
• Tri-tip roast: A little-known cut that packs a flavorful punch. Great on the grill.
• Sirloin tip roast: This boneless, lean cut is a great value. Best when roasted and carved into
thin slices.
• Top Round roast: A lean roast that loves being slow-cooked until tender and then sliced
thinly across the grain.
Two ribeye steaks in a cast iron pan

Lamb Roasts
• Shoulder: A cut that is full of flavor due to its high muscle ratio. Slow roasting works best.
• Rack/Chop: Tender cut from the rib of the lamb; when cut apart, they’re called chops, but
when kept together it’s a rack of lamb.
• Loin chop: These lamb chops look like mini t-bones; they are full of flavor and cook
quickly.
• Leg: Boneless or on the bone, the leg is wonderfully roasted whole and served medium-rare.

Pork Roasts
• Shoulder: A strong, muscular cut that is delicious slow-roasted until tender.
• Pork loin: A classic holiday style roast, pork loin can either be bone-in or boneless, cut into
chops or served as a standing roast.
• Leg: The rear leg is often called a ham and is usually available fresh or cured.
• Side or belly: The fattiest cut of the pig, this is where spareribs and bacon come from.
Pork Butt roast: A large and delicious cut that is ideal for slow roasting.

Vegetable Roasts
Roasting vegetables is wildly popular for the delicious, almost concentrated, sweet flavor dry
heat roasting imparts. Denser vegetables like broccoli, potatoes, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts,
and root vegetables of all kinds are fabulous candidates for roasting. Most vegetables can stand
up to moderate to high heat roasting very well, as long as they’re brushed with olive oil or butter
and turned occasionally to keep the cooking even on all sides.

Roasted cauliflower steaks on a sheet pan

Because the roasting times of many vegetables vary so much, though, try to keep what you’re
roasting uniform in size and density, and use your eye to check for doneness. Potatoes and
squash should pierce easily with the tip of a sharp blade, while green vegetables should look
toasty and brown in parts. There are vegetables that roast well at lower heat. Slow roasted
tomatoes, when cooked at a low temperature, are a wonderful thing to make with summer’s extra
bounty, in case you’re lucky to have the extra tomatoes.

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Small Roasts
Because roasting involves dry heat, smaller cuts of meat, fish, and chicken may not be the best
when roasted. The smaller they are, the more likely they are to dry out in the oven. Some of these
cuts may be better off seared in a pan at first, then merely ‘finished off’ by s short-term roast in
the oven. A perfect example of this would be a duck breast, a pork chop, or a small piece of beef
tenderloin.

Large Roasts
Roasting is a cooking method that is especially ideal for larger cuts of meat like beef tenderloins,
rib roasts, leg of lamb, and loins of pork.

Poultry
Poultry is also wonderful to roast; how else would we cook a Thanksgiving turkey? Chicken
breasts, however, can get dry if not carefully attended to. When whole birds are cooked,
sometimes the breast meat can get dry while the dark meat is still cooking. Many innovative
cooks invert their turkey and chicken breast side down when roasting.

Still, others like to place a piece of aluminum foil over the breasts about halfway through
cooking. In this case, basting comes in very handy to reintroduce the cooking juices onto the skin
of the bird, which helps keep things juicy.

Butterflied chicken on wire rack and sheet pan

Fish
Since whole fish can be roasted, leaving the head on fish helps retain moisture, which helps
protect the fish while cooking. Packing a whole fish in salt, which is broken off before serving,
can also help with moisture and flavor. If the fish is already butchered, filets can be brushed with
melted butter or covered with herbs and lemon slices to keep that delicate flesh tender.

Nuts
Shelled, raw nuts can be roasted dry in the oven, on a sheet tray or in an oven-safe or cast iron
pan. A pine nut is smaller than a hazelnut, though, and because they vary in size and toast up at
different rates, try to roast each nut variety individually before blending in your recipe. Also,
watch the oven carefully, turning the nuts every so often so they toast evenly. Nuts are already
high in oil, so more than likely, there’s no need to oil the pan.

Roasted peanuts on a sheet pan

How to Retain Moisture

• Larding – Fat not only means flavor, it means moisture! Larding is a somewhat advanced
technique for preparing large cuts of meat where long strips of fat are woven through the
meat using a needle called a larding needle.
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• Barding – A traditional technique used in the 1800s, barding involves wrapping meats in a
layer of fat before cooking it. Think basket-woven bacon draped over a turkey…Barding
helps seal in the moisture of the meat while it cooks and helps keep it from overcooking.
• Brining – Once a traditional way to preserve food, soaking food in a saltwater mixture that
may include herbs and spices, brining is making a comeback in today’s kitchens for its
ability to impart flavor and tenderness to the food before it’s cooked.
• Marinating – Easy, versatile, and super effective, marination is the process of soaking foods
in a seasoned, often acidic, liquid before cooking. A marinade usually contains oils, herbs,
and spices to further flavor the food. It can be used to tenderize tougher cuts of meat, but
almost anything can be marinated successfully.
• Basting – When you’re cooking red meat, basting isn’t always recommended because your
goal for meat roasts is a crispy crust. However, basting is an effective way to help chicken,
pork, and turkey stay moist and juicy.

One important tip: if you baste, you must remove the meat from the oven and close the oven
door in order to do it. Don’t baste in the oven with an open door otherwise, you’re likely to lose
all your oven heat. When you lose oven temperature, it adds to your cooking time and increases
the likelihood of uneven cooking. Remove the meat with hot mitts and place it on the top of the
stove or a countertop, close the oven door. Then baste and then put the roast back in the oven.

Roasting Preparation
The night before you plan to roast, season or marinate the meat ahead of time so that the
flavorings have enough time to penetrate the meat. Take it out of the refrigerator about half an
hour before you plan to roast it.

Preheating oven – For accuracy and getting the best results with your recipe, always allow your
oven to preheat to the recommended temperature before adding the food.
Where to set the oven rack – When it comes to roasting, generally the middle rack is the
optimum place to cook food. The top rack is a better location for broiling, and heat is at its
hottest near the bottom, so the middle rack, in most cases, gives you the best of both worlds. Of
course, for larger roasts like turkey and standing rib roast, you’d need to adjust the rack towards
the bottom to accommodate the size of the roast, but that’s perfectly fine.

Roasting Temperatures
Vegetables: A moderate temperature near 375°F (191ºC). The water inside evaporates quickly to
concentrate the flavor without the food browning too deeply or becoming too soft.

Large Meat Roasts: Use a low to moderate heat, 250 to 375°F (121 to 375ºC), to cook evenly
and slowly. High temperatures would burn the outside of the roast before it’s done on the inside,
although a high heat at the very onset, for a short period of time, can be beneficial to get
browning.

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Some cooks like to start a larger roast off at a higher temperature, 400 to 500°F (204 to 260ºC) to
get the outside browned. Then turn the oven down and cook the rest of the way at a more
moderate setting, around 350°F (177ºC).

Small Meat Roasts: High heat roasting, at temperatures 400°F (204ºC) and above. Works well
for small, tender cuts such as tenderloins because it quickly produces a browned crust, and the
meat cooks adequately in a short time.

Serving Temperatures
Beef and Lamb:
Medium-rare at 135ºF (57ºC)
Medium at 140 to 145ºF (60 to 63ºC)

Poultry:
White meat (breast) at 160 to 165ºF (71 to 74ºC)
Dark meat (thighs and legs) at 170ºF (77ºC)

Pork:
Should be cooked to 145ºF (63ºC)

Veal:
Medium at 145 to 150ºF (63 to 66ºC)
Medium-well at 155ºF (168ºC)

Fish:
Rare at 110°F (43ºC) for tuna only
Medium-rare at 125°F (52ºC) for tuna or salmon
Medium-rare at 140ºF (60ºC) for white fish

Carryover Cooking
When you roast meats and poultry and you take them out of the oven, they continue to cook; the
internal temperature rises just a little over time before it begins to cool down. This is called
carryover cooking, so you need to account for this extra bit of cooking especially when you’re
roasting red meat. Letting a roast rest for 10-20 minutes is allowing carryover cooking to do its
thing, while keeping the juices inside the roast.

Tools for Roasting

• Roasting Pan
• Butchers’ Twine
• Dutch Oven
• Oven Mitts
• Sheet Pan
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• Baster
• Meat Thermometer

There’s no easier way to make everyday food sparkle a little brighter and taste a little bolder than
by using a marinade. Once you’re familiar with the fundamentals of marinating, you can ditch
the store-bought stuff and make your own with ingredients that are already in your pantry.

Pouring marinade over chicken inside a zip lock bag

Marinades are more than just a pretty face. In fact, this simple blend of ingredients can work
together to add flavor and moisture to almost anything. Certain ingredients like salt penetrate
beyond the surface of the meat and adding a whole new level of deliciousness to what you’re
cooking.

Here, I’ll talk a bit about what each part of a successful marinade does to your food, as well as
some tips for making marinades at home. It’s easier than you might think! Marinades used
judiciously can work to tenderize meat, add moisture, and enhance the flavor of food, making
tough cuts of meat much more palatable.

What is a marinade?
Marinating is a process of soaking meats in a seasoned liquid, called a marinade, before
cooking. Marinades often use an acid (like vinegar or citrus juice) or an enzyme (like mango,
papaya, or kiwi fruit) to enhance flavors and change surface texture. The acid or enzyme in a
marinade causes the meat’s tissue to weaken on the surface but must be used minimally and not
for extended periods of time. Otherwise, the meat will become mushy, tough, and dry. A
successful marinade has the right balance of acid, oil, and seasonings.

Flavoring the surface

Chicken breasts with surface coating of marinade
Soaking a piece of meat in a marinade will only penetrate so far into the surface of the meat,
millimeters at best. It’s a technique that works well with thinner, flat cuts or pieces of meat that
have been cut into cubes or slices. When you make a marinade out of ginger, honey, and soy
sauce, for example, the ginger and honey remain on the outside of the meat, but the salt in the
soy sauce can penetrate a bit deeper into the interior.

Flavor absorbing inside

Salt first draws out the liquid from the meat by osmosis; then the brine is reabsorbed into the
meat while breaking down muscle structures. The brine draws water-soluble flavors further
down below the surface into the cut, like onions and garlic. Oils are also used to transfer fat-
soluble flavors from the seasonings like herbs, chilis, and some spices onto the surface of the
meat.

Marinating a flank steak in a baking dish

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Benefits of marinating meat
• Taste/Flavor: Here’s where you can get super creative! There are endless ways to make
your very own custom marinade that’s suitable for every type of cuisine out there. With just
a few basic pantry items, you can add a gigantic boost of flavor to otherwise ordinary tasting
meats and vegetables. The choice is yours: add spice, smoke, or sweetness.

• Texture: When you marinate, flank steak can melt in your mouth, and a grilled chicken
breast is the juiciest thing in the world. Marinades soften leaner meats that tend to be dry and
make tougher cuts tastier.

• Moisture/Tenderness: Similar to brining, marinating is an effective way to introduce extra

moisture into meat that can get too dry when cooked, as well as making what you marinate
more tender. You may know that brining relies on salt to do its work, but a marinade is so
much more than that, using acid, fat, seasonings, herbs, spices, sugar, and salt to not only
tenderize but enhance the flavor of the food you cook.

Health benefits of marinades

Making your own marinades lets you control what you put in them, which is far better than
buying a jar of something off the shelf that might contain dubious ingredients or unwanted
calories.

Also, using marinades can help reduce the carcinogenic compounds from high heat grilling and
broiling, called heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
providing a buffer for the food while it cooks.

Pre-portioned ingredients for a marinade

Basic ingredients in a marinade
• Fat: You need some fat in a marinade because it helps transfer fat-soluble flavors onto the
meat and also helps retain moisture. Fats help round out flavor profiles and keep sharp or
acidic flavors from dominating. This could be olive oil, sesame oil, yogurt, buttermilk, tahini
or mayonnaise.
• Salt: Salt will help the water-soluble flavors in the marinade penetrate the tissues and remain
behind after cooking. Salt also restructures the protein in the meat to create more gaps for
moisture to fill in. It also loosens the muscle fibers to make tough cuts easier to chew.
Examples of salty stuff include miso, pickle juice, sea salt, soy sauce, or fish sauce.
• Acid: Weakens the surface proteins in the meat and naturally boosts flavors. This is a large
family of ingredients such as citrus juice, pickle juice, balsamic vinegar, apple cider vinegar,
hot sauce, and buttermilk.
• Enzymes: Helps to break down the connective tissue in the meat, mostly on the surface.
Papaya or papain (a protein-digesting enzyme that used as a common meat tenderizer) can
be used.
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• Seasonings: One word- flavor. That dry rub mix can be turned into a marinade. Or add chili
powder, adobo seasoning, peppercorns, ginger, garlic, Worcestershire sauce, curry paste,
tamarind paste, and mustards of all kinds.
• Herbs: Adding herbs to your food, no matter what it is, can only be a good thing. Used fresh
or dry, herbs of every variety under the sun have the power to up a marinade’s ante. Thyme,
chives, basil, marjoram, tarragon, dill, lovage, oregano, parsley, or mint are all good
candidates.
• Sugar: Adding some type of sweetener adds to the complexity of the food you’re making.
Ketchup, honey, agave, barbecue sauce, molasses, even soft drinks can be used to sweeten
up a marinade.

Advantages and disadvantages

Even though making a marinade is fun, easy and completely adaptable, there are some things to
keep in mind.

• Time: Marinating some food too long can result in tough, dry, or poor texture. That means
that you can’t let those shrimp sit all weekend in their marinade, you have to cook them.
• Adding Acid: Lime juice can do wonders for a pork tenderloin, but too much acid in a
marinade can dry out and toughen chicken or meat, so finding the right oil/sugar/acid/salt
balance is critical. It can also “cook” delicate meats like seafood and shellfish.
• Sugar: Marinades containing sweeteners like sugar, agave, honey, or molasses will burn
quicker, so keep an eye on the food and move whatever you’re grilling to indirect heat if it
starts to burn.

How to safely marinate meat

Because raw seafood, poultry, pork, and meat may contain harmful bacteria which could
contaminate the marinade, it’s important to take a few safety precautions:

• Marinate in the Refrigerator: Keeping raw food cold while marinating inhibits bacterial
growth. Never allow the meat to marinate at room temperature.
• Do Not Reuse a Marinade: By all means, make extra marinade if you’d like to serve a
sauce alongside your grilled food, but put it in a separate container and don’t use it to
marinate the meat, seafood, or poultry. Never serve marinade that has come into contact with
uncooked meat, seafood, or chicken.
• Use Non-reactive Materials: Acid in marinades can react with some metals and pottery
glazes, therefore use glass or food-safe plastic to marinate foods. Never marinate in
aluminum cookware or aluminum foil.

How long to marinate foods

Chicken breasts on a sheet pan showing the colors difference of marinade times
Depending on the type of marinade recipe you’re using, meats could be marinated in the
refrigerator for anything from 30 minutes to overnight. Vegetables should only be marinated
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for up to 10 minutes or so. With both acid and enzyme marination, be careful not to over-
marinate meat, as prolonged exposure to acid can cause it to become tough, or especially in the
case of seafood, break down entirely.

Salmon fillet marinating in sauce

Types of food to marinate
• Seafood: Fish and shellfish should marinate for only 30 minutes to an hour; any longer and
the flesh might start to “cook” in the acid and yield mushy results.

• Chicken: A chicken marinade is great for the whole chicken or individual parts. If you’re
planning to cook a whole chicken, consider using a technique called spatchcocking to flatten
the carcass. Furthermore, cutting a chicken into smaller pieces or removing the skin will
help absorb the marinade. Two hours of marinating is plenty of time for the meat to soak up
the flavor, but poultry can marinate for up to two days in the refrigerator. Very acidic
marinades can toughen the meat over time, so read the recipe and follow the
recommendations.

• Beef and Pork: A steak marinade is ideal for tougher cuts like flank, skirt, sirloin, round,
and hanger. It also does wonders for pork tenderloin and pork loin, if the loin is cubed into
smaller pieces. These cuts can marinate up to 24 hours. Flat cuts of meat benefit the most
from tenderizing marinades. Stay away from better-quality steaks, like porterhouse or
ribeye, because marinating can ruin them.

• Tofu: Unlike meat, tofu can absorb flavor and can be marinated for as long as 24 hours.

• Vegetables: Avoid marinating soft vegetables longer than about 10 minutes; they will throw
off water and become soggy before they hit the grill. Firm vegetables like potatoes, carrots,
squash, etc. can marinate for up to 30 minutes.

Preparing foods to marinate

• Size- Whole vs. Pieces: Marinating works best with thinner, flat cuts of meat, or more
substantial cuts if they’re cut into uniform sized cubes or thin slices. Of course, this depends
on what you’re cooking, but larger roasts don’t generally fare as well.
• Skewers: Keeping smaller cut-up pieces of meat and shrimp in place and turning them while
cooking on a grill can be a little tricky. I recommend using skewers to keep the parts out of
the coals, even if you’re not making kabobs. The pieces can be removed from the skewer
after they’ve cooked for serving.

Grilled flank steak sliced on a cutting board

Best ways to cook marinated foods

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• Grill: Go ahead and grill to your heart’s content! The heat of the grill can caramelize the
sugar in some marinades, so watch the food carefully. Grilling is a perfect way to cook up
some kabobs or flank steak to slice up thin and enjoy in tacos.
• Broil: If you’re curious about the top feature inside your oven, by all means, broil! Try some
garlic, parsley, olive oil, and lemon zest marinated shrimp which cook up fast under the
direct heat of the broiler.
• Bake: Chicken breasts can get very dry if baked all by themselves, so this method works
well with a marinade. Try a yogurt, turmeric, garlic, and garam masala mixture slathered
over the pieces.
• Roast: Roasted pork roast might taste fabulous in a marinade of apple cider vinegar,
coriander, honey, and garlic.

Tools for marinating

• Resealable Bags: A zip-top bag makes marinating super easy and mess-free, and ensures
that the meat gets direct contact with the marinade. You can mix everything without getting
your hands dirty, too.
• Skewers: Using a skewer is a wonderful way to grill marinated meat efficiently. Bamboo
skewers should be soaked in water for at least twenty minutes, so the wood doesn’t burn on
the grill. Stainless steel skewers can be used right away.
• Whisk: A stainless steel whisk works wonders when mixing up all those herbs, mustards,
and oils.
• Bowl: Bowls of various sizes are always handy, and especially so for marinating without
using a bag. Use glass. Make sure the bowl you’re using is glass, stainless steel, or food-safe
plastic. Avoid pottery bowls that may have lead glazes or react with the acid in the liquid.
• Baking Dish: A glass baking dish or casserole is a nice thing to have on hand for marinating
a flank steak or larger cut of meat because it provides the space and surface area without
crowding.

If you make up your mind to master one cooking technique, you simply cannot do better than
start with sautéing. It’s versatile, fast, and produces deliciously browned meat and vegetables
every time.

All about the saute cooking method

Sautéing is most likely something you’ve already done without really thinking about it. If
you’ve ever caramelized onions or softened some cherry tomatoes and peppers to throw on top
of pasta for a quick and healthy dinner, you probably sautéed them first.

It’s an interchangeable term to some, associated with pan-frying, but in reality sautéing uses
considerably less oil to cook food and a lot more action with similar, tasty results. Let’s dive into
the ins and outs of this incredible, versatile culinary method!

Sautéing is a way to cook food and give it a lot of flavor in a short amount of time.
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What is Sautéing?
Sautéing is a dry heat method of cooking food that uses a small amount of oil or fat in a shallow
pan over relatively high heat. Not only is it an ideal way to sear or brown food before some other
method of cooking, but it’s a great way to cook smaller, even-sized pieces of food as well, by
tossing them in the pan and shaking them up over the curved lip until cooked through.

Sauté comes from the French verb sauter, which means “to jump.” The jumping refers to the way
the pieces of food appear to jump in the pan as the moisture is forced out by the high heat of the
pan and oil. Jump might also refer to the motion chefs use to manipulate the pan, tossing the
pieces a bit into the air so they cook evenly.

Sautéing vs. Stir-frying

Sautéing cooks large or small pieces of food in a wide, shallow pan in a small amount of hot fat
over medium-high heat, turning often or just once. When you make a stir-fry, you usually keep
the food in constant motion, but when you sauté, you can let the food rest at times during the
cooking.

Selecting the Right Pan for Sautéing

Technically speaking, sautéing is done in a pan with straight sides is known as a sautoir. You
need a pan that is wider than it is tall, and that will distribute heat evenly without burning your
food and be highly responsive to sudden temperature adjustments. Look for a solid bottom; an
uneven bottom will produce unevenly cooked food and hot spots where food can scorch.

• Skillet: A skillet is a pan with sloped sides. It’s also sometimes called a frypan or frying pan.
The slanted sides make this pan perfect for stir-frying and quick cooking techniques where
you’re moving ingredients around in the pan.
• Sauté Pan: A sauté pan has straight sides, with a larger surface area, which makes it a good
choice for searing meat or reducing a pan sauce. Look for one that’s made of heavy gauge
stainless steel, ideally with aluminum sandwiched in-between the layers.
• Wok: If you have a wok that you love, by all means, use it. It does a great job of cooking
small pieces of food and vegetables.
• Cast Iron: A cast-iron skillet can be used over high heat to brown foods beautifully, and if
well seasoned, it’s also nonstick.
• Nonstick: Because of their ultra-slick surface, non-stick pans is that they are not conducive
to making as flavorful a sauce as a regular pan. They still work well if you’re not worried
about making a sauce.

Importance of Pan Size

What size of a pan do you need for all this sautéing? First of all, you need a pan large enough
that encourages fast evaporation, in a size that can fit your food in a single layer without too
many overlaps (which encourages steaming) or too much empty space (which can burn the oil).
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However, if you’re cooking greens or mushrooms, which cook down considerably in volume as
they release moisture, you can choose a smaller pan.

How to Properly Prep the Food

• Uniform Sizes: If you’re cooking a number of different items, cut them up into the same size
to make sure they’ll cook evenly. Since some foods are denser than others, they may cook at
a slower rate. For example, as a carrot is harder than a mushroom, cut the carrot smaller than
the mushroom.
• Meat Temperature: Allow the meat you’re cooking to get up to room temperature before
cooking it, by letting it sit out for 15 minutes or so. This will help it brown in the hot pan
more effectively.
• Dry Your Food: In order to avoid steaming your food, make sure there’s no excess moisture
or marinade when you add it to the hot fat. Blot off any excess with paper towels.
• Properly Heating the Pan: Heat your pan over a medium-high to high flame. Pre-heating
allows the metal to expand and fill any tiny scratches in the pan, making food stick less.
Also, adding the fat to an already hot pan allows the fat or oil to get hotter faster.

Selecting and Using the Right Fat

Any good quality, neutral vegetable oil with a higher smoke point will do the trick: grapeseed,
olive oil, canola, peanut, safflower or avocado oil. Butter works well, and so does clarified
butter, which has a higher smoke point.

How Much Oil to Use in the Pan

Unlike pan-frying, use only enough oil, clarified butter or ghee to keep the pan lubricated, so
lightly coat the bottom of the pan. Too much fat will cause the food to fry rather than just to slide
and may interfere with the development of fond. A uniform coating of oil will eliminate any
sticking spots and produce an equally uniform sear.

How to Tell the Fat is Hot Enough

Here’s a good test for making sure the pan is hot enough to sauté is to sprinkle just a few drops
of water in the pan. The drops should immediately boil vigorously and evaporate within a couple
of seconds. However, if your oil is boiling, look out – it’s way too hot to cook in! It shouldn’t
even be smoking; it’s ready when you see the fat rippling or hear it foaming.

The Sautéing Technique

If you’re cooking a single cut of meat like a fish filet or cutlet, let the food develop the color and
crust you want on one side before shifting it at all. When it’s done, it should naturally release
from the pan with little effort. In the case of meat or larger foods, flip only once.

The vigorous sauté technique involves gripping the handle of the sauté pan firmly, and using a
sharp elbow motion to quickly move the pan back toward your body, repeating as necessary to
ensure the ingredients have been thoroughly “jumped.” Tossing or stirring the food in the pan by
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doing this too often, however, can cause the pan to cool faster and make the process take longer.
This might take a bit of practice!

Don’t Overcrowd the Pan

Too much food will lower the heat you worked so hard for and cause the items to steam rather
than brown. It is far better to sauté your food in batches than crowd the pan and risk mushy, limp
food.

How to get Maillard Browning

Sautéing is one of the best ways to achieve the Maillard reaction, which as you may know is the
key to the browning of food that we know and love. Letting food have direct contact with the
bottom of the pan is one way to get this. But a tiny pinch of baking soda can work wonders to up
that browning, too.

A Fabulous Trick for Quick Caramelized Onions:

If you love caramelized onions, but don’t make them as often as you’d like because of the time
they take, add just a pinch of baking soda to the oil and onions in the pan and they will
caramelize perfectly and quickly.

Deglazing
When you sauté, the pan will develop what is known as a fond – the browned bits left on the pan
during cooking. If what you’re cooking calls for it, making a pan gravy or sauce using a process
called deglazing could be your next step. After you remove the food, pour some stock, wine,
beer, or juice into the pan and allow it to reduce and thicken. You can add fresh herbs, season it
to taste, and add a little butter to finish the sauce and give it a velvety texture.

Types of Food to Sauté

Virtually all foods can be sautéed with a few exceptions. With meat, only use tender cuts without
a lot of tough connective tissue. Because it is a dry heat method, sautéing will definitely make
tough cuts of meat even more so.

For example, a lamb shank or brisket, which needs braising for a longer period of time, is not a
candidate for sautéing. Even tender steaks that are thick, over one inch, could first be seared in a
sauté pan and then completed in the oven. Sautéing is a better method for thinner cuts of meat
like fish, veal, pork, and chicken fillets, or meat cut into smaller pieces or strips.

Any vegetable can be sautéed, especially the more tender vegetables: green beans, asparagus,
mushrooms, zucchini, and peppers. Harder varieties such as potatoes and other root vegetables
may need to be cut smaller or par-cooked in boiling water beforehand. Keep in mind that
sautéing is quick-cooking, so the food must be small and tender enough so that the center is done
by the time the outside has browned.

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Benefits of Sautéing
• Time: There may be no quicker way to cook up dinner because sautéing uses relatively high
heat and motion to quickly brown meats and vegetables.
• Taste: High heat means more flavor, due to that increasingly famous Maillard reaction,
which caramelizes the sugars in the food and makes everything taste fabulous.
• Texture: The dry heat method of cooking makes food cook quickly without turning it
mushy
• Nutrition: Sautéing involves using small amounts of oil to cook food in a short amount of
time, retaining its nutrients.

Tools for Sautéing

• Sauté Pan
• Spatulas
• Tongs
• Skillet
• Pot Holders
• Wok
• Wooden Spoons

Gratinating

Gratinating - Gratiner
Au gratin is a term familiar to most of us and we usually think of it as having cheese melted over
the top of a dish and then browned. In fact, the proper use of the term means to crumbs
combined with a high fat product such as butter, cream, cheese or eggs for the topping. The
crumbs may consist of breadcrumbs, crushed potato chips, crushed crackers, or even corn flake
crumbs.

To prepare a dish au gratin, place the product in a dish, top with gratin and then place the dish
under a salamander or in the oven, with a high heat, 475° to 550°F, until a golden brown crust
forms. Larger slices of product like meat or fish, and items with a high moisture content like
tomatoes, must be done at a lower heat for a longer time to insure they have the proper doneness
when they reach the right gratin brown

From coffee cakes to snickerdoodles, there’s a whole lot of science going on behind the scenes
of your favorite baked treat. When it comes to baking, a little knowledge goes a long way for
incredible and delicious results.

Baking cooking method guide

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Many people who love to improvise and get creative in the kitchen enjoy cooking, but sometimes
even the most dedicated home chefs draw the line at baking. Why is baking so difficult? Well,
part of the reason is that baking relies on the fundamentals of science to produce successful
results. For this reason, it’s often referred to as the chemistry of cooking. But even if chemistry
isn’t quite your thing, don’t let that discourage you!
People spend a lifetime devoted to pastry making, bread making, and baking. However, all you
need to know is a little bit about the fundamentals of baking, the ingredients involved, and the
chemical transformations that happen when you mix everything up. Soon you’ll be ready to bake
whatever it is your heart desires.

What is Baking?
Baking is a type of dry heat cooking, similar to roasting, that’s done in an enclosed space such as
an oven, not over a direct flame. Most people think of roasting as something that’s done to
savory meats and vegetables, while baking usually refers to desserts or savory dishes using flour.
Others use both ‘baking’ and ‘roasting’ interchangeably.

The Process- How it Works?

Broadly speaking for bread, pastries, cookies, and cakes, baking uses flour, sugar, eggs, liquid,
salt, and leavening agents that chemically change with movement and heat. During baking, heat
is evenly transferred to the center of the item that’s baked, making a crust on the outside with a
soft center. The dry heat of baking changes the form of starches in the food and causes its outer
surfaces to brown, giving it an attractive appearance and taste. The color change on the surface
and creation of new flavors is often due to Maillard browning and caramelization of sugars.

What Culinary Problem is this Method Solving?

Baking is a way to uniformly heat foods in an enclosed space. For savory foods, it helps to
gently cook and tenderize each piece, and keep it moist. It also evenly warms casserole dishes
and creates a crispy layer on top if cheese or breadcrumbs are added. For sweet treats and bread
baked goods, baking turns a raw dough or batter into golden products with irresistible contrasting
flavors and textures created by the exterior crust and crumbly or chewy centers.

Baking at Low vs. High Temps

Some baked goods with high-fat content can tolerate higher cooking temperatures for part of the
time in the oven, but most baked goods that use a higher proportion of flour to butter or fat
benefit from even cooking at moderate temperatures. Some yeast pieces of bread, like
sourdough, which are very low in fat use the highest baking temperatures. Here are some
common temperature ranges and when to use them.
Part of the science of baking is understanding the process of what happens to the fats, sugar,
proteins, starches, and gasses while in the oven. If something is baked at a low temperature, the
process takes place more slowly and evenly throughout the product with less overlap in
processes.

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The gentle rise in temperature allows the external part of what you’re baking to react in similar
fashion to the inside. Conversely, batter placed in a high-temperature oven will have a number of
processes going on in quick succession and with an uneven distribution. In this scenario, the
recipe will undergo all of the steps more quickly than the internal portions. It all depends on your
desired end taste and texture.

For example, baking a cake at 350ᵒF is sort of a happy medium between 300ᵒF and 400ᵒF and
creates a cake that has lightness, texture, and ideal caramelization.

Cooking Temperatures for Baked Goods

• 325 to 350°F (163 to 177ºC): Probably the most common range for everyday baking.
Temperatures over 300°F are where you begin to see caramelization (browning of sugars)
and the Maillard reaction (browning of proteins). Cakes and cookies are also typically baked
at 350°F since they have a fair amount of sugar. If baked at a higher temperature, the
exterior of the cake could burn before it is fully cooked in the center.
• 375 to 400°F (191 to 204ºC): Shorter-term baking favors a slightly higher temperature to
ensure crisp edges to cookies or baked goods using cheese.
• 425° t0 450°F (218 to 232ºC): This is where you’ll want to do any short-term baking
because the burst of high heat ensures a golden color without having to stay in the oven for
too long. For example, this is the ideal temperature for puff pastry, since you want the oven
to be over 400°F to make sure the steam releases and puffs up the pastry.
• 475° to 500°F (246 to 260ºF): If you’re turning up the heat to the highest temperatures your
oven can go, you’re likely making pizza or pieces of bread. A very high temperature will
cause the bread or pizza dough to rise and cook before the gluten has a chance to set.

Types of Baking
• Cakes: Whether it’s layer cakes, sheet cakes, cupcakes, or cheesecakes, there are hundreds
of different kinds of glorious cakes. Most fall into two basic categories, depending on the
quantity of fat used: shortened cakes, using shortening, butter, or oil, or unshortened cakes
using little to no fat.
• Custards: Rich and creamy, custards are thick desserts made with eggs and milk. Crème
brûlée, pots de creme, and pannacotta are some of the most popular.
• Chocolate Baking: One of the most popular types of baking, using chocolate in baking is a
sure fire way to gain big points with any chocolate lover. Knowing the right type of
chocolate, from cocoa content to fat content, is key.
• Bread: An age-old food, bread is completely satisfying and very rewarding to make at
home. From flatbread to focaccia, pizza dough to baguette, many types of bread use some
form of yeast as a leavening agent to achieve airy holes and a nutty flavor. Irish soda bread
is an exception, that uses chemical leavening agents for a quick crusty product.
• Quick breads: Flaky buttermilk biscuits, banana bread, muffins, and doughnuts are all
examples of quick bread, which usually use chemical leavening instead of yeast for their
rise.
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• Pastry: Love phyllo, croissants, and puff pastry? Then the pastry category is something
worth checking out. It’s a broad family with some of the most challenging types of baking,
but all use a combination of fat, flour, water, and salt to achieve their unparalleled texture
and mouthfeel.
• Pies and tarts: Flaky crusts for savory and sweet applications alike, pies and tarts rely on a
thin dough that is tender and crisp at the same time. Think crostatas, double crust pies, fruit
tarts, and galettes.
• Cookies: Cookies are loved all over the world, and are incredibly versatile. From traditional
holiday recipes to casual snacks, they span a wide range of varieties. They can be dropped,
sliced, molded, rolled, cut, baked into bars, sandwiched with fillings, and decorated with
colorful icings, sugars, and toppings.

Stages of Baking
There are 9 stages of baking for batters and dough from the start to after it’s been freshly baked.
All of these contribute to the texture, structure, and taste.

• Gases Form: Carbon dioxide, steam, and air that is present before or develop during baking
affect the final texture.
• Gases Trapped: Egg and/or gluten proteins are expandable networks that trap gases in the
product.
• Starches Gelatinize: Starch granules in flour/grains absorb ~ 10X their weight in moisture
and expand at 140ºF (60ºC).
• Proteins Coagulate: Proteins in gluten, dairy, and eggs solidify at 160ºF (71ºC), setting the
majority of the structure.
• Fats Melt: Fat droplets disperse and steam is released. The fat coats the starch granules to
help moisten and tenderize.
• Water Evaporates: During baking, the water turns to steam and evaporates, with continued
heating a dried crust forms.
• Sugars Caramelize: Sugars heated above 320ºF (160ºC) carmelize, thus develop deeper
color and flavor.
• Carryover Baking: Depending on the product and time it sits on the pan after baking affects
heat transfer to the center.
• Staling: Change in texture and aroma due to moisture loss. The structure of starch granules
modifies called starch retrogradation. This causes drier, firmer, crumbly, or less crisp
texture. This happens faster at refrigerated temperatures of 40ºF (4ºC), so keep baked goods
at room temperature or frozen as long as there is not perishable filling.

The Role of Gluten

Part of the reason people tend to think of baking as ‘magical’ is that relatively simple ingredients
go into making such a vast array of delectable things. It all comes down to gluten, the way that
flour transforms with kneading, blending, and beating, into something else altogether. Gluten is a
protein that is derived from wheat flour and developed when incorporated with water and mixed.
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While technically flour doesn’t contain gluten, once it’s mixed with a liquid, kneaded, then
baked, the hydrated proteins in the flour cause gluten formation to occur in the baked good.

Room Temperature Ingredients

Unless you’re making a flaky pie crust or some other recipe that relies on cold fat and flour for
ultimate flakiness, most professional bakers require their ingredients to be at room temperature,
or even warm, when making a recipe. Room temperature ingredients allow for a fine texture and
light mouthfeel because the eggs are better able to emulsify (join fats with liquids) with the sugar
in baking recipes, and butter (or a butter substitute) is better combined as well. If you’re caught
with cold eggs, use some warm water to get them up to temperature before adding them to the
mixing bowl.

Measurements
When baking, try to remember that a recipe is more of a formula than a set of guidelines to
follow. Ratios and proportions have to be correct, so it’s very important to measure accurately
for the best results.

Preheating Oven
Preheating an oven is especially important with baking when you use yeast, baking soda and
baking powder as leavenings, all of which react to heat. Your recipe also cooks faster in a
preheated oven because you’ve got the right temperature from the start and your dish can start
cooking properly as soon as you put it in the oven. An oven thermometer will help you calibrate
your oven’s temperature to see if your own oven runs a few degrees too cool or too hot.

Conventional vs. Convection Oven

Another option is to do conventional or convection baking. Conventional ovens cook food by
surrounding it with hot air, while convection circulates the air with an internal fan for more even
and often times quicker cooking. This may require adjustments to temperature and baking times.

Where to Set the Oven Rack

Believe it or not, where you set the racks in your oven makes a big difference in the outcome of
your baked goods. Not all ovens heat consistently, so it’s important to follow a few simple rules.

To bake a cake on one rack, place the rack on the lower third of the oven, just below the center.
If baking multiple pans, be sure to rotate the pans from the front to the back about halfway
through the baking time to cook evenly.

For cookies, try to bake in the center of the oven. If you’re baking multiple trays of cookies, use
the lower and upper third of the oven and rotate the pans from lower to upper and back to front
about halfway through.

Carryover Cooking
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Most baked goods don’t have the density to keep cooking once taken out of the oven, which is
called carryover cooking. Make sure that when you remove your recipe from the oven, it’s
completely done, and allow to cool according to the instructions before moving to the next step
of the recipe. One way to set the exterior of the product and gently prolong heat transfer to the
center is to keep the item on/in the pan for a few minutes after removing it from the oven.
Denser, higher fat cakes like cheesecake can continue to cook, however.

Leavening Agents
Unless you want everything you bake to be flat and hard like a roof shingle, you’ll need some
kind of leavening agent to help your recipe not only taste good but feel good, too. The
workhorses of the baking world, leavening agents are often a crucial ingredient in baking,
responsible for giving baked goods their light and porous texture. Be sure to measure carefully
and use the exact amount of each type in the recipe you’re using. Too much or too little can
make a huge difference in the outcome of your recipe. Here are some basic types:

Chemical (C02) – Baking powder (a combination of baking soda, calcium phosphate, and
sodium aluminum sulfate). The most common type of baking powder is double-acting, which
releases some carbon dioxide when moisture is added, and the rest is released when heated in the
oven. Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) is alkali and can make your recipe taste “off” unless it’s
used in combination with acidic ingredients (buttermilk, applesauce, honey, brown sugar,
molasses, vinegar).
Yeast (CO2) – A leavening agent primarily used in bread making, yeast is a single-celled,
microscopic plant that thrives on simple sugars in the dough, turning them into carbon dioxide.
This is what gives bread all its many air bubbles. Yeast can come in active dry form, compressed
cake form, a fast-rising form, or as a starter, like sourdough starter. It needs, moisture, warmth,
sugar, and time to do its work, a process called fermentation.
Air – By beating egg whites, creaming ingredients, and sifting dry ingredients, you’re
incorporating air into your batters and doughs, which when bake will become lighter.
Steam – Steam needs water and heat in order to become a leavening agent. Water molecules get
hot enough to change from a liquid to a gas, leaving behind big, fluffy holes in baked goods;
éclairs, popovers, and cream puffs are famous examples of steam leavening.

Benefits of Baking
Baking is important for making bread, cakes, pastries, custards, casseroles and various other
common foods that we eat. It’s also an important part of our culture, and a great way to diversify
our diet.

• Time: Most baked goods don’t take much time to make, unless you’re making a complex
recipe or something that takes considerable rising time, like yeast bread. A batch of cookies
or a pan of brownies comes together in under an hour.
• Taste: We all have our favorites, but there isn’t anything quite like the alchemy of eggs,
sugar, and flour. Everything in moderation, however!
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• Texture: Baking is all about its many beautiful textures. Sticking to a recipe’s
measurements and using the right temperature when baking is key to getting that ideal
texture that baked goods are known for: flaky, crunchy, soft, cloud-like, ethereal, dense and
rich, or silky smooth.
• Nutrition: While nutrition varies depending on your recipe, baking is a great way to
incorporate whole grains, healthy fats, alternative flours, and even fruits and vegetables into
your diet.

Tools for Baking

• Non-Stick Bakeware
• Leaveners & Yeast
• Baking Mat
• Oven Mitts
• Cooling Rack
• Baking Cups
• Adjustable Rolling Pin

Stocks contain four essential parts: a major flavoring ingredient, liquid, aromatics, and mirepoix:
The major flavoring ingredient consists of bones and trimmings for meat and fish stocks and
vegetables for vegetable stock.

The liquid most often used in making stock is water.

Aromatics are herbs, spices, and flavorings that create a savory smell; these include sachet
d'épices or bouquet garni.

Mirepoix is a mixture of coarsely chopped onions, carrots, and celery that is used to flavor
stocks, soups, and stews.
There are many types of stock:
• White stock: A clear, pale liquid made by simmering poultry, beef, or fish bones.
• Brown stock: An amber liquid made by first browning/roasting poultry, beef, veal, or game
bones.
• Fumet: A highly flavored stock made with fish bones.
• Court bouillon: An aromatic vegetable broth.
• Glace: A reduced stock with a jelly-like consistency, made from brown stock, chicken stock,
or fish stock.
• Remouillage: A weak stock made from bones that have already been used in another
preparation. It is sometimes used to replace water as the liquid used in a stock.
• Bouillon: The liquid that results from simmering meats or vegetables; also referred to as
broth.

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When using bones for stock, they must be cut to the right size and prepared by blanching,
browning, or sweating.

Degreasing is the process of removing fat that has cooled and hardened from the surface of the
stock by lifting or scraping it away before the stock is reheated. Degreasing stock gives it a
clearer look and removes some of the fat content.

To cool stock, follow good food safety practices and limit the time the stock spends in the
temperature danger zone (TDZ). To cool stock, place it in a clean stockpot, and then put that pot
into an ice-water bath. Stir it often. When cooled, place the pot into the cooler. Another option is
to break down the stock into smaller portions and place the smaller containers in the cooler. Stir
occasionally so that the contents of each container cool at the same rate. Be careful not to put an
entire large stockpot of hot stock in the cooler because it will warm the cooler and its contents.
Stir occasionally so that the contents of each container cool at the same rate. Be careful not to put
an entire large stockpot of hot stock in the cooler because it will warm the cooler and its
contents.

There are five classical grand sauces that are the basis for most other sauces. They are:
• Béchamel
• Velouté
• brown or espagnole sauce
• tomato sauce, and
• hollandaise: Béchamel, the base for cream, cheddar cheese, soubise

• Veal velouté, the base for Allemande, Hungarian, curry

• Chicken velouté, the base for mushroom, supreme, Hungarian
• Fish velouté, the base for white wine, bercy, herb
• Brown or espagnole, the base for bordelaise, chasseur, lyonnaise, Madeira
• Tomato, the base for Creole, Portuguese
• Hollandaise, the base for béarnaise, Maltaise

Thickeners, such as roux, beurre manié, slurry, and liaison, add richness and body to sauces.
There are other sauces that are not classified as grand sauces or as derivatives of grand sauces.
These include compound butters, salsa, and coulis. In addition, some sauces are made with the
natural juices from meat, such as jus-lié or au jus.

You should match sauces to the type of food you are serving. Consider factors such as the main
ingredient of the dish and how the flavors will complement each other.

There are two basic kinds of soup—clear and thick. Clear soups include flavored stocks,
broths, and consommés, and include soups such as chicken noodle soup and French onion soup.
Thick soups include cream and purée soups, such as bisques or cream of tomato soup.
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Stock or broth is the basic ingredient in clear soups. Consommé is actually a rich, flavorful
broth or stock that has been clarified. It should be clear, aromatic, and emphasize the flavor of
the major ingredient.

Cream soups are made with a thickener, such as roux. The main flavor in cream soups should be
the major ingredient. For example, in a bisque, the main flavor should be shellfish.

The main difference between a purée and cream soup is that cream soups are usually
thickened with an added starch. Purée soups are thickened by the starch found in the puréed main
ingredient (such as potatoes).
There are many unusual kinds of soup, including cold soups, such as gazpacho; fruit soups, such
as winter melon; and vegetable-based soups, such as minestrone, gumbo, or borscht.

Basic Techniques & Modern Conveniences Introduction

Stocks, soups and sauces are the foundation of many types of cuisines across the world. Here’s a
basic introduction to these three dish bases.

Stocks
Stocks are rich, flavourful liquids used as a base for soups, sauces and other dishes. Usually
produced by simmering meat, fish or poultry flesh and bones, vegetables and seasoning with
liquid, there are several types of stocks:

• Brown stock – Beef or veal bones in lightly oiled roasting pan and browned in an oven.
• White stock – Simmered and un-browned veal or beef bones, to provide more delicate
flavours.
• Chicken stock – Sometimes referred to as white stock, it is prepared by simmering chicken
bones with mirepoix and seasonings.
• Fish stock – Uses bones, heads, skin and trimmings from lean, white deep-sea fish.

Soups
Soups should be prepared with high quality ingredients, using the right techniques. Gelatine from
boiled bones provide the “body”, but thickening agents such as meat, fish, poultry or vegetables
can serve as alternatives. There are 2 categories of soups:

1. Clear soups
Clear soups are simple, and have no solid ingredients. Some examples are:

• Broth – A flavour-packed liquid that is a by-product of simmered meat or vegetables.

• Vegetable soup – Made from clear seasoned stock or broth with 1 or 2 types of vegetables.
• Consomme – A rich, flavourful stock or broth made perfectly clear and transparent.
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 2. Thick soups
Thick soups are opaque and thickened by adding a thickening agent such as roux with a
combination of one or more pureed ingredients to provide a heavier consistency to create:

• Cream soups – Liquid thickened with roux or other thickening agents with milk or cream.
• Purees – Naturally thickened by one or more pureed ingredients or based on starchy
ingredients.
• Chowders – Hearty American soups made from fish, shellfish or vegetables.
• Potage – Thick hearty soups usually comprising of meats or vegetables cooked in a liquid
until they form a thick mixture.
Sauces
Sauces increase flavour and palatability, or enhance the appearance, nutritional value and
moisture to food. Enhance the finished product with the following sauce thickeners:

• Slack/brown roux – Prepare by using more fat than flour to thicken demi-glace sauces.
• Lean/white roux – Made with more flour than fat and blended with milk to create béchamel
sauce or blended with meat stock to create velouté.
• Egg – Uses the whole egg as the whites hold moisture loosely for a creamy consistency and
the yolk provides more thickening power.
• Starch – Uses starch made from waxy maize, corn, potato, rice or arrowroot. Gelatinisation
occurs in hot water to create a thickener.

Types of sauces

• Brown sauce – Prepared with mirepoix, fat and flour to create a tan-coloured sauce.
• Velouté sauce – Prepared from white stock and blonde roux for use as a base for cream
soups and vegetarian sauces.
• Béchamel sauce – Prepared with a mixture of flour, butter and milk from a meat base.
• Cream sauce – Prepared with rich cream or milk base to produce a white sauce.

In the culinary arts, the term "mother sauce" refers to any one of five basic sauces, which are the
starting points for making various secondary sauces or "small sauces."

They're called mother sauces because each one is like the head of its own unique family.

A sauce is essentially a liquid plus some sort of thickening agent along with other flavoring
ingredients. Each of the five mother sauces is made with a different liquid, and a different
thickening agent—although three of the mother sauces are thickened with a roux, in each case
the roux is cooked for a different amount of time to produce a lighter or darker color.

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Here are the five mother sauces and show examples of some of the small sauces that can be
made from each mother sauce.

1. Béchamel Sauce
Béchamel sauce is probably the simplest of the mother sauces because it doesn't require making
stock. If you have milk, flour, and butter you can make a very basic béchamel.
Béchamel is made by thickening hot milk with a simple white roux. The sauce is then flavored
with onion, cloves, and nutmeg and simmered until it is creamy and velvety smooth.
Béchamel can be used as an ingredient in baked pasta recipes like lasagna, and also in casseroles.
But it's also the base for some of the most common white sauces, cream sauces and cheese-based
sauces. Here are some of the small sauces made from béchamel:

• Cream Sauce
• Mornay Sauce
• Soubise Sauce
• Nantua Sauce
• Cheddar Cheese Sauce
• Mustard Sauce
• Cheesy Sauce
• Velouté Sauce
• Chicken Veloute

2. Velouté sauce is another relatively simple mother sauce, made by thickening white stock
with a roux and then simmering it for a while. While the chicken velouté, made with
chicken stock, is the most common type, there is also a veal velouté and fish velouté.

Each of the veloutés forms the basis of its own respective secondary mother sauce. For instance,
chicken velouté fortified with cream becomes the Supreme Sauce. Veal velouté thickened with
egg yolks and cream becomes the Allemande Sauce. And the fish velouté plus white wine and
heavy cream becomes the White Wine Sauce.

Small sauces from velouté can be derived from the velouté directly, or from each of the three
secondary sauces. For example:

• Normandy Sauce
• Bercy Sauce
• Hungarian Sauce
• Mushroom Sauce
• Aurora Sauce
• Poulette Sauce
• Herb Seafood Sauce
• Espagnole Sauce
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• Espagnole sauce

The Espagnole sauce, also sometimes called Brown Sauce, is a slightly more complex mother
sauce. Espagnole is made by thickening brown stock with a roux. So in that sense, it's similar to
a velouté. The difference is that Espagnole is made with tomato purée and mirepoix for deeper
color and flavor. And, the brown stock itself is made from bones that have first been roasted to
add color and flavor.

Espagnole is traditionally further refined to produce a rich, deeply flavorful sauce called a demi-
glace, which is itself the starting point for making the various small sauces. A demi-glace
consists of a mixture of half Espagnole and half brown stock, which is then reduced by half.
For a shortcut, you could skip the demi-glace step and make the small sauces directly from the
Espagnole. You'll lose some flavor and body, but you'll save time. Here are some examples of
small sauces made from Espagnole:

• Marchand de Vin Sauce (Red Wine Reduction)

• Robert Sauce
• Charcutière Sauce
• Lyonnaise Sauce
• Chasseur Sauce
• Bercy Sauce
• Mushroom Sauce
• Madeira Sauce
• Port Wine Sauce
• Hollandaise Sauce
• Homemade hollandaise sauce

3. Hollandaise sauce is unlike the mother sauces we've mentioned so far, due to a liquid
and a thickening agent, plus flavorings. Hollandaise is a tangy, buttery sauce made by
slowly whisking clarified butter into warm egg yolks. So the liquid here is the clarified
butter and the thickening agent is the egg yolks.

Hollandaise is an emulsified sauce, and we use clarified butter when making a Hollandaise
because whole butter, which contains water and milk solids, can break the emulsion. Clarified
butter is just pure butterfat, so it helps the emulsion remain stable.
Hollandaise sauce can be used on its own, and it's particularly delicious on seafood, vegetables,
and eggs. But there are also a number of small sauces that can be made from Hollandaise:

• Béarnaise Sauce
• Dijon Sauce
• Foyot Sauce
• Choron Sauce
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• Maltaise Sauce
• Classic Tomate Sauce
• Tomate sauce

4. Tomate sauce. This sauce resembles the traditional tomato sauce that we might use on
pasta and pizza, but it's got much more flavor and requires a few more steps to make.
First, we render salt pork and then sauté aromatic vegetables. Then we add tomatoes, stock, and a
ham bone, and simmer it in the oven for a couple of hours. Cooking the sauce in the oven helps
heat it evenly and without scorching.

Traditionally, the tomate sauce was thickened with roux, and some chefs still prepare it this way.
But the tomatoes themselves are enough to thicken the sauce. Here are a few small sauces made
from the classic tomate sauce:
• Spanish Sauce
• Creole Sauce
• Portuguese Sauce
• Provençale Sauce

The Five Basic Sauces

• Chicken Velouté, One of the Five Mother Sauces

• Classic Mornay Sauce
• Fish Velouté Sauce
• Veal Velouté Sauce

TYPES OF THICKENING AGENTS

Beef Cuts, Veal Cuts, Pork Cuts, Lamb Cuts, Meat Cuts, Chicken, Beef, Turkey, Pork, Mutton,
Fish, Shellfish, Egg, Lobster, Shrimp, Prawns, Caviar, Kitchen, Recipe, Food, Tasty, Delicious,
Healthy, Salad, Shivesh, Shiveshs Kitchen, Sausage, Pepperoni, Sandwich, Burger, Pizza,
Cuisine, Indian Cuisine, Chinese Cuisine, Thai Cuisine, Oriental Cuisine, Continental Cuisine,
Biryani, Cake, Bread, Pasta, Butter Chicken, Cheese, Paneer, Mushroom, Soup, Sauce, Stew,
Stock, Bouillon, Broth, Ham, Bacon, Meat, Crab, Oyster, Food Production, Hotel Management,
Cooking, Food Information, Cassia, Cinnamon, Foodgram, Instafood, Thickening Agent,
Binding Agent,

Definition of Thickening Agent

Most sauces, gravies and larder preparation are thickened with some kind of starch. Starches are
the most common and most useful thickeners for sauce making and most common binders for
charcuterie cooking. Flour is the principal starch used, others starches used by chefs include
cornstarch, arrowroot, waxy maize, instant or pregelatinized starch, bread crumbs, potato starch
and rice flour, etc. These starches are known as Thickening Agents.
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Thickening agents increase the viscosity of a liquid mix without interfering with its other
properties. Each thickening agent has properties best suited for specific recipes. Some of the
common used thickening agents are below-

1) Roux

Roux (roo) is a cooked mixture of equal parts by weight of flour and fat such as clarified butter,
margarine, shortening, animal fats, vegetable oil or rendered meat drippings.

Today, roux-thickened sauces are often condemned for health reasons because of the fat content
of the roux. It should be remembered, however, that when a roux-bound velouté or brown sauce
is properly made, most of the fat is released and skimmed off before the sauce is served. To
know more about roux, please read the following topic “Types of Roux”.

2) Beurre manié

It is a mixture of equal parts soft, raw butter and flour worked together to form a smooth paste. It
is used for quick thickening at the end of cooking to finish a sauce. The raw butter adds flavor
and gives a sheen to the sauce when it melts.

To use, drop very small pieces into a simmering sauce and stir with a whip until smooth. Repeat
until desired consistency is reached. Simmer just a few minutes more to cook the flour, and then
remove from the fire.

3) Liaison

Is a mixture of cream and beaten egg yolks that is added to soups and sauces to improve color,
increase flavor, improve texture and bind them together. The finished product must be held under
180 F. or the eggs will curdle. For this reason a liaison is usually added at the last minute to
reduce the possibility of the eggs curdling.

Part of a soup or sauce is whipped into a liaison gradually until all of the mixture is incorporated.
By adding a small portion of hot sauce or soup to the cold liaison, the temperature of the eggs is
not increased too markedly at one time. If the liaison is to be added to the soup or stock, the
product must be sufficiently cooled to prevent curdling of the eggs.

A rule of thumb ratio is three parts of cream to one part of eggs by weight. Weight measurement
is more accurate than volume. As this form of liaison is expensive, its use is prohibitive in many
operations. It is used primarily in establishments where menu prices are above average and most
items are cooked to order.
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Process to incorporate liaison:

• Remove sauce from heat.

• Correct seasoning and strain if necessary.
• Combine beaten egg yolks and cream.
• Whip small amounts of sauce into liaison gradually until certain that eggs will not curdle.
• Incorporate liaison-sauce mixture with balance of sauce.
• Hold for service.

4) Whitewash

It is a thin mixture of flour and cold water. Sauces made with whitewash have neither as good a
flavor nor as fine a texture as those made with roux. Whitewash is not recommended for use.

5) Cornstarch

This produces a sauce that is almost clear, with a glossy texture. To use, mix with cold water or
other cold liquid until smooth. Stir into the hot liquid. Bring to a boil and simmer until the liquid
turns clear and there is no starchy taste.

Do not boil for a long period or the starch may break down and the liquid become thin. Sauces
thickened with cornstarch may thin out if held on the steam table for long periods. Cornstarch is
used extensively in sweet sauces to accompany certain meats as well as in desserts and dessert
sauces. It has roughly twice the thickening power of flour.

6) Arrowroot

It is used like cornstarch, but it gives an even clearer sauce. Its use is limited by its high cost.
Nevertheless, because of its quality, it is the preferred starch for thickening Jus Lié. It is less
likely than cornstarch to break down when heated for a long time. Most commonly added as a
slurry, and its full thickening power is not realized until the sauce is brought to a simmer.

7) Slurry

It is not an ingredient but a preparation made with cornstarch or arrowroot. The easiest and
quickest thickening method, a slurry thickens almost immediately and creates a glossy
appearance. To create a slurry, corn starch is stirred into a small amount of cold water or stock,
then whisked into a simmering sauce.
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8) Waxy Maize

It is used for sauces that are to be frozen. Flour and other starches break down and lose their
thickening power when frozen. Waxy maize does not. It is handled like cornstarch.

9) Pre-gelatinized or Instant Starches

This have been cooked, or gelatinized, and then re-dried. Thus, they can thicken a cold liquid
without heating. These starches are rarely used in sauce-making but are frequently used in the
bakeshop.

10) Bread Crumbs

Bread crumb and other crumbs will thicken a liquid quickly because they have already been
cooked, like instant starches. Bread crumbs may be used when smoothness of texture is not
desired. A common example is the use of gingersnap crumbs to thicken sauerbraten gravy.

11) Vegetable Purées

A simple tomato sauce is basically a seasoned vegetable purée. The sauce gets its texture from
the thickness of the main ingredient. No additional thickener is needed. Using this same
principle, we can add body or texture to sauces by adding a smooth vegetable purée, or by
puréeing mirepoix or other vegetables with the sauce. Other common purees are peas, coconut,
and tamarind and.

12) Nuts & Seeds

Finely grounded nuts and seed such as ground nut, cashew nut, pumpkin seed or chaar magaz are
used in making of soup which adds texture as well as flavor to a sauce. One popular seed used as
thickeners is Poppy seed,

13) Chaar Magaz

Four seeds i.e. pumpkin seeds, water melon seeds, musk melon seeds & cucumber seeds together
are known as char magaz in Hindi & many Indian languages. The paste of this used as thickening
in many Indian gravies.

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14) Fecule (Potato Starch)

Raw Potatoes are sometimes used as a thickening agent in puree soups and are cooked with
legumes. The starch from the potatoes is the major thickening factor. Potato starch settles to the
bottom of a soup crock if it stands for long periods of time. A small amount of roux is often
added to prevent this separation.

15) Spices & Herbs

Powdered spices such as cumin, coriander, garam masala, turmeric, chili, etc. and paste of
ginger, garlic, chili, onion and tamarind are used as thickeners in gravy preparations in Indian
cuisine.

16) Farine

Literally the French word for “flour”. As a thickening technique it refers to dusting your product
(usually a protein) in flour. The excess flour is then shaken off, and the product is sautéed. The
pan is then usually de-glazed, and a sauce is built on top of this base. Also commonly used to
build a base for thick soups and stews.

17) Panada

Most commonly used to stabilize and bind meat balls and pâtés, it is usually a mixture of day old
bread and some sort of liquid such as stock, milk, water, etc. In the case of thickening sauces or
soups, the bread is usually browned in butter and then simmered into the base that you wish to
thicken. It can either be left as is, or blended and strained for a more refined consistency. It aids
in binding the fat. It also lightens the density of the product. It contributes to the seasoning of the
product. Some examples of panada is Bread Panada, Flour Panada, Frangipane Panada, Rice
Panada and Potato Panada.

18) Tapioca Granules

These translucent, pearly granules have a thickening power slightly greater than corn starch.
They are commonly used to thicken pie fillings, and can also be used for creamy puddings,
custards, and thickening soups and gravies. Tapioca starch thickens quickly, and at a relatively
low temperature. It’s a good choice if you want to correct a sauce just before serving it.

19) Cream
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A handy and rich addition to soups because its proteins have been greatly diluted by fat globules
and are less likely to form a skin (like milk does) when heated or boiled. It is also fairly immune
to curdling in the presence of acidic or salty foods.

20) Evaporated or Condensed milk

This as a good and healthy substitute for cream as a soup thickener, adding body and helping to
avoid curdling. This thickener is preferred when the preparation is sweet in taste.

21) Yoghurt or Curd

A reasonably good thickener for certain soups especially Middle Eastern and south Indian
recipes, it gives a tangy taste to the gravies.

22) Thickening or Vegetable Gums

One of the types of food thickeners are gums. All gums are polysaccharides, that is similar to
sugars but with many sugar units making up a large molecule. They are bland in taste, odor less
and tasteless. They may have a nutritional quality besides the primary function but they certainly
help in digestion and may be used as laxatives too. You can read more about gums on this
following post “Types of Thickening Gums”.

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ACTIVITY 5

I. True or False. Write T before the number if the statement is correct, then F if it is
incorrect.
1. It is alright to mix new oil with used oil.
2. The best medium for deep fat frying is the liquidized fat or oil.
3. It is alright to sprinkle salt in a frying medium.
4. Proper temperature for frying is 175-190˚C.
5. Vegetables are best blanched in cold water.
6. Potatoes can be blanched in hot oil.
7. Beef bones are blanched in hot water.
8. Hors d’ oeuvres are an example of hot appetizer.
9. A cocktail is an example of appetizer salad.
10. In cooking meat, the heat should be reduced to simmering point after it boils.
11. The idea ratio in blanching is 8 liters of water for every 1 kilo of meat.
12. It is best to allow meat to continue boiling to make it tenderer.
13. Stewing is a very fast cooking process.
14. Steaming is one way of reducing cooking time.
15. When a meat is said to be well done, it is spongy.
16. It is alright to mix old oil with new oil during the frying process.
17. It is good to have strong seasoning in cooking stocks.
18. Boiling temperature is lower than roasting and baking.
19. It is good to allow clear stocks and clear broths to boil.
20. In steaming the water used must be at a level below the food.

IV. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the letter before the
number.
1. Marinating is ideally done for no less than
a. 12 minutes
b. 30 minutes
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 c. 1 hour
d. 2 hours
2. Vegetables are best blanched in
a. Cold water
b. Oil
c. Hot water
d. None of the foregoing
3. Frying temperature should be
a. 160-175˚C
b. 175-190˚C
c. 190-205˚C
d. 200-220˚C

4. Simmering is a drop of heat from boiling point at about

a. 3-4 degrees
b. 6-10 degrees
c. 15 degrees
d. More than 10 degrees
5. The word bouillon stands for
a. Liquid
b. Cream soup
c. Clear stock
d. None of the foregoing
6. An example of thickening agent is
a. Roux
b. Stock
c. Butter
d. Meat
7. The usual ingredient for veloute sauce is
a. Fish
b. Chicken
c. Vegetables
d. None of the foregoing
8. When a meat is said to be “rare”, it is
a. Firm
b. Lightly spongy
c. Very spongy
d. None of the foregoing
9. The cooking process that involves fry heat is
a. Baking
b. Boiling
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 c. Grilling
d. Thawing
10. The cooking method which involves heat from above is
a. Grilling
b. Broiling
c. Marinating
d. Baking

Lesson VI: Preparation of Cold Dishes, Fruit and Vegetables Carving

 Classification of Cold Dishes
 Hors D’ oeuvres and Classification
 Canapes and Relishes
 Salads and Salad Dressing
 Tips in the Preparation of Garnishes
 Carving Tools, Containers for Platters/Cold Dishes
 Fruit Carving Procedures

Appetizers are classified as cocktail food, appetizer salad, hors d’oeuvres, canapes and relishes.
They usually come in a combination of meat, seafood, poultry, fruit, vegetables, dairy products
and shellfish – served hot or cold depending on how it is placed in the menu.

1. Cocktail – this usually consists of shrimps, lobster, crab meat, shell fish, fruits, as well as
fruit and vegetables juices.

Some cocktail foods are as follows:

 Fruit cocktail
 Shrimp cocktail calypso
 Sole fillet cocktail
 Grape fruit cocktail
 Shrimp cocktail
 Lobster cocktail
 Tomato juice cocktail

2. Appetizer salad – these include pickled herring, chopped chicken, liver, smoked salmon
and stuffed eggs.

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 Some appetizer salads are as follows:
 Asparagus spear salad
 Herring salad
 Avocado stuffed with shrimp
 Bismark herring
 Mayonnaise eggs
 Lobster

3. Hors D’ Oeuvres – this is a snack in addition to the menu. They are served preceding a
meal. They are also served together with cocktail drinks during cocktail parties. Canapes
and hors d’ oeuvres may also be part of a buffet. There are 2 types of hor d’ oeuvres – the
hot and cold.
There are Five Classifications of Cold Hors D’ Oeuvres
3.1 Plate of Hors d’ Oeuvres – consisting of shrimps, smoked beef, poached eggs,
asparagus spears, sliced tomatoes, boiled eggs, Spanish sardines and lettuce. The
sauce served on the side.
3.2 Grison Platter – consists of two kinds of cold meat such as ham, smoked beef,
peppered ham, lyoner, Parma ham or pastrami garnish with quail egg, asparagus,
parsley and gherkin. Sauce can be served on the side.
3.3 Hors D’ Oeuvres Platter – is a well presented platter with a limited choice of
simple or more expensive foods. The basic rule is small in quantity but big in quality
with attractive presentation. This platter may consist of patty shell with goose liver
mousse, artichoke heart with Waldorf salad, shrimp with jelly, asparagus tips with
mushrooms, sardines with rings, Italian vegetable salad, Grison dried beef and ham,
tomatoes stuffed with Russian salad and chicken loaf.
3.4 Assorted hors d’ oeuvres – can be served on special portioned platters with hors d’
oeuvres dishes or even from a serving cart. A choice of 6 to 10 items, including a
center piece of ham and turkey plus spicy salad may be sufficient. When presenting
and serving hors d’ oeuvres, try to harmonize the colors to make them look more
attractive.
3.5 Rich hors d’ oeuvres – as the name suggests, rich hors d’ oeuvres include exquisite
specialties usually in a classical form of presentation. It consists of lobster, tartlets
with caviar, beef tenderloin, smoke salmon, Waldorf salad, goose liver pate, rolled
fillet of sole, terrine and others. The hors d’ oeuvres are best served in a silver platter,
with the center pieces of elegantly arranged thereon. The platter may be covered with
meat jelly. Accompaniments may be served in separate bowls or container.

4. Canapes – are tiny, bite size, open faced sandwiches. They are usually highly flavored or
tangy and are prepared in many varieties and shapes. They are always served using a base
which may be bread, toast, or crackers.

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 Some canapes includes:
 Admiral canapes
 Chicken liver mousse
 Smoked chicken toast
 Tuna fish mousse
 Ham and cheese
 Eggs and caviar
 Curried quail egg
 Ham mousse
 Tangy shrimps
 Kanebo meat rice roll
 Roast beef with asparagus
 Cheese and herbs
 Marinated herring
 Rose smoked salmon with capers
5. Relishes – consists of assorted vegetables cut like stick, served very cold with thousand
islands or cream dressing. The vegetables include carrots, turnips, cucumber, rose radish,
celery heart. Other ingredient like black/green olives, peanuts, chips and shrimp kropeck
may also be served.

Salads and Salad Dressing

A salad refers to a cold dish of meat, fruit, fish, dairy products or vegetables, simply served
singly or in combination. They are meant to complement or highlight a meal.

Salad Categories:

1. Appetizer salad – meant to create a stimulating effect on the dinner and must therefore
be light and appealing in character. They are served before the main course. The
appetizer salad usually consists of light serving of shrimps, lobster, cocktails, fruits,
pickled herring, etc.
2. Accompaniment salad – is a side salad served either with the dinner or as a separate
course. It should be heavy and must come in smaller serving so as not to destroy the
appetite. Examples: mixed green salad, hearts of lettuce, pear and cottage cheese.
3. Main Course salad – as the name implies, this salad constitute a whole meal ad it comes
in the form of reasonable combination of meat, poultry, fish, fruit, vegetables, dairy,
gelatin o macaroni products. Examples are: chicken salad with celery or pineapple, chefs’
salad and fruit salad plate.
4. Dessert salads – are sweet in character. They are composed of fruits, nuts, dairies and
gelatin. They are neither salted nor dressed. Examples are: ginger ale salad mold, jelled
fruit and strawberry mousse.
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Basic Parts of Salad:
1. Base – is intended to keep a salad from looking bare and to provide contrast. The base can
be a lettuce or some form of salad green.
2. Body – consists of ingredients that constitute the salad itself.
3. Dressing – is used to maintain crispness or freshness of the salad, it should bear a direct
relationship with the salad. They are either served with the salad or separate from it.
4. Garnish – meant to give eye appeal to the salad. The garnish must provide contrast and
must bear relation with the salad. For example: vegetable and egg garnishes are related to
macaroni and fish salad, fruit garnishes are related to fruit and gelatin salad.

Vegetable Carving - tools

FOOD CHISELS

While you can use a number of everyday utensils to accomplish many of the same tasks, having
a set of food chisels in the kitchen will serve you well. Once you familiarize yourself with them,
you are bound to find new and inventive ways to incorporate them into your repertoire of
techniques.

There are two types, curved and V-shaped. The curved edge is used for cutting holes or punching
out half-moons, the V-shaped for more detailed work and a pointed cut. As the edges are
extremely sharp, use them with care. Place a thick kitchen towel over your cutting board to
protect it and the chisel edge.

VARIOUS TOOLS
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For miscellaneous work, I have a number of tools on hand. I include them here for your
reference. Melon-ball scoops can be found in most kitchens, and most of you probably stock
apple corers and some kind of pick. As for the rest of the tools, their functions can be covered by
one or more everyday utensils.
A roll-call of the items from left to right reads as follows: corers/punches, corkscrew punches
(handle not shown), needle pick, melon-ball scoops, and pincers.

KNIVES

Maintain a razor-sharp edge on your kitchen knives and keep a sharpening stone nearby. A fine
edge will facilitate clean, accurate cuts.

While any good knife will work, in my professional capacity I use a one-sided blade because I
believe it yields cleaner cuts and produces a nicer looking garnish. Since Japanese knives are
gaining popularity, I thought I'd introduce some of them here.

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The first two work especially well for carving garnishes, the next two for katsura-muki daikon
sheets, and the last for sashimi. Listed by name from left to right, they are kurimuki-bocho
("chestnut-peeling" knife), usuba-bocho (thin-blade knife), mukimono-bocho (garnish knife,
small and large), and yanagiba-bocho ("willow-leaf-shaped" knife).

SCALPELS

For detail work, it helps to have several smaller knives on hand. A thin-edged steak knife, finely
sharpened, will serve the purpose in many instances.

Pictured here are professional Japanese scalpel-like cutting tools known as kiridashi.

PEELERS

Peelers can be used for some of the garnishes in this book. Choose a sturdy one with a finely
honed cutting edge.

To make a clean, even cut, employ it slowly and steadily.

CORERS

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The circular corers have drawn some attention, so they are worth noting separately. These are
sturdy, tubular tools with fine edges. When pressed against a food surface and rotated, they
easily bore through the food.

As with food chisels, before using them protect the cutting surface and the tools edge by laying
out a kitchen towel.

(Watch the video clip provided by the instructress on different carving tools used for vegetables
and fruits)
ACTIVITY 6

1. Prepare sample of canapes and decorate them in cold platter using the carving techniques
learned in this topic.
2. Demonstrate the preparation of two type of salad dressing.

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 Lesson VII: Menu Planning, Recipe Preparation and Costing
 Steps Planning a Menu
 Analysis of the Market
 Components of a Menu
 Menu Format
 Recipe Standardization and Costing and Pricing the Recipe
 Recipe Testing, Menu Analysis and Menu Engineering

MEALS & MENU PLANNING

MENU

Menu is the statement of food and beverage items available or provided by food establishments
primarily based on consumer demand and designed to achieve organizational objectives. It
represents the focal point around which components of food service systems are based. The
menu is designed carefully what the outlet wants to cater for, keeping in mind the type of
clientele. The main advantage of a well-planned menu is that it leads to consumer satisfaction. It
also helps to motivate the employees for a responsible and successful service.

Originally the "bill of fare", as it is termed in English, or menu in French, was not presented at
the table. The banquet consisted of only two courses, each made up of a variety of dishes,
anything from 10 to 40 in number. The first 10-40 dishes were placed on the table before the
diners entered- hence the word entrée- and, when consumed were removed or relieved by 10-40
other dishes- hence the words relevés and removes came into existence.
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The aim of menu planning is to:
 Meet nutritional needs - “Recognition that food is treatment” - part of medical therapy
 Plan meals within the food cost
 Simplify purchase, preparation, and storage of meals 4. Provide attractive, appetizing
meals with no monotony
 Save time and money
 Minimize overhead expenditure, i.e., fuel, electricity, water, labor.
 Meet /exceed customer expectations
 Determine production methods and distribution systems
 Dictate staffing levels
 Provide quality , standardization & predictability

Menu planning is the most important aspect of planning and organization in the food industry. It
is an advance plan of a dietary pattern over a given period of time.
Menu planning is one of the important managerial activities of food and beverages operations
executed by a team comprising the entrepreneur/proprietor, the restaurant manager, and the
executive chef. In a large hotel, the general manager and the food and beverage (F&B) manager
will also be members of the team. In welfare catering operations, the head of the institution, the
catering manager, and the finance manager will be involved. Menu planning calls for careful
thought on many factors that would determine the success of the F&B operation. Menu forms the
basis or acts as a guide upon which all other managerial and operational activities of F&B
operations rest on.

POINTS OR FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE PLANNING THE MENU

Whether it is for new outlets or existing outlets, points related to the following aspects should be
considered by the team while planning the menu:

1. Operations hour
The team must consider policy on operation hours of the business while planning menu. If it is
operating throughout the day from morning 7 to night l, then all dishes required during breakfast,
mid-morning, lunch, evening snacks, dinner, and so on, should be included. If it is going to be
operational only during lunch and dinner, then the menu should be planned accordingly. During
lunch hour operations, guests expect quick service or business/executive lunch, which should be
taken into account.

2. What to serve
The policy of the management may not permit the inclusion of beef, pork or any of the non-
vegetarian dishes, genetically modified food, and so on. Dishes included in menu should be the
framework of the establishment's policy.

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 3. Production process
The type of production process the business is going to implement, such as traditional partie
system centralized production, cook-chill, cook-freeze, and sous-vide, and so on, should be taken
into account while planning the menu.

4. Use of convenience products

Convenience products of many categories, from ones requiring some amount of final preparation
in the kitchen to ready-to-eat forms, are available in the market. The team must consider policy
on usage of convenience products.

5. Styles of service
Menu should be planned taking into account the style of service to be implemented. For
example, buffet, silver, American, tray service, takeaway, and so on.

6. Type of menu
The type of menu to be implemented in operations should be borne in mind while planning the
menu. The la carte menu will offer extensive choice under each category and table d'hôte menu
will have a set number of courses with a limited choice at set price.

The menu are basically of two types:-

1. À la carte
2. Table d'hô

À la Carte menu
The term à la carte may be translated as 'from the card'. This type of menu may be defined by the
following points:

 It gives a full list of all the dishes that may be prepared by the establishment
 Each dish is priced separately
 A certain waiting time has to be allowed for many of the dishes
 Some dishes are cooked to order

This type of menu may be offered on its own in a first-class establishment, or in conjunction with
a form of table d'hôte or carte du jour menu in a smaller catering establishment. The dishes may
be changed according to season- oysters, melon, asparagus, game- but each item will remain
individually priced.

Table d’ hote

The definition of table d’hote menu is covered by the following points:

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 1. The menu has fixed number of courses
2. There is a limited choice within each course
3. The selling price of the menu is fixed
4. The dishes provided will all be ready at a set time

This type of menu may be offered by itself or in conjunction with an a la carte or carte du jour
menu. It is the more popular and simper form of menu, being easier to control and operate and
giving less wastage of food. The set price of the table d’hote menu is charged whether or not the
full menu is consumed.

The umber of courses on a men, and dishes within each course, depends on the size and class of
the establishment. In an establishment where full food preparation and service brigades are in
full operations a full menu may be offered. In this case the course or sections of the menu may be
divided as follows:
 Hors d’ouevres
 Potage (Soup)
 Ouefs (Egg)
 Farineux (Rice and Pasta)
 Poisson (Fish)
 Entrée
 Sorbet
 Releve
 Roti (Roast)
 Legumes (Vegetables)
 Salads (Salads)
 Buffet Froid (Cold Buffet)
 Entremet (Sweet)
 Savoureux (Savoury)
 Fromage (Cheese)
 Dessert (Fresh Fruit)
 Beverage

Types of Meals

Food and Beverage service is about serving the customers when they are hungry. However, F&B
outlets offer a typical variety of food depending on customers demand, type of operation,
location etc.

The most important meals of the day are:

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 1. Early morning tea (EMT): most of these orders are placed with the room service and t
consists of a choice of tea and coffee served with cookies or biscuts. Sevice is expected to
be fast and timing of this meal is from 4.am to 6.am in the morning.
2. Breakfast: Breakfast, Elevenses, High tea and Supper are considered the subsidiary meals
of the day. Whereas Lunch and Dinner are the two main meals. Although light (lite), the
smaller meals fulfill nutritional requirements of and when required if properly planned,
divide the day into even food breaks. Breakfast is considered as one of the most
important meal nutritionally.
3. Brunch or Elevenes: the word “brunch” comes from a combination of lunch and
breakfast. It refers to a heavy meal eaten around 11 am by guests who wish to skip or
those who hate missed breakfast. Today brunch has become very popular in coffee shops
and multi-cuisine restaurants, especially marketed extensively on these days.
4. Lunch and Dinner: these are main meals of the day. All F&B outlets cater to these
meals. The variety of service differs from buffet and pre-plated in coffee shops, silver
service in multi-cuisine restaurant.

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How to Choose the Right Menu and Display Type

Presenting the food items you sell in a logical and enticing way can be a challenge, so let this
guide make it simple! Discover how to present your well-designed menu in the best way
possible. No two menus are alike in their design, content, or purpose and that is why choosing
the right type of menu for your restaurant is so important.

Types of Restaurant Menus

Different types of restaurant menus in a stack
Menus can be categorized by type based on the way items are sold and organized to create the
perfect menu. Use this glossary of menu types to familiarize yourself with common types of
menus and see what can work for your business!

1. Static menu: Separated into categories like appetizers, pastas, sandwiches, sides, etc. The
dishes are served all year-round and are mostly prevalent in fast casual and fast food
restaurants.
2. A La Carte: French for “according to the menu;” This menu usually features seasonal
faire and offers greater flexibility for ordering when compared to a static menu.
3. Du Jour: A menu that changes daily. Plat du jour is a dish of the day, which is equivalent
to a daily special
4. Cycle Menu: Different daily menus for a set period of time, then menus are repeated; For
example, there could be a different menu every day for two weeks, and then the menu's
cycle starts again from the beginning.
5. Table d’Hote: French for “the host’s table." All main courses have a set price with the
customer's choice of an appetizer or dessert. Surcharges may apply if certain appetizers
and desserts are pricier.
6. Prix Fixe: A meal that includes an appetizer, entree, and dessert that is set at one price.
Unlike a Table d’Hote menu, the chef picks the three courses in a Prix Fixe menu,
whereas a Table d’Hote allows customers to pick and choose their set of three courses.
7. Tasting Menu: A collection of a certain number of small courses that serves as a
customer's entire meal. Tasting menus can be tweaked to fit dietary needs or created
anew if the same customer is dining again, giving them a whole new tasting menu
experience.
8. Beverage: A list of a restaurant's drinks. This is often cocktails, wine, beer, and other
alcoholic drinks sold a la carte, or the menu can be displayed on the wall at coffee shops
or juice bars with their list of options.
9. Dessert: A list of desserts, like a beverage menu it is often separate from the regular
menu and sold a la carte. It is usually presented along with the beverage menu again for
after dinner drinks at the end of the main meal.
10. Wine Captain’s Book: An extensive beverage menu that covers each wines history and
features so guests have a better understanding of how they would like to pair their drinks
with their meal.
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 11. Children's: This menu often has more limited choices and incorporates bright colors and
activities. It is often disposable for easy clean up.

Ways to Display Your Menu

When looking for restaurant menu cover ideas and considering the most appealing way to
display your menu that will best sell your food, consider the setting of the restaurant and the style
of dining.

1. Often made from wood, metal, or cork

 Makes it easy to swap out daily menus
 Can be used as a check presenter
 Ideal For: bistros, cafes
 Displayette / tabletop tent menu
 Displayette / Tabletop Tent Menus

2. Made from wood, acrylic or leather

 Many viewing angles and takes up little space
 Can be used to advertise specials and events
 Ideal For: casual dining
 Menu sign chalkboard with drinks listed
 Menu Sign / Board

3. Can be dry erase boards or chalk boards

 Easy to clean and change day-to-day
 Magnetic menu boards allow for hanging ads and pictures
 Ideal For: cafes, fast food, food trucks
 Plastic menu cover with red lining
 Menu Covers

4. Typically made of vinyl

 Offers protection to menu and easy to clean
 Better for lengthier menus
 Ideal For: diners, casual dining
 Disposable paper menu
 Disposable Menus

5. Made from paper

 Offers convenience and easy clean up
 Better for smaller and daily menus
 Ideal For: bistros, food trucks
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  Brown leather bound menu book
 Deluxe Menu Covers

6. Made of leather or hardboard and have LED deluxe menu cover varieties to light the
menu in darker settings
 Provides an upscale, more professional look
 Great for lengthier menus
 Ideal for: fine dining, casual dining
 Related Resources
Menu Engineering: How to Create a Profitable Menu

What is your most valuable piece of marketing as a restaurant? A thoughtfully designed menu
advertises your offerings and can increase your restaurant's profits. Menu engineering is a
process through which you can best capitalize on your restaurant menu, and it first requires an
analysis of the profitability and popularity of your menu items. Your menu engineering and
menu psychology tactics push your high profit margin items while also creating a relaxing,
fulfilling customer experience. Below we explain menu engineering basics along with essential
design tips based on menu psychology. What is Menu Engineering? Menu engineering is the
practice of analyzing and strategically designing your menu to maximize restaurant profits. By
highlighting

How to Write a Menu Describing Your Food

When it comes to writing a menu, word choice is very important. The words you use to describe
food on your menu could entice customers and increase sales if you choose them well, but they
could also turn customers off or confuse them if you’re not careful. Below, we break down the
key components to menu writing and offer a list of descriptive words for food to get you started.
Words to Describe Taste The flavor of your food is what most customers focus on when they are
deciding what to eat. How you present the dishes on your menu can help build anticipation, and a
good menu description could even convince a hesitant customer to try something new. With this
in mind, it's important to be precise and thorough when choosing words to describe.

Types of Restaurants

From your white tablecloth restaurant featuring a three-page wine menu to your hip downtown
vegan eatery that serves herb-infused cocktails, the range of different types of restaurants
continues to expand. While each restaurant has its own unique ambiance and feel, it’s still
possible to distinguish restaurants based on common factors. Luckily, we’ve comprised a list of
the various elements used to categorize restaurants as well as a list of the most popular types of
restaurants. Different Types of Restaurants Below we detail the 11 most common types of
restaurants. 1. Fine Dining Most of the population might only visit high-end establishments for
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special occasions, such as an anniversary, birthday, or wedding. The majority of fine dining
room.

STANDARDIZED RECIPES
All recipes are not created equal. Some recipes have missing ingredients, faulty seasonings,
insufficient or poor instructions causing more work, and some are simply not tested.

A standardized recipe is a set of written instructions used to consistently prepare a known

quantity and quality of food for a specific location. A standardized recipe will produce a product
that is close to identical in taste and yield every time it is made, no matter who follows the
directions.

A good standardized recipe will include:

 Menu item name – the name of the given recipe that should be consistent with the name
on the menu
 Total Yield – number of servings, or portions that a recipe produces, and often the total
weight or volume of the recipe
 Portion size – amount or size of the individual portion
 Ingredient list/quantity – exact quantities of each ingredient (with the exception of spices
that may be added to taste)
 Preparation procedures – Specific directions for the order of operations and types of
operations (e.g., blend, fold, mix, sauté)
 Cooking temperatures and times, including HACCP critical control points and limits to
ensure the dish is cooked properly and safely
 Special instructions, according to the standard format used in an operation
 Mise en place – a list of small equipment and individual ingredient preparation
 Service instructions, including hot/cold storage
 Plating/garnishing

In addition to the list above, standardized recipes may also include recipe cost, nutritional
analysis, variations, garnishing and presentation tips, work simplification tips, suggested
accompaniments or companion recipes, and photos.

Standardize recipes can help with work simplification and incorporate HACCP into procedures.
Many facilities preparing food in large quantities also batch cook, so the standardized recipes
will incorporate those procedures into the instructions. The skill level of employees should also
be taken into account when writing recipe procedures or directions. Terminology within the
standardized recipes should be at the skill level of employees, for example, instruct an employee
to melt butter and whisk with flour instead of saying “make a roux”, if more appropriate for a

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specific operation. Finally, cooking equipment, temperatures, time, etc. are adjusted for the
facility.

A short side note on mise en place – a key component to efficiently producing menu items from
recipes is to have “everything in its place.” Many kitchens will have work stations with a
standard mise en place set up, which might include a cutting board, salt and pepper, tasting
spoons, composting containers, etc. Standardized recipes can help employees produce menu
items most efficiently if they also list mise en place for small equipment needed for the recipe,
such as measuring tools, preparation tools (knives, peeler), holding pans, cooking utensils, etc.
Employees can gather everything they need before starting recipe preparation thus reducing
traveling around the kitchen during preparation, kitchen congestion, loss of focus from frequent
starting and stopping, and errors from interruptions to their work. Detailing the mise en place for
individual ingredients, such as peeling and cutting, with each ingredient can also improve the
clarity and efficiency of recipe preparation. Example: Raw white potato, peeled, ½ in. dice

Some things to remember when writing a standardized recipe:

If you are starting with a home/internet recipe – make it first!

Standardized recipes are a training tool for employees
A good recipe is like a well-crafted formula – it has been tested and works every time
S.A.M.E. – Standardization Always Meets Expectations
Recipes as a Control Tool

Standardized recipes are an important control tool for food service managers and operations. A
standardized recipe assures not only that consistent quality and quantity, but also a reliable cost
range. In order for an operation to set a menu selling price that allows the operation to make a
profit, it’s vital that the cost of each recipe and portion is calculated and relatively consistent.

Benefits of using a standardized recipe include:

 a consistent quality and quantity

 standard portion size/cost
 assuring nutritional content and addressing dietary concerns, such as special diets or food
allergies
 helping ensure compliance with “Truth in Menu” requirements
 aiding in forecasting and purchasing
 fewer errors in food orders
 incorporating work simplification principles and aids in cross-training
 assisting in training new employees
 incorporating HACCP principles
 reducing waste
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  more easily meeting customer expectations

Arguments often used against standardized recipes can include:

 take too long to use

 employees don’t need them, they know how to do things in establishment
 chef doesn’t want to reveal their secrets
 take too long to write/develop

An effective foodservice manager knows that these arguments against using standardized
recipes, even if true in some cases, cannot deter an operation from developing and consistently
using standardized recipes. Our profits depend on this very important practice. Our customers
must be able to rely on a consistent nutritional quality and allergen content at a minimum, but
our customers also deserve to receive the SAME product every time they order a menu item they
like and appreciate.

STANDARD YIELDS
The yield of a recipe is the number of portions it will produce. Yields can also be expressed as a
total volume or total weight the recipe produces. An example would be a soup recipe that yields
24, 8 oz. portions which could also be stated as a yield of six quarts or a 1 ½ gallon. A weight
example would be a recipe that yields 20, 4 oz. portions of taco meat or a total yield of 5 pounds.

Standard yields for the main, often higher cost, ingredients such as meat, may also take into
consideration portion cost and be determined in part by calculating the cost per cooked portion.

STANDARD PORTIONS
A standard recipe includes the size of the portions that will make up a serving of the recipe.
Controlling portion size has two advantages in food management:

 Portion costs for the item will be consistent until ingredient or labor costs change, and
 Customers receive consistent quantities each time they order a given plate or drink.

Standard portions mean that every plate of a given dish that leaves the kitchen will be almost
identical in weight, count, or volume. Only by controlling portions is it possible to control food
costs. If one order of bacon and eggs goes out with six strips of bacon and another goes out with
three strips, it is impossible to determine the actual cost of the menu item.

Adhering to the principles of standard portions is crucial to keeping food costs in line. Without
portion control, there is no consistency. This not only could have drastic effects on your food
costs (having no real constant costs to budget for) but also on your customers. Customers
appreciate consistency. They expect that the food you prepare will taste good, be presented
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properly, and be the same portion size every time they order it. Consider how the customer
would feel if the portion size fluctuated with the cook’s mood. A cook’s bad mood might mean a
smaller portion or, if the cook was in a good mood because the workweek was over, the portion
might be very large.

It may be hard to grasp the importance of consistency with one single portion, but consider if
fast-food outlets did not have portion control. Their costs, as well as their ordering and inventory
systems, would be incredibly inaccurate, all of which would impact negatively on their profit
margin.

Strict portion control has several side benefits beyond keeping costs under control. First,
customers are more satisfied when they can see that the portion they have is very similar to the
portions of the same dish they can see around them. Second, servers are quite happy because
they know that if they pick up a dish from the kitchen, it will contain the same portions as
another server’s plate of the same order.

Simple methods to control portion include weighing meat before it is served, using the same size
juice glasses when juice is served, counting items such as shrimp, and portioning with scoops
and ladles that hold a known volume. Another method is using convenience products. These
products are received usually frozen and are ready to cook. Portions are consistent in size and
presentation and are easily costed out on a per unit basis. This can be helpful when determining
the standard portion costs.

Note: Using convenience products is usually more costly than preparing the item in-house.
However, some chefs and managers feel that using premade convenience products is easier than
hiring and training qualified staff. But always keep in mind that if the quality of the convenience
item is not comparable to an in-house made product, the reputation of the restaurant may suffer.

Standard portions are assured if the food operation provides and requires staff to use such tools
as scales, measured ladles or spoodles, and standard size scoops. Many operations use a
management portion control record for menu items. The control record is posted in the kitchen so
cooks and those who plate the dishes know what constitutes standard portions. Some operations
also have photographs of each item posted in the kitchen area to remind workers what the final
product should look like.

TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS USED IN THE KITCHEN

There are three types of measurements used to measure ingredients and to serve portions in the
restaurant trade.

Measurement can be by volume, by weight, or by count.

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Recipes may have all three types of measurement. A recipe may call for 3 eggs (measurement by
count), 8 ounces of milk (measurement by volume), and 1 pound of cheese (measurement by
weight).

There are formal and informal rules governing which type of measurement should be used.
There are also specific procedures to ensure that the measuring is done accurately and
consistently.

Number or Count

Number measurement is only used when accurate measurement is not critical and the items to be
used are understood to be close in size.

For example, “3 eggs” is a common measurement called for in recipes, not just because 3 is easy
to count but also because eggs are graded to specific sizes. Most recipes call for large eggs unless
stated otherwise.

Numbers are also used if the final product is countable. For example, 24 pre-made tart shells
would be called for if the final product is to be 24 filled tart shells.

Volume

Volume measurement is usually used with liquids or fluids because such items are awkward to
weigh. It is also used for dry ingredients in home cooking, but it is less often used for dry
measurement in the industry.

Volume is often the measure used when portioning sizes of finished product. For example,
portion scoops are used to dole out vegetables, potato salad, and sandwich fillings to keep
serving size consistent. Ladles of an exact size are used to portion out soups and sauces. Often
scoops and ladles used for portioning are sized by number. On a scoop, such a number refers to
the number of full scoops needed to fill a volume of one quart. Ladles and spoodles are sized in
ounces.

Weight

Weight is the most accurate way to measure ingredients or portions. When proportions of
ingredients are critical, their measurements are always given in weights. This is particularly true
in baking where it is common to list all ingredients by weight, including eggs (which, as
mentioned earlier, in almost all other applications are called for by count). Whether measuring
solids or liquids, measuring by weight is more reliable and consistent.

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Weighing is a bit more time consuming and requires the use of scales, but it pays off in accuracy.
Digital portion scales are most commonly used in industry and come in various sizes to measure
weights up to 11 lbs. This is adequate for most recipes, although larger operations may require
scales with a larger capacity.

The reason weight is more accurate than volume is because it takes into account factors such as
density, moisture, and temperature that can have an effect on the volume of ingredients. For
example, 1 cup of brown sugar (measured by volume) could change drastically depending on
whether it is loosely or tightly packed in the vessel. On the other hand, 10 oz of brown sugar,
will always be 10 oz. Even flour, which one might think is very consistent, will vary from
location to location, and the result will mean an adjustment in the amount of liquid needed to get
the same consistency when mixed with a given volume.

Another common mistake is interchanging between volume and weight. The only ingredient that
will have the same volume and weight consistently is water: 1 cup water = 8 ounces water.

There is no other ingredient that can be measured interchangeably because of gravity and the
density of an item. Every ingredient has a different density and different gravitational weight,
which will also change according to location. This is called specific gravity. Water has a specific
gravity of 1.0. Liquids that are lighter than water (such as oils that float on water) have a specific
gravity of less than 1.0. Those that are heavier than water and will sink, such as molasses, have a
specific gravity greater than 1.0. Unless you are measuring water, remember not to use a volume
measure for a weight measure, and vice versa.

CONVERTING AND ADJUSTING RECIPES AND FORMULAS

Recipes often need to be adjusted to meet the needs of different situations. The most common
reason to adjust recipes is to change the number of individual portions that the recipe produces.
For example, a standard recipe might be written to prepare 25 portions. If a situation arises where
60 portions of the item are needed, the recipe must be properly adjusted.

Other reasons to adjust recipes include changing portion sizes (which may mean changing the
batch size of the recipe) and better utilizing available preparation equipment (for example, you
need to divide a recipe to make two half batches due to a lack of oven space).

Conversion Factor Method

The most common way to adjust recipes is to use the conversion factor method. This requires
only two steps:

Finding a conversion factor

Multiplying the ingredients in the original recipe by that factor.
Finding Conversion Factors
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To find the appropriate conversion factor to adjust a recipe, follow these steps:

 Note the yield of the recipe that is to be adjusted. The number of portions is usually
included at the top of the recipe (or formulation) or at the bottom of the recipe. This is the
information that you HAVE.
 Decide what yield is required. This is the information you NEED.
 Obtain the conversion factor by dividing the required yield (from Step 2) by the old yield
(from Step 1). That is, conversion factor = (required yield)/(recipe yield), conversion
factor = what you NEED ÷ what you HAVE
 If the number of portions and the size of each portion change, you will have to find a
conversion factor using a similar approach:

 Determine the total yield of the recipe by multiplying the number of portions and the size
of each portion.
 Determine the required yield of the recipe by multiplying the new number of portions and
the new size of each portion.
 Find the conversion factor by dividing the required yield (Step 2) by the recipe yield
(Step 1). That is, conversion factor = (required yield)/(recipe yield)

ADJUSTING RECIPES USING CONVERSION FACTORS

Now that you have the conversion factor, you can use it to adjust all the ingredients in the recipe.
The procedure is to multiply the amount of each ingredient in the original recipe by the
conversion factor. Before you begin, there is an important first step:

Before converting a recipe, express the original ingredients by weight whenever possible.
Converting to weight is particularly important for dry ingredients. Most recipes in commercial
kitchens express the ingredients by weight, while most recipes intended for home cooks express
the ingredients by volume. If the amounts of some ingredients are too small to weigh (such as
spices and seasonings), they may be left as volume measures. Liquid ingredients also are
sometimes left as volume measures because it is easier to measure a quart of liquid than it is to
weigh it. However, a major exception is measuring liquids with a high sugar content, such as
honey and syrup; these should always be measured by weight, not volume.

Converting from volume to weight can be a bit tricky and will require the use of tables that
provide the approximate weight of different volume measures of commonly used recipe
ingredients. A resource to use in converting volume to weight is the Book of Yields. Once you
have all the ingredients in weight, you can then multiply by the conversion factor to adjust the
recipe. Often, you must change the quantities of the original recipe into smaller units, then
multiply by the conversion factor, then put back into the largest unit that makes sense for the

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recipe. For example, pounds may need to be expressed as ounces, and cups, pints, quarts, and
gallons must be converted into fluid ounces.

CAUTIONS WHEN CONVERTING RECIPES

When converting recipes, conversion calculations do not take into account certain factors:

 Equipment
 Mixing and cooking times – this can be affected if the equipment used to cook or mix is
different from the equipment used in the original recipe
 Cooking temperatures
 Shrinkage – the percentage of food lost during its storage and preparation
 Recipe errors

Some other problems that can occur with recipe conversions are:

Substantially increasing the yield of small home cook recipes can be problematic as all the
ingredients are usually given in volume measure, which can be inaccurate, and increasing the
amounts dramatically magnifies this problem.
Spices and seasonings must be increased with caution as doubling or tripling the amount to
satisfy a conversion factor can have negative consequences. If possible, it is best to under-season
and then adjust just before serving.
The fine adjustments that have to be made when converting a recipe can only be learned from
experience, as there are no hard and fast rules. Generally, if you have recipes that you use often,
convert them, test them, and then keep copies of the recipes adjusted for different yields.

Recipe and Menu Costing

A standard recipe served in standard portions has a standard portion cost. A standard portion cost
is simply the cost of the ingredients (and sometimes labor) found in a standard recipe divided by
the number of portions produced by the recipe. Standard portion costs change when food costs
change, which means that standard portion costs should be computed and verified regularly,
particularly in times of high inflation. If market conditions are fairly constant, computing
standard portion costs need not be done more than every few months. Details about recipe costs
are not usually found on a standard recipe document but on a special recipe detail and cost sheet
or database that lists the cost per unit (kilogram, pound, milliliter, ounce, etc.) and the cost per
amount of each ingredient used in the recipe or formula. The standard portion cost can be
quickly computed if portions and recipes are standardized. Simply determine the cost of each
ingredient used in the recipe and ingredients used for accompaniment or garnish. The ingredients
in a standard recipe are often put on a recipe detail sheet (Figure 1). The recipe detail sheet
differs from the standard recipe in that room is provided for putting the cost of each ingredient
next to the ingredient. Recipe detail sheets often have the cost per portion included as part of
their information and need to be updated if ingredient costs change substantially. They can also

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be built in a POS system database or spreadsheet program that is linked to your inventory to
allow for the updating of recipe costs as ingredient costs change.

Costing Individual Items on a Plate

If you need to determine the total cost of a plate that has multiple components, rather than a
recipe, you can follow the procedure in the example below.

Yield Testing

Yield in culinary terms refers to how much you will have of a finished or processed product.
Professional recipes should always state a yield; for example, a tomato soup recipe may yield 4
gallons or 15 L, and a muffin recipe may yield 24 muffins. Yield can also refer to the amount of
usable product after it has been processed (peeled, cooked, butchered, etc.) For example, you
may be preparing a recipe for carrot soup. The recipe requires 2 lbs or 1 kg of carrots, which you
purchase. However, once you have peeled them and removed the tops and tips, you may only
have 1.6 lb or 800 grams of carrots left to use. In order to do accurate costing, yield testing must
be carried out on all ingredients and recipes. When looking at yields, you must always consider
the losses and waste involved in preparation and cooking. There is always a dollar value that is
attached to vegetable peel, meat and fish trim, and packaging like brines and syrups. Any waste
or loss has been paid for and is still money that has been spent. This cost must always be
included in the menu price. Note: Sometimes, this “waste” can be used as a by-product. Bones
from meat and fish can be turned into stocks. Trimmings from vegetables can be added to those
stocks or if there is enough, made into soup. All products must be measured and yield tested
before costing a menu. Ideally, every item on a menu should be yield tested before being
processed. Most big establishments will have this information on file, and there are many books
that can also be used as a reference for yields, such as The Book of Yields: Accuracy in Food
Costing and Purchasing.

The procedure for testing for yields

1. Record the original weight/volume of your item. This is your raw weight or as purchased (AP)
weight.

A) Whole tenderloin – 2.5 kg

B) Whole sockeye salmon – 7.75 kg

C) Canned tuna flakes in brine – 750 mL

2. Process your product accordingly, measure and record the waste or trim weight.

A) Tenderloin fat, sinew, chain, etc. – 750 g tenderloin trim

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B) Salmon head, bones, skin, etc. – 2.75 kg salmon trim

C) Brine – 300 mL canned tuna waste

3. Subtract the amount of trim weight from the AP weight and you will have what is referred to
as your processed or edible product (EP) weight. The formula is: AP weight – waste = EP
weight.

A) 2500 g – 750 g = 1750 g processed tenderloin

B) 7750 g – 2750 g = 5000 g processed salmon

C) 750 mL – 300 mL = 400 mL processed canned tuna

4. Get your yield percentage by converting the edible product weight into a percentage. The
formula is EP weight ÷ AP weight x 100 = yield %.

A) (1750 ÷ 2500) x 100 = 70% for the tenderloin

B) (5000 ÷ 7750) x 100 = 64.51% for the salmon

C) (400 ÷ 750) x 100 = 53.33% for the canned tuna

Yield percentage is important because it tells you several things: how much usable product you
will have after processing; how much raw product to actually order, and the actual cost of the
product per dollar spent.

Using Yield to Calculate Food Costs

Once you have your yield percentage, you can translate this information into monetary units.
Considering the losses incurred from trimmings and waste, your actual cost for your processed
ingredient has gone up from what you originally paid, which was your raw cost or AP cost.
These calculations will provide you with your processed cost or EP cost.

The Procedure for Determining EP Cost

1. Record the AP cost, what you paid for the item: A) Whole tenderloin – $23.00/kg

B) Whole sockeye salmon – $5.00/kg

C) Canned tuna flakes in brine – $5.50/750 mL can

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2. Obtain your factor. This factor converts all your calculations into percentages. The formula is:
100 ÷ yield % = factor

A) 100 ÷ 70 tenderloin = 1.42

B) 100 ÷ 64.51 salmon = 1.55

C) 100 ÷ 53.33 canned tuna = 1.875

3) Once the factor has been determined, it is now an easy process to determine your EP cost. The
formula is:
factor x as purchased cost per (unit) = edible product cost per (unit)

A) Tenderloin $23.00 x 1.42 = $32.66/kg

B) Salmon $5.00 x 1.55 = $7.75/kg

C) Canned tuna $5.50 x 1.875 = $10.78/750 mL

Alternatively, the purchased cost per unit (APC/unit) can be divided by the corresponding yield
percentage to calculate the edible portion cost per unit.

Example #1: If the whole turkey costs $.99 per pound and the EP yield is 36%, then

$.99 divided by .36 equals $2.75 per pound. This is also referred to as the “true cost” of the
turkey to serve the customer.

If we plan to serve a 5 oz. portion, then we can calculate the edible portion cost per ounce.
Divide $2.75 by 16 = $.172 per oz. then multiple by 5 oz. = $.86 or 86 cents.

Example #2: If a whole head of cauliflower costs $1.29 per pound and the EP yield is 60%, then
$1.29 divided by .60 equals $2.15 per pound. A 4 oz. portion served to the customer would cost
$.5375

There could be a considerable difference in costs between the raw product and the processed
product, which is why it is important to go through all these steps. Once the EP cost is
determined, the menu price can be set.

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ACTIVITY 7

1. Prepare a recipe for a dish of your choice. Make it good for 10 portions.
a. Establish the quantity or weight of all needed ingredients.
b. Get the cost of the recipe.
c. Compute for the selling price if the desired food cost % is 37%.

2. Assumes that you will be serving in a banquet party and there will be 100 guests who will
be served the recipe.
a. Compute the multiplier to be able to adjust the portion of ingredients.
b. Get the adjusted cost of the recipe.

3. Choose a restaurant and conduct a recipe test, paying attention to:

a. Quality of food
3.1. Tenderness or texture
3.2. Acceptability of taste
3.3. Presentation
b. Validate the actual yield against the yield indicated in the recipe

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 Lesson VIII: Stewarding Operations
 Organization and Operations of the Steward Section
 Manual Dishwashing
 Sanitizing and Cleaning Procedures
 Mechanical Cleaning and Sanitizing
 Storage and Handling Equipment
 Cleaning Food Storage Equipment
 Garbage Disposal and Waste Management

Dishwashing

Manual Dishwashing Method

Three Compartment Sink

 Scrape the food from utensils and dishes.
 Wash dishes and utensils in the first sink using warm soapy water to remove grease and
soil.
 Rinse dishes and utensils with clean hot water – (temperature not less than 43℃/110℉ in
the second sink).
 Immerse dishes and utensils in the third sink in a sanitizing solution at not lower than
24℃/75℉ for at least 45 seconds.
 Air dry on a corrosion-resistant draining rack.

Two Compartment Sink

Two compartment method should be used just for large utensils and pots. Multiuse dishes and
cutlery must be washed, rinsed and sanitized in three compartments sink or in a commercial
dishwasher.

 Scrape the food from utensils and dishes.

 Wash in clean, warm, soapy water.
 Rinse under running water at least 43℃ (110℉).
 Immerse dishes and utensils in the third sink in a sanitizing solution at least 24℃/75℉
for at least 45 seconds.
 Air dry on a corrosion-resistant draining rack.
 Acceptable Sanitizing Solutions
 A chlorine solution of not less than 100 ppm.
 A Quaternary ammonium compound solution of not less than 200 ppm.
 If only using water without any solution, the water must be heated to 77℃/170℉. Dishes
must remain in the water for 45 seconds.

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  Iodine solutions should not be used in child care area due to possible toxicity to the health
of children.

A sanitizing test kit can be purchased from commercial soap suppliers to assist in determining
sanitizer strength.

Automatic Dishwasher Method

The dishwasher must be able to maintain the proper detergent solution during the wash cycle at a
temperature not lower than 60℃/140℉ or higher than 71℃/160℉

Acceptable Sanitizing
A rinse cycle that sprays cleans water at a temperature not lower than 82℃/180℉ for a
minimum of 10 seconds

A rinse cycle that dispenses a sanitizer solution of the same strength and temperature as
explained in the Manual Dishwashing Method.
Kitchen Sanitation: Dishwashing Best Practices

Kitchen Sanitation: Dishwashing

Washing dishes seems like pretty much of a no-brainer. You do it all the time at home -- rinse
the dishes, wash the dishes, dry the dishes, put the dishes away. However, like anything else in a
commercial food environment, the stakes are so much higher if you do things wrong. You have
probably seen this scenario before: You're sitting in a nice restaurant, and you pick up your glass
of water, only to find lipstick rings all around the rim. It may make you cringe to think about
who else may have sipped out of your cup, but the more frightening reality is that for every
lipstick you do see, there may be millions of germs you don't see.

Hand-washing dishes
Larger facilities will have big industrial dishwashing machines, but in some smaller
establishments, the dishes must be washed by hand. There are three parts to hand-washing
dishes: wash, rinse, and sanitize. In order to accomplish all three, your facility must have a three-
compartment dishwashing sink. Dishwashing sinks are separate from handwashing sinks, and
neither one should be used for anything other than their intended purpose. In other words, don't
leave a frozen chicken out to thaw inside your handwashing or dishwashing sink. Of course, no
one who has completed this training would ever think of committing such an atrocity, because
they would know that allowing a chicken to defrost at room temperature is a health hazard.

Sink
The sink must be clean and sanitized before beginning the washing process. The drains must be
in good working order and the water must be heated to at least 110°F. Also, no one may wash
their hands in a sink that is being used for dishwashing.
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Wash
In the first compartment, combine hot water and dish detergent. Be sure to read the
manufacturer's instructions and use the appropriate amount of soap. The wash water must be at
least 110°F. Use a thermometer to be sure the wash water maintains a safe temperature.
Before putting dishes in the wash water, make sure you scrape off all excess bits of food and
then rinse the dishes to remove visible food particles. Make sure to replace dirty water with fresh
water as needed.

Rinse
Rinse water should also be clean and kept hot. Be sure to change the rinse water frequently.

Sanitize
Some facilities simply sanitize dishes with very hot water, but most add in a chemical sanitizer to
water in the third washing sink. Chemical sanitizers can be made up of chlorine, iodine, or
ammonium. They might come in tablet or liquid form. To determine the amount of sanitizer and
required temperatures, follow the manufacturer's directions. There are required concentrations
for any kind of sanitizer, to make sure the solution is strong enough to kill germs. The FDA has
very specific requirements about the percentage of germs that have to be killed through the
dishwashing process, so it is important to follow all package instructions and make sure to use
the appropriate amount of sanitizer per quantity of water. Also, anything you wash must go
through the sanitizing step, which means it must be able to be completely submerged in the
sanitizing solution. If you have any utensils or dishes that are too big for your sink, they must be
run through a large dishwashing machine.

Sidenote:

A recent study by the Center for Innovative Food Technologies, published in The Journal of
Food Engineering, has shown that milk residues inside of glasses and dishes provide an excellent
breeding ground for bacteria, so be sure to pay special attention to glasses with those "science
experiment" milk clumps on the bottom. Also, the tines of forks provide a nice, protected hiding
spot for germs. Take the extra time to scrub between the tines of forks. Interestingly, the study
found that although lipstick rings may be visually disturbing, lipstick holds less bacteria than
many other types of residues on dishes.

There is a huge range of commercial dishwashing machines available on the market today.
Check the manufacturer's operation instructions for the model you use. The big advantage
commercial washing machines have over the dishwashers you might use at home is that they are
amazingly fast and efficient. A commercial dishwasher combines the three stages described in
the handwashing section above; it just does it all faster. Some machines have conveyor belts that
run dishes through all three cycles. Others feature a hood that you pull down over a rack of
dishes to clean them. The system automatically washes, rinses and sanitizes the dishes at

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extremely high temperatures. Some machines finish cycles in less than two minutes, saving vast
amounts of time in a high-volume restaurant environment.
No matter how efficient the machine is, the operator still has to follow some basic best-practices.

Scraping
No dishwashing machine is going to remove crusted-on bits of egg or pizza cheese. The person
running the washer must scrape out all the excess food from platters, plates and dishes. Usually,
they scrape the big parts into the trash, and then use a high pressure wand to rinse off smaller
food particles and sauces.

Stacking
Because of the way dishwashers work, it is critical to make sure water can flow freely to every
dish in the rack. Don't put bowls on top of bowls, or otherwise clutter the rack so they can't get
clean.

Separate
There should be two designated areas around the dishwashing area: a place for dirty dishes and a
large area for clean dishes to be stored. Never put dirty dishes in the clean dish area. This invites
cross-contamination and is an excellent opportunity to mistake a dirty dish for a clean one.

Clean and Maintain

Follow the manufacturer's instructions for cleaning the dishwasher and making sure the machine
lines are well-maintained. Add detergent and sanitizer as needed.

Drying
As long as there have been dishes, married couples have probably argued about whether it is
better to allow dishes to air-dry or to wipe them dry with a towel so that they may be
immediately put away. In a restaurant, dishes simply have to air-dry, and that's a good thing.
Wiping down dishes with a towel actually invites cross-contamination. A towel can be
contaminated with food particles or other items when you pick it up, or it can pick up germs
from one of the dishes. If you use it to wipe down clean dishes, you are basically spreading that
contamination across every dish it touches. Also, as the cloth becomes wet, it begins to provide
an ample source of water for breeding germs.

Employee Health/Cleanliness/Hygiene
Many restaurant managers think that health, cleanliness, and hygiene just goes without saying, so
they choose to say nothing about it until it becomes a problem. There are some basic principles
of health and hygiene that anyone in a restaurant operation should adhere to. Not only can poor
hygiene reflect poorly on your business, (making your customers wonder about the overall
cleanliness of the facility and the quality of the food), it can also create an environment where
germs spread easily. Every time a worker touches his hair or face, he creates an opportunity for

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germs to spread. If the people in the restaurant are as clean as possible, the odds are better that
the food will be healthier.

Although everyone's personal habits are different, there is a serious business and health reason
for managers to educate their employees about proper hygiene habits, and to follow up on their
policies.

How clean is clean?

At a minimum, every employee in the facility should shower or bathe at least once a day. Clothes
should be clean and free of food stains and spots. Every worker should wash hands at the start of
his or her shift, and several times during the shift. Hands must be washed every time you change
tasks; for example, any time you change from food prep to handling trash, money, boxes, or
touching animals or sneezing/coughing, it's time to wash hands. And rule number one of
preventing foodborne illness is to wash hands every time you use the restroom. Signs should be
clearly posted in easily visible locations to remind workers, and managers should monitor the
consumption rate of soap and paper towels around the sink. (If the soap level remains the same
throughout the week, no one is washing their hands.)

Hair
Nothing sets off a customer's automatic cleanliness alarm faster than stray hairs in a dish of food.
Having hair fall in your food is not only unappetizing, it's unsanitary. Every time you touch your
hair, germs move from your hands to your hair. Then, after you wash your hands, you may touch
your hair again and pick up the same germs. Worse yet, that contaminated hair could fall into
someone else's breakfast.

Every facility ought to have a "hair control" policy. In many places, employees are required to
wear hats or hair nets, so that all hair is restrained. Hats also discourage people from touching
their hair, which also helps prevent cross-contamination. Men should be clean-shaven or wear a
face net to restrain their beards. Some people will also have to pay attention to arm hair. In these
cases, gloves can help control the problem.

For servers, hair nets and hats are not required as often, but hair should be cut short or pulled
back into a bun, ponytail, braid or other hair-restraining style. Untrimmed facial hair on a server
is both unsanitary and visually unappealing.

Fingernails
Fingernails provide a natural safe haven for bacteria. For this reason, nails should be clipped
short, filed and well-maintained. Also, long nails carry the risk of breaking under the stress of
work -- which could mean your nail splits into someone else's eggs. In addition to keeping your
nails trimmed and filed, also pay extra attention to them when washing your hands. Use a nail
brush to scrub under nails, and be sure to wash between the fingers.

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Clothing
As mentioned before, clothes should be clean and free of food stains and dirt. Not only does it
create an unappealing image to have workers in dirty clothes, but the food stains can actually
harbor bacteria that the worker could then spread around the kitchen.

The stereotypical image of a "greasy-spoon" type restaurant involves a cook with an extremely
stained white t-shirt and apron. If you resemble this stereotype, change -- and change fast!
Change aprons as needed, and wear chef's jackets that cover your whole upper body and are easy
to change.

Every facility has different uniform requirements, so check with your organization's official
policy, which should be clearly posted.

Jewelry
Leave unnecessary jewelry at home. For one thing, you are less likely to lose your valuables if
you leave them in your house. Secondly, bacteria can hide under rings and bracelets, making it
difficult to wash effectively. Rings can also get caught up in machinery; it is possible to lose a
finger because a ring got caught in a meat slicer or mixer. Loose stones or clasps could also fall
into food -- and although we think it might be nice to find a diamond in our hamburger, it would
not be very nice to bite into one. Such an incident could result in chipped or broken teeth, or
painful internal cuts, if swallowed.

Perfumes
There is no official health-code prohibition against wearing perfume in a commercial kitchen,
but neither is there any good reason to do so. Deodorant is important, but perfumes can distract
customers from the smell of the food. Also, many people are allergic to perfumes, which can
cause both customers and workers to start sneezing, which creates another opportunity for germs
to spread. Save the perfume for the days when you're off-shift.

Gloves
Many local health departments require the use of gloves in food preparation. Even if your
location doesn't require them, they are still helpful in the prevention of cross-contamination. But
you have to understand how to use them, and what the limits are.

Gloves are not an instant force field that protects you from all germs. You still have to follow
good hygiene practices, just like you would if you were using bare hands. You have to wash
hands before putting the gloves on. You have to change them or wash them whenever you
change tasks. You must dispose of used gloves properly or they can cross-contaminate another
food item. If anything gets under the gloves, then you must change them again.

Smoking

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There are so many reasons not to smoke in food prep areas. When smoking, your hands touch
your lips, transferring germs between mouth and fingers. The smell of smoke also gets into the
food, making everything taste smoky. Also, the ashes could accidentally fall from cigarette butt
into food.

Most facilities have a designated outdoor smoking facility for employees. A growing number of
restaurants prohibit smoking anywhere on the premises. Be sure you are familiar with your
facility's policies, and never smoke in the kitchen or outdoors near air intake ducts.

Drinking
Restaurants get hot. People working in a hot kitchen, especially in the summertime, are at an
increased risk of dehydration and heat exhaustion. In order to avoid serious illness, make sure
you stay hydrated, but do it with a mind toward health and hygiene.

Drink plenty of water before your shift starts so your body is well-hydrated, right from the start.
Then, keep a closed container (water bottle) with you. Make sure it is appropriately labeled, so
everyone can tell what the contents are, and who it belongs to. Sharpie pens work well for
labeling your bottle with your initials. Keep the lid on the bottle whenever you aren't drinking
out of it. When you do take sips of water, make sure not to drink directly over the food prep area.
Just turn away.

Most facilities have established policies about drinking in the work area. In general, it is
acceptable to use a closed container in an area away from food prep/serving areas.

The worst case situation would be drinking out of an open cup, without a straw, directly over
the food prep area.

Sneezing/Coughing
Everyone sneezes from time to time. In restaurants, it is critical to understand what goes on when
you sneeze: Every time you cough or sneeze, your mouth and nose are actually launching
millions of microbes into the air. The germs that fly out in sneezes usually thrive in water, and
are most easily transferred by hand from one place to another. Sneezing or coughing into food
will contaminate it.

If you know you have a cold coming on, or if you suffer from seasonal allergies, try to get
control of those symptoms before you go to work. If a sneeze sneaks up on you while you're
working, move quickly away from the food prep area. Do not sneeze directly on your hands.
Grab a paper towel to sneeze into, and throw it away immediately. Always wash your hands after
sneezing, blowing your nose, or using the bathroom.

When to call in sick

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In restaurant jobs, many people are hourly-only workers or make all their money from tips. In
cases like this, it can be very difficult to admit when you need to take off of work. Or, if you
have a good work ethic, it might be difficult to admit that you need to take a few days to recover
from an illness. You might think that you are being a "tough guy" by working through your
sickness, but as a result, you could be passing an illness to many more people, some of whom
could be elderly, very young, or have weak immune systems.

There are certain kinds of symptoms that should signal you to stay home. If you are a manager,
watch for those symptoms in your staff, and make sure they take the time they need to recover.

Stay home if you have any of the following symptoms:

 Nonstop sneezing (droplets could transfer onto food or prep surfaces).

 Continual coughing.
 Fever.
 Nausea/vomiting.
 Diarrhea.
 Animals

It would seem to go without saying that you should never allow dogs or other animals in the
commercial kitchen, but it still happens. In some small, rural establishments, it isn't even unusual
to see the family Labrador standing next to the restaurant grill, waiting for scraps to fall. There
are just so many things wrong with this scenario that it's hard to explain them all. Fur and dander
from dogs and cats can contaminate food, and their toilet habits leave much to be desired. Cats
and dogs never wash their paws with soap and water, instead they lick and scratch themselves,
releasing hair and spit into the air. They also like to sneeze from time to time, and have no ability
to cover their mouths or sneeze into a paper towel. Lizards are famous for spreading salmonella
to kitchens through their excrement. Birds shed feathers and leave droppings wherever they get
the urge. Parasites can be easily transmitted this way. There is just no place for live animals in
the kitchen.

The only reason live animals of any kind should be allowed to enter your establishment is if they
are trained guide dogs, and then they must remain with the person they are assisting, in the
dining-room area. Guide dogs are extremely well-trained, so there is a minimal risk that they will
start sneezing, shaking, scratching or licking while they are inside. Except for an extreme
situation, even guide dogs should not enter the kitchen.

Cleaning and sanitizing food premises and food equipment

Definition of cleaning and sanitizing
Cleaning

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Standard 3.1.1 of the Code defines clean as meaning clean to touch and free of extraneous visible
matter and objectionable odor.

Standard 3.2.2 of the Code outlines cleanliness as meaning there is no accumulation of:

 garbage (except in garbage containers)

 recycled matter (except in containers)
 food waste
 dirt
 grease
 other visible matter.

Cleaning and sanitizing (disinfecting) are usually two separate processes.

Effective cleaning must occur before sanitizing, as sanitizers may not work as well if the food
contact surface or utensil has not had all visible contamination removed.

Cleaning is often achieved with detergent, water and agitation, with the visible dirt and detergent
then rinsed and removed with clean water.

Detergents are chemicals that remove dirt and grease, however detergents do not kill bacteria and
other microorganisms.

Microorganisms may be removed during the cleaning process, however cleaning is not intended
to destroy microorganisms, sanitizing is required for this purpose.

Sanitizing
The term sanitary in the Code refers to the state of a food contact surface or utensil where it does
not contain microorganisms at a level that would permit the transmission of infectious disease or
compromise food safety.

Sanitizers are substances capable of destroying microorganisms including those bacteria that
cause food poisoning and other diseases.

When used properly, they can reduce surface contamination by bacteria to a safe level. It is
important to read and follow the directions on sanitizers carefully.

Sanitizing is usually achieved using heat and water, or chemicals, or a combination of both
methods. An effective alternative to chemical sanitizers is hot water used at (75°C or hotter) to
soak items for 2 minutes or more.

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Points to remember about sanitizing
For effective and safe use of a sanitizer, follow the manufacturer's instructions provided on the
label.

Some sanitizers are toxic to people and the residue must be rinsed off, whilst other sanitizers are
food-safe and do not require rinsing. Always follow the manufacturer's instructions for the
sanitizer to ensure safe use.

Sanitizers all work best at the correct dilution. If they are too weak, they do not work effectively,
if they are too strong you are wasting your money.

Sanitizers need time to work. The contact time varies and may be seconds or minutes depending
on the job.

Sanitizing solution can be made up as needed and put into labelled spray bottles for use on bench
tops, fridges, door handles and other surfaces.

Check the dilution, contact time, safety precautions, shelf life and storage of all chemicals before
use.

Effective cleaning and sanitizing

All items that come into contact with food must be effectively cleaned and sanitized. This is a 4
step process that removes food waste, dirt, grease and destroys food-borne disease pathogens.

The Code does not specify which procedures must be used to ensure the premises and equipment
are kept in a clean and sanitary condition. Food businesses may use a combination of procedures
and methods to meet Code’s requirements.

 Step 1 – Preparation
Remove loose dirt and food particles.
Rinse with warm, potable water.
 Step 2 – Cleaning
Wash with hot water (60 °C) and detergent.
Rinse with clean potable water.
 Step 3 – Sanitizing (bacteria killing stage)
Treat with very hot, clean, potable water (75 °C) for at least 2 minutes.
Apply sanitizer as directed on the label.
 Step 4 – Air drying
Leave benches, counters and equipment to air dry. The most hygienic way to dry
equipment is in a draining rack.

Cost effective cleaning

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Cleaning takes time and costs money.

With planning, well designed and organized food businesses can reduce the time required for
thorough cleaning.

 All items must be stored off the floor. Allowing clearance from the floor gives plenty of
room for cleaning beneath shelving and equipment.
 Undertake regular maintenance, for example filling holes and replacing damaged tiles.
 Keep only what you need at the food business premises.
 Implement and display a cleaning schedule so all staff know their cleaning
responsibilities.
 Keep wood out of the kitchen. Wood absorbs moisture, provides a breeding ground for
food-borne disease pathogens and cannot be easily cleaned and sanitized.
 Wipe down utensils and surfaces with paper towels. Dish cloths (tea towels) can spread
bacteria.
 If hosing down equipment and surfaces, use a high-volume, low pressure hose. High
pressure hoses can splash and spray dirt onto surfaces and create aerosols that may
contain and spread pathogens.

Food Storage Equipment

For the Catering and Food Processing Industry, it is important to maintain safe food handling
practices of all food ingredients to ensure F.I.F.O. and to protect the ingredients from unwanted
contaminants such as insects, moisture, and other environmental contamination.

Rubbermaid containers are easy-to-use, see through and can be labelled for proper food
rotation to reduce food spoilage.

Food Boxes
Reduce food spoilage costs.
Clear, break-resistant polycarbonate provides visibility, durability and stain-resistance.
Tight-fitting Snap-On lids keep food fresh.
Date control panels on boxes and lids for easier inventory control.
Dishwasher and freezer safe.

Ingredient Bins
Rubbermaid PROSAVE ingredient bins and PROSAVE SHELF BINS allow one handed access
with integrated measuring tool to increases preparation efficiency. Rectangular design improves
space optimization under a preparation table or in a storeroom.

Integrated Sliding Lid for one handed access

Clear Door for quick identification of ingredients
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Integrated Scoop and Storage for food code compliance
Casters allow ingredient bins to be transported
Food Pans
Break resistant - won't rust, dent or bend. Quieter than metal.

Non-stick surfaces for easy food release, easy cleaning.

Pans and lids are dishwasher and microwave safe.
Amber (hot) for visibility.
Designed for safety – cooler touch than metal.
Hot Pans temperature range: –40°F/–40°C to 375°F/190°C. Not for use with open flame.
Temperature range: –40°F/–40°C to 102°F/39°C.

HYGIENE & CLEANING SOLUTIONS FOR ALL INDUSTRIES

Reza Hygiene is a one-stop provider of Hygiene & Cleaning solutions for all industries,
especially the food chain from farm to fork, Healthcare and Commerce. Solutions are wide-
ranging, innovative and sustainable, with the company taking a highly responsible approach to
chemicals.

Reza Hygiene has pioneered the use of highly effective new green chemical technologies in the
housekeeping and industrial cleaning sectors, providing products that enable its clients to meet
environmental standards, including LEED accreditation.

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ACTIVITY 8

I. The following are the steps for cleaning and sanitizing u the three compartment sink.
Number them according to the order by which they will be done.
___________ rinse
___________ store
___________ wash
___________ sort
___________ scrape
___________ pre-rinse
___________ sanitize
___________ drain and air dry

II. Give the temperature required for the following processes:

1. Pre-wash _____________
2. Wash ___________
3. Rinse ___________
4. Final rinse ____________

III. Demonstrate dishwashing using the three sink method.

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 Lesson IX: Herbs and Spices
 Forms and Uses of Herbs
 Various Herbs and Spices Used for Cooking

List of Spices, Herbs, and Weirdies

In the culinary world,

Spices refer to products used to flavor foods that come from the root, stem, seed, fruit or flower
of a plant.

Herbs are also products used to flavor foods, but come from the leafy green part of a plant.

Weirdies is a category we made up to encompass everything else.

SPICES

Ajwain - Typically ground, these seeds have a strong fragrance with thyme and cumin
undertones. They are used in Asian, Ethiopian, North Indian, Iranian, North Indian and Pakistani
cuisines. They pair well with starchy foods like flatbreads, green beans, root vegetables and
legumes. Ajwain seeds are excellent mixed with lemon and garlic with fish dishes.

Allspice - This individual spice is commonly confused as a spice mixture. It has flavors of
cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon and a little pepper, but it is in fact a single spice. It is a notable flavor
in Jamaican Jerk seasoning and does well when mixed with other, similar spices.

Almond Meal - Almond Meal is made from ground almonds that have not been blanched. The
consistency and application is more similar to corn meal than flour, and is not the same as
almond flour. Our Almond Meal is made from almonds grown in California.

Anise Seed - Not to be confused with Star Anise, Anise seeds are small and look similar to Dill
and Fennel seeds. Their aroma is sweet and licorice-like while their flavor is a bit fruity and
warm. They are most notably used in Italian pizzelles, Australian humbugs and Peruvian
picarones.

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Annatto/Achiote Seed - One spice with two names, Achiote is the name of the spice created
from grinding Annatto seeds. This spice is typically used for coloring more than flavor but can
be cooked in oil to infuse a little flavor. It has a pleasant peppermint and flowery aroma and is
essential for making Yucatan Recado Rojo and achiote paste.

Arrowroot Powder - Virtually flavorless, Arrowroot powder is a gluten free starch that can be
used as a thickener in sauces, clear glazes, gravies and pie fillings. It can be substituted anywhere
flour or cornstarch is called for and is in some cases considered to be superior to the two
previously mentioned.

Asafoetida - Another popular spice for those following gluten free diets, Asafoetida is the dried
latex that comes from the taproot of several species of Ferula (a perennial herb). Primarily used
in Indian cooking, it has an aroma that might have you second guessing its culinary use at first
smell. Once cooked in oil the aroma mellows and the onion-like flavor can shine through a bit
more.

Beetroot Powder - Beetroot Powder is used as both a colorant and flavoring component. Made
from dehydrated beets, Beet Powder is sometimes add as a sweetener in juices or sauces.

Bell Peppers - Technically part of the chile pepper family, bell peppers come in a wide variety
of colors and range in flavor from a tiny bit sweet to crisp and almost tart. Bell Peppers have a
SHU rating of 0.

Cacao - Sometimes confused with cocoa (hot chocolate), cacao is the pure, unprocessed and
dried seed of Theobrama cacao. It can be found in nib form or ground into a powder. The flavor
is intense with a subtle mouth - cooling finish. Cacao is the ingredient that is emphasized on
wrappers of dark chocolate bars.

Caraway Seed - Most notably used to flavor rye bread, Caraway Seed has a sharp pungent
aroma like dill and a sweet, warm, biting flavor that is reminiscent of anise. It seems to
counteract the fattiness of meats including pork, duck and goose. It is also used in a variety of
foods such as cabbage soup, goulash, pickles, sauerbraten, sauerkraut, sausages and German
kummel liqueur.

Cardamom - Cardamom aka the Queen of spices in India (with pepper as her King) is used to
intensify both sweet and savory flavors. Cardamom itself has a light lemony flavor, with an
aroma that is rugged, but gentle, biting and fruity. Cardamom can be used in its whole pod form
or the seeds can be extracted and ground into a powder depending on the type of dish being
prepared.

Celery Seed - Our conventional Celery products is cultivated in India. Celery seeds and Ground
Celery Seeds have more “earthy” taste that is still fresh and light. Depending on the season of the
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latest harvest, our organic Celery Seeds and Ground Celery is sourced from Egypt, India, the
Netherlands and the US.

Chia Seeds - Chia Seeds are an incredibly versatile seed. When dry they are similar to poppy
seeds, but once you add them to water they can increase in size up to 12 times their original size.
Chia seeds are a popular Super Food because they contain more Omega-3 than any other natural
source by volume. Their flavor is nutty and changes to slighty sweet when submerged in liquid.
Chia seeds can be used in chocolate, oatmeal and jams. You may also find them on breads or
pastries.

Chiles - Chiles vary in size and application, but generally add a small level of heat to a dish. We
offer a variety of whole dehydrated chiles, as well as chile powders and flakes.

Cinnamon - Cinnamon is the oldest known spice, being referenced in written text in the 5th
century. There are 4 distinct types. It actually comes from pieces of tree bark that have been sun
dried. After drying, the bark is cut into strips or ground into a powder. There are a variety of
cinnamon types, and each has a slightly different flavor as well as a different volatile oil content
that determines its intensity. Cinnamon is used in baking and can also be found in an assortment
of savory dishes.

Citrus Zests and Juice Powders - Fruit zests are the outermost skin of citrus fruits that do not
include the white pith between the fruit and the peel. Zests can be reconstituted and used in
baking recipes. They are also extremely popular with beer brewers for any beer that features a
fruity flavor. The juice of these different fruits can also be dried and converted into a pure
powder. These powders are popular in baking and cooking when a liquid component is not
necessary.

Cloves - Cloves are probably the only spice that can be used by stabbing it into the food you’re
cooking and just letting it sit. This popular way to flavor a holiday pork roast or ham is truly
unique and also provides an aesthetic appeal. They can also be used whole when cooking liquids,
such as cider, but they should be removed before serving. Ground cloves are used in spice blends
such as Pumpkin Pie Spice, Chinese Five Spice and Garam Masala.

Cocoa Powder, Black Onyx - Cocoa powder is the processed, sweeter version of the natural
cacao. Black Onyx Cocoa Powder had an extremely smooth flavor and gives color to one of
America’s most iconic cookies, the Oreo. The sweet flavor works well with desserts, smoothies
and even as a secret ingredient in steak rubs.

Coriander - The plant that produces coriander seed is one of three plants that produce both an
herb and spice. The herb produced by this plant is Cilantro. Coriander is popular in Indian and
Mexican dishes and provides a warm earthiness to dishes along with citrusy undertones. It is a
popular ingredient with beer brewers.
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Cubeb Berry - The flavor of Cubeb can be described as a mix between black pepper and
allspice, with a small kick of spiciness. Cubeb berries can be used in the same applications as
cloves and allspice, as they have a distinct, intense flavor. It works as a great ‘secret ingredient’
or as a substitute for black pepper.

Cumin - Cumin has long been an essential ingredient in cuisines around the world and has only
relatively recently become mainstream as a spice in the US. Cumin has a very distinct earthy,
nutty and spicy flavor with a warm aroma with hints of lemon. It is an ingredient in many spice
blends and is used in bean, couscous, curry, rice and vegetable dishes.

Dill Seed - The plant that produces dill seed is a plant that produces both a spice and an herb,
with the herb being dill weed. In the United States, dill is probably most associated with the
flavor of dill pickles. In German, Russian and Scandinavian cuisines it is a popular spice used in
cooking cabbage, onion, potatoes and pumpkin. The flavor is clean and pungent with anise
undertones.

Extracts - Extracts made strictly with a spice or herb and a form of alcohol and should not be
confused with “natural flavorings.” The spice or herb is submerged in the alcohol for a period of
time, and therefore infuses the alcohol with flavor. The spice or herb is then typically removed
from the alcohol before using. When making homemade extracts the herb or spice does not need
to be removed, but keep in mind that the flavor will continue to intensify for as long as the herb
or spice is submerged.

Fennel - Fennel Seed, called “the fish herb” in Italy and France, has two types, sweet and bitter.
Bitter Fennel is the type that is typically referred to when the word ‘fennel’ is used in the United
States. It has a warm, licorice type aroma with a flavor that is slightly sweet with camphorous
undertones. It is used in beet, lentil, potato and meat dishes and adds flavor to Sauerkraut.

Fenugreek - Fenugreek seeds look more like small, caramel colored pebbles than seeds. They
are extremely popular in Indian and Middle Eastern cooking and are used in a variety of curry
powders. The flavor is nutty and bittersweet with a pungent, spicy aroma that has undertones of
butterscotch and sweet nuts. The plant that Fenugreek Seeds come from also provide us with the
herb Fenugreek Leaves.

Galangal Root Powder - Galangal Root Powder is a star ingredient in Southeast Asian cuisine.
Galangal is a cousin of ginger and has a more piney and menthol flavor. Galangal Powder is
extremely popular in Asia for its medicinal properties. Galangal pairs well with beef and works
well in soups, stews and curries.

Garlic - Vampires beware, Americans eat an average of 3 ½ pounds of garlic per year and are
thus almost inedible to all vampires! Garlic has been eaten by humans from the time the
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pyramids were built and continues to be a great addition to almost every savory food around. It
tastes wonderful in combination with most spices and herbs.

Ginger - The ginger plant is a rhizome, producing a plant above the dirt’s surface and a
horizontal stem below. These stems are what we consider ‘ginger’. The flavor is fierce and
peppery with lemony undertones. Ginger can be used fresh and its juice is promoted as a
superfood, being featured in probiotic drinks across the US. Ginger is also extremely popular in
desserts like gingerbread and pumpkin pie spice.

Grains of Paradise - Also known as seeds of paradise, Grains of Paradise is a seed from West
Africa that can be used in many of the same ways that peppercorns are used. The flavor is
peppery and pungent with bitter fruity notes and the aroma is similar to cardamom and clove.
Ground Grains of Paradise can be used wherever pepper is called for if you want a more
flavorful profile. Grains of Paradise is extremely popular by beer brewers when making summer
wheat beers, session pale ales and Belgian witbiers.

Horseradish Powder - Horseradish Powder is an excellent addition to egg or cream-based

sauces for a zingy, potent end result. Horseradish Powder is an essential ingredient in cocktail
sauce and adds a welcome warmness to winter meat dishes, especially roast beef or prime rib.

Juniper Berries - Juniper Berries come from an evergreen shrub that grows throughout the
Northern Hemisphere. In Europe Juniper Berries are used in marinades for pickled elk and beef.
Juniper berries are also important to flavoring sauerkraut. In the United States these berries
might be most notably use as a flavoring for gin.

Long Pepper - Long Pepper is now considered an exotic spice, but it was used just as often as
black pepper before the discovery of the “new world.” During this time Long Pepper was used
wherever some extra heat was called for. After the discovery of the “new world” and the
commercial transportation of chile peppers, it decreased in popularity, as cooks had access to
ingredients that better fit the heat component called for in a variety of dishes.

Mace - Mace is the little known, lacy covering of nutmeg. Mace is removed from the outside of
nutmeg in strips known as mace blades and can be ground after drying for easy culinary use. The
flavor is warm with hints of lemony sweetness. It is often described as similar to but more
delicate than nutmeg. Mace is considered a savory spice and works well as a replacement for
nutmeg in lighter colored dishes where the dark specks of nutmeg are unwanted.

Malheb - Mahlab is the dried kernel of the St. Lucie Cherry Tree. It has a delicate almond flavor
with hints of cherries and roses. It works especially well in combination with apricots, rose
water, pistachios and dates. Maleb is not very popular in American dishes but is used by Greek-
Americans as an ingredient in baked goods.

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Mustard - Mustard seeds come in a variety of colors including yellow (also called white), brown
and black. The darker the mustard seed, the more intense the flavor is when ground. Ground
mustard is used to make mustard sauces and whole mustard seeds are used for pickling
applications.

Nigella Sativa - Nigella Seeds are popular in Middle Eastern and Indian cooking. They are
typically added to curries and vegetarian dishes after they are roasted. The seed itself has a little
bit of a crunch which makes is a nice topping for flatbreads and rolls. Nigella seeds work well
with other earthy spices like cumin, fennel seed and turmeric.

Nutmeg - Nutmeg is the seed of a yellow brownish edible fruit that grows on an evergreen tree.
When picked, the nutmeg seed is covered in mace which is scraped off and sold as a separate
spice. Nutmeg is typically solid all the way through and is most commonly used in its ground
form. Nutmeg works well with hearty dishes such as lamb and mutton recipes, tomato sauces and
vegetable stews. Nutmeg is always a popular flavor in baking and cold weather beverages.

Onion - The onion is also known as the onion bulb or common onion. When used fresh onion is
considered a vegetable and in its dried, ground form is considered a spice. Onion is very popular
inside of the United States, but also outside of this country with Libyans eating an average of
66.8 pounds of onion per capita.

Paprika- Paprika is a mild chile powder used frequently in South American, Hungarian and
Spanish cuisine, with the popularity in the US rising consistently in the past 10 years. It has
complex flavor undertones including a smoky flavor from smoked paprika and a slightly sweet,
earthy flavor from domestic paprika.

Peppercorns - Peppercorns come in a variety of colors. Black, green and white peppercorns all
come from the Piper nigrum plant. The color differences depend on the maturity of the berry as
well as the drying process. Pink peppercorns are not peppercorns at all, instead they are berries
from the Peruvian peppertree. Peppercorns are similar to wine in the way that the flavor nuances
of the peppercorn will be determined by the area in which it is grown.

Poppy Seed - Poppy seeds are extremely tiny ‘blue’ seeds. It takes 900,000 of these seeds to
make up a single pound of weight. Poppy seeds are popular in salad dressings, vegetable dishes,
muffins and rolls. They give food a little crunch and have a nutty flavor profile.

Porcini Powder - Porcini Powder is made from ground dehydrated Porcini mushrooms, and has
a much more intense and concentrated flavor compared to their fresh counterparts. Porcini
Powder can be used to add depth and umami to a dish with an even flavor distribution, and
without the texture of whole mushrooms.

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Saffron - Saffron is the most expensive and most counterfeited spice in the world. The
production of saffron is extremely labor intensive, as saffron is the pistil of a flower that must be
picked by hand, with an average of only three to five pistils being produced per plant. Saffron is
used in a variety of applications including being a seasoning, fragrance, dye and medicine.

Sesame Seed - Sesame Seeds come in a variety of colors including white, yellow, black and red.
They are popular in Chinese stir fry and Middle Eastern spice blends. Sesame Seeds can also be
used on baked goods such as breads, hamburger buns and pastries.

Shallots - Shallots have a flavor profile somewhere between onions and garlic. They are a
delightful replacement for either in a dish that you want to give a little extra flavor. Shallots are
often used in Indian curries and different types of lentil dishes.

Star Anise - Not to be confused with anise seed, star anise is a spice that has a shape similar to a
star and typically has 8 points, but can have more or less. In the United States star anise is used
similarly to cloves in application. The whole pods are used as mulling spices and the ground pod
is used in baking and cold weather beverages.

Sumac - Sumac is a ground berry that is native to the Mediterranean region. It has an astringent,
tart but fruity taste and a very faint aroma. Sumac is extremely popular in Middle Eastern dishes
where you can find it in salads, meat and fish dishes and rice.

Sweeteners - Sweeteners encompass much more than just sugar these days. From dehydrated
molasses to dried agave powder there is a wide selection of sweeteners for everyone whether you
want a secret ingredient for your BBQ sauce or you are trying to make more health-conscious
decisions in your eating habits.

Turmeric - Most likely known for its health benefits, turmeric is a powder ground from the
plants rhizome. Turmeric is a main ingredient in masalas, Ras el Hanout and curry powders and
pastes. Turmeric can also be used as a natural coloring for foods or even clothing, as the
powder’s intense color will stain cooking ingredients, your clothes and even your hands.

Vanilla - Vanilla is the second most expensive spice in the world after saffron, but even with a
high price tag it is extremely popular for its heavenly flavor. The most popular types of vanilla
beans are grown in Madagascar, Mexico and Tahiti, and they each have their own unique flavor
nuances. Vanilla beans are also grown in Papua New Guinea and Uganda, although these types
are lesser known. Vanilla is commonly used for making desserts, beverages and liquors.

HERBS

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Basil - There are more than 50 species of basil, but almost all basil used in the United States is
one species that comes from either California, Egypt or France. Basil has a better flavor when
dried, as opposed to fresh. Dried basil has anise, pepper and minty undertones and it somehow
sweet yet savory at the same time.

Bay Leaves - Bay leaves are the whole dried leaves of a tree in the laurel family. Bay leaves
have a much more pleasant flavor when dried, with has a higher volatile oil content. Bay leaves
are used in their whole form in soups and stews and are removed before serving. Ground bay
leaves are added to seasoning blends and dishes to give an earthy flavor with undertones of
nutmeg and clove.

Celery Flakes - Celery Flakes add a great authentic celery taste, though rehydrate they do not
accurately mimic the texture of fresh celery. With a bright and fresh flavor, they can also be used
as a garnish.

Chervil - Chervil is not very popular in the United States on its own but is used to make the
blend Fines Herbs. Even in France Chervil is not very popular, most likely because it is related to
an infamous English weed called Cow Parsley. For this reason, the French only use chervil in the
previously mentioned Fines Herbs or in making béarnaise sauce.

Cilantro Leaves - Many people know cilantro as the herb that people love or hate, saying it
either has a delicious flavor or tastes like soap. Cilantro is a key ingredient in authentic Mexican,
Caribbean and Asian dishes. In the United States cilantro is used in beans, salsas, soups and dips.

Curry Leaves - Curry leaves are an essential part of Southern Indian and Sri Lankan cuisines.
They are used in a similar way to bay leaves, but unlike bay leaves they do not need to be
removed before serving because they are much softer. Curry leaves are used in curry, fish, lamb,
lentil and vegetable dishes.

Dill Weed - In the United States dill weed is most recognized for the “dill flavor” that it gives to
dill pickles. Besides pickles, dill is used to give fish a recognizable crisp flavor. In Europe, dill
weed has a much wider range of uses. It is considered a key herb in dishes such as salads, sauces,
spreads, soups and fish. Visually it is similar to rosemary, but it is a more vibrant green color.

Dried Chives - Chives are the smallest member of the onion family, and instead of eating the
bulb it is the scapes (the long flowering stems that rise from the bulb) that are utilized. They can
be used in any recipe that calls for green onion and work well in cream-based products. Some of
the most popular uses for chives are flavoring butters, cream cheese and sauces or dressings.

Dried Fenugreek Leaves - Dried Fenugreek Leaves are extremely aromatic, with a strangely
addictive bitterness. Though they are often used as a garnish, they are very flavorful and it can be
easy to overwhelm a dish.
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Dried Rose Petals - There are two different types of roses, with the most common being the
deeply colored flowers that come in a bouquet. The second type of roses are culinary roses which
have been developed to have a much more pleasing flavor and less of an aesthetically pleasing
color. Culinary rose petals are most popular for their use in rose water and are also used in
desserts or jams.

File Powder - Pronounced fee-lay, File Powder is a spice made from dried, ground sassafras
leaves. File powder is most notably used in gumbo as a flavoring and thickener all in one. File
powder can also be used to season shrimp, scallops and other seafood with rice.

Kaffir Lime - Kaffir lime leaves are the leaves of a bitter lime tree in which the limes are only
used for their zest and not their juice. These leaves are popular in Cambodian, Balinese,
Malaysian and Thai cuisines and are removed before serving. Kaffir lime leaves are used in the
popular Thai dish tom yum and they work well with chicken and snails.
Lavender - Also known as culinary lavender, lavender has an intense floral flavor with a hint of
bitterness that can quickly overpower dishes. The aroma of lavender is spicy and slightly floral
with undertones of mint and lemon. Lavender is delicious when used in desserts, but it can also
be used in savory applications such as chicken, lamb and rabbit dishes.

Lemongrass - Lemongrass is part of the grass family and is popular in Thai and Southeast Asian
cuisine. It is best when used fresh, but if using dried it should be soaked before use when the dish
does not have a large liquid component. Lemongrass provides a light fresh citrus and floral
flavor to foods and can even be used to make tea.

Marjoram - Marjoram has a minty, sharp and bitter flavor profile and is popular in European
cuisine. It can be used in almost any dish that you would include basil, oregano or thyme in and
is an extremely versatile herb. In the United States marjoram is used commercially in salad
dressings, soups, cheeses, bologna and poultry seasonings.

Mint - Spearmint is the most called for of the two mints, with peppermint being the lesser called
for. Spearmint has a refreshing and mellow pure flavor that is popular in Greek, Middle Eastern
and Turkish cuisines. Peppermint on the other hand has a more intense flavor and provides that
‘cold’ sensation on your tongue. It is popular in baking, chocolate sauces and liquors.

Oregano - Oregano is commonly associated with Italy and pizza, but there are two main types of
oregano, Mediterranean oregano and Mexican oregano. Mediterranean oregano is the type used
in Americanized Italian dishes and Mexican oregano is more like marjoram and has citrusy,
lime-like undertones.

Parsley - Parsley is a popular garnish because of its bright green color, but it can be eaten too!
Parsley has a vegetable aroma and flavor that is prominent in Middle Eastern recipes for
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hummus, baba ganoush and tabbouleh. Parsley also works well in grain-based dishes, with fish
and in pastas and soups.

Rosemary - Rosemary has a very distinct, strong flavor that is minty, cooling and somewhat
balsamic. The aroma is just as strong and has hints of eucalyptus. Rosemary works well with
meats of all kinds, especially lamb, pork, veal and wild game. It also works well with dairy based
foods such as cream cheese, butters and cream sauces.

Sage - In the United States sage is an herb that stays in its comfort zone, being an ingredient in
poultry seasoning, sausages and cheese, but we think you should take a note from the Brits and
make this a staple herb in your kitchen, as it can bring flavor to an incredible number of dishes.
With a robust peppery and savory flavor sage can be added to any dish that is rich in fat or has a
savory component. It can even be added to dark iced teas for a deliciously new flavor.

Summer Savory - Also known as just ‘savory’, summer savory has a peppery bite and light
herby flavor. It is like a cross between mint, marjoram and thyme. Summer savory is slightly
milder than its close relative winter savory and is used in hearty dishes such as beans, stews,
cabbage, potatoes and stuffing for meat pies. It is sometimes a special ingredient in pickling
mixes.

Tarragon - Tarragon is most notable for its use in French cooking. The flavor is light, warm and
sweet with hints of anise and mint. It is a key ingredient in the herb blend Herbs de Provence and
is typically used in combination with other herbs to highlight their individual flavors. Tarragon
works well with dill, parsley, chives and basil and can be used to flavor chicken, mushrooms,
eggs, seafood and vegetables.

Thyme - Thyme, the subject of many a spice pun, is popular in a plethora of European cuisines
for its strong, fresh, lemony flavor. It is used to give flavor to sauces, vinegars, soups and stews.
In the United States thyme is most recognized for its use in Creole cooking to add flavor to
blackened meats and fish. It is used in turkey stuffing, sausages and New England clam chowder.

WEIRDIES

Apple Cider Vinegar Powder - Our Apple Cider Vinegar Powder is made from dehydrated
Apple Cider Vinegar. Powdered malic acid can be used to flavor sauces and rubs when liquid
apple cider vinegar is not available or less practical.

Bonito Flakes - Bonito Flakes are actually very thin, delicate flakes of dehydrated fish. They
have a rich umami taste and add a deep and complex flavor to dishes. Our Bonito Flakes come
from Japan.

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Citric Acid - Citric Acid is a natural preservative that looks like fine grain salt or sugar. It is
treasured for its mouth puckering, sour flavor. It occurs naturally from the fermentation of crude
fruit sugars of citrus type fruits and is used to flavor softs drinks and as a substitute for salt in
some salt-free seasonings blends. Sour Patch Kids, anyone?

Cream of Tartar - Produced by a variety of fruits, tartaric acid is most commonly known as a
by-product of winemaking, where it appears as crystals on the sides of wooden casks during
fermentation. After being processed these crystals are turned into a white, odorless, acidic
powder used to stabilize egg whites in baking known as cream of tartar. This can be used to
prevent syrups from crystallizing or prevent boiled vegetables from losing color as well.

Curing Salt - Curing salt has somewhat of a deceiving name, as it should never be used in the
same way that you would use any type of table salt. Curing salt is used specifically to preserve
meat such as bologna and summer sausage while it is aging. There are two types of curing salt
depending on how long you are curing your meat and whether it will be cooked before
consuming or can be eaten as-is.

Granulated Honey - Granulated Honey is a unique product in that combines traditional honey
with the ease of use as table sugar. It contains approximately 7% of honey and 93% of sugar.

Maple Sugar - Maple Sugar is made from the boiling down of maple syrup. Our Maple Sugar is
from Vermont, and can be used as a substitute when granulated sugar is called for.

Salt - Salt comes in a range of shapes, sizes and colors. These different qualities of salt are
determined by the area of the world where they are mined and the way in which they are
harvested or processed. The two primary elements that form salt are sodium and chloride.
Depending on the type of salt there may be additional minerals in the makeup of the crystals that
are highly sought after. One such salt is Himalayan Pink Salt, an ingredient coveted for its 84
trace minerals. Salts can also be smoked over different types of wood giving them a smoky
flavor. These are a delicious addition to any food you would like to taste like it came straight off
the grill.

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 A Syllabus for Introduction to Culinary Operations
(The Basics of Professional Cooking)

Textbook: Introduction to Culinary Operations (The Basic of Professional Cooking)

Instructor: Mrs. Ma. Jessica S. De Guzman

PRE-REQUISITE:
 WHAT ARE STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES? Student Learning Outcomes
(SLO’s) focus on designing curriculum around answering this question:
 What will a student be able to DO in his/her multiple roles with what he/she learns in the
course?
 When will instruction focus on SLO’s the learning process is more learner centered and
more relevant to a student’s life?

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 Upon successful completion of this course, students will demonstrate proper knowledge,
skills, theory, practice of food production and basic culinary techniques for the food
service industry. Students will demonstrate proper and safe use of knives. Students will
perform knife cuts and cutting techniques with a minimum of 75% accuracy.
 Upon successful completion of this course, students will define what the five mother
sauces are, mirepoix, roux, slurry, and liaison. Prepare and finish sauces such as
cream/white, brown, butter and tomato. Prepare two basic warm emulsion sauces.
Students will demonstrate dry and moist cooking method through daily cooking exercise.
Students will demonstrate how to make chicken,, beef and fish stock.
 Upon successful completion of this course, students will be able to apply fundamental
culinary concepts and demonstrate to use kitchen equipment and tools such as ovens,
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 stoves, mixers as well as all types of knives, pots, pans, etc. students will learn French
terminology through recipes and cooking techniques.

COURSE DESCRIPTION:
Study and kitchen/laboratory experience of quantity and quality food production. Introduction
and application of culinary principles and procedures for basic food preparation is experienced.
This is a comprehensive hands-on introduction to culinary basics, including classic knife cuts,
terminology, equipment, measurements, and ingredients. Passing competencies will include all
stocks, mother sauces, soups, vegetables, and grains. Speed, time management and accuracy are
emphasized.

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS:
In the Introduction to Culinary Operations, kitchen tools, organization and layout are discussed
and/or demonstrated by the instructress. Videos are used to further enhance the knowledge of the
students when viewing techniques and cooking methods. Students then prepare the lesson as
instructed or demonstrated, all students working in groups or individually to meet the required
competencies. Periodic use of videos, Multi-media presentations and guest speakers augment the
curriculum.

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
Upon completion of this course, students will have an understanding of, or be able to apply the
following principles and concepts:
1. Knowledge of egg by boiling, frying, poaching and scrambling. Prepare French,
American/Country-style and Souffle Omelets.
2. Select and prepare starches for boiling or steaming. Cook potatoes, grains, and legumes.
3. Prepare vegetables using boiling, sautéing, roasting, grilling, pureeing, and pan-frying
techniques.
4. Describe the basic hierarchy of a kitchen and name several positions in the kitchen
brigade.
5. Name the methods of heat transfer and list examples of cooking techniques that rely upon
each method.
6. Select and store canned, frozen, and prepared foods properly.
7. Name the basic knife cuts and describe them.
8. Select and store canned, frozen, and prepared foods properly.
9. Select and store a variety of fruits, vegetables, herbs, and fruits.
10. Define mise en place, bouquet garni and sachet d’epices. Define mirepoix, roux, and
liaison.
11. Define stock and describe several uses for stocks. Identify different types of stocks and
identify preparation methods for each stock.
12. Name the mother sauces. Prepare and finish brown, white, tomato sauces. Prepare two
basic warm emulsion sauces.

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 13. Select ingredients and prepare broths and vegetable soups. Prepare consommé, puree and
cream soups.
14. Describe the sautéing process and explain why it is considered an a la minute technique.
15. Name the similarities and differences between roasting and baking as it relates to poultry
and fish.
16. Select and prepare foods for grilling and broiling.
17. Define and stewing, noting the similarities and differences between these two methods.
18. Apply nutritional balance, variety to a complete dish.

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS:
Various methods of instruction are utilized, including lectures, class opinions, polls, discussions,
films, and guest lectures to do on-site inspections at food service operations. A primary objective
of this particular course is to establish and atmosphere in which each student feels that he/she
may express his/her own point of view without feeling threatened, and that questions may be
asked and answered without embarrassment. No limits are placed upon the subject matter or the
extent of questioning, except that all discussions should be in “good taste” and with due
recognition of the varying personal, economic, religious and social background of each class
member and the level of the group as a whole.

LAB CHECK OUT REQUIREMENTS:

 Food is not to be taken out of the lab unless authorized by the chef instructor.
 All pantry supplies and equipment returned to the proper storage area before class ends.
Class hours must be adhered.
 All workstations and sinks cleaned and wiped dry.
 All appliances/equipment cleaned after use, including stove tops, French tops, all reach-in
and walk-in refrigerator doors wiped cleaned, counter tops and cupboard doors.
 All equipment, supplies and dry herbs/spices must be put back in its proper space.
 All under sinks cabinets cleaned and in order.
 All spills are to be wiped up and all wet towels placed in washing machine in lower level.
If you use it, clean it.
 Floors swept and mopped.
 If you leave prior to class ending, you will be marked ½ absent. Attendance will be taken
at the end of the class as well.

WEEKS TOPICS Learning Objectives

Week 1 I. Kitchen Organization and Layout 1. defines the terms:
a. Functions of the Kitchen, Operating work triangle,
Units ergonomics
b. Organizing the Job – Division of Work 2. identifies at least
c. Kitchen Layout two factors to
d. Job Description of Kitchen Staff consider when
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 planning kitchen
layouts
3. identifies the eight
main types of
kitchen layouts
4. states the
advantages and
disadvantages of
each type of
kitchen layout
5. names the main
activity centers of
the kitchen and
discuss the
activities carried
out in each center.
Week 2 II. Kitchen Tools and Equipment 1. identifies kitchen
a. Kitchen Machines machines
b. Equipment, Tools and Their Uses 2. demonstrates the
c. Baking Tools proper use and
d. Proper Use and Operation of Kitchen operation of
Tools/Equipment Kitchen
e. Proper Cleaning of Kitchen Equipment Tools/Equipment
3. lists equipment
tools and baking
tools
Week 3-4 III. Sanitation and Safety in Culinary 1. distinguishes the
Operations proper sanitation
a. Definition and Importance of Sanitation maintenance
and Food Safety concerning
b. Bacteria and How They Multiply utensils/equipment
c. Causes of Food Poisoning and Food 2. evaluates the
Borne Diseases protection against
d. HACCP Analysis and Control chemical/physical
e. Food Safety Standards hazards
f. Quality Standards for Perishable Items 3. enumerates the
g. Meat Inspection and Grading processes for food
h. Food Safety in the Storage of Food safety in serving
i. How long Can Foods be Stored food
j. Food Safety in Food Preparation 4. demonstrates the
k. Reheating Foods proper hand
l. Thawing Foods washing
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 m. Food Safety in Serving Food
n. Time Control – Keeping Foods Out of
the Danger Zone
o. Sanitation Maintenance Concerning
Utensils/Equipment
p. Protection Against Chemical/Physical
Hazards
q. Prevention of Cross Contamination
r. The Safe Food Handler – Personal
Hygiene
s. Proper Hand Washing
t. Safety and Accident Prevention
Week 5-6 IV. Basic Preparations Before Cooking 1. makes a
a. Basic Preparations Before Cooking requisition before
b. Making Requisition of Kitchen Stocks cooking
c. Washing Ingredients for Cooking 2. performs the
d. Preparation of Vegetables and Other different cuts of
Ingredients vegetables
e. How to Slice, Dice, Chop, and Mince 3. explains the
with pictures purpose of the
f. Different Cuts of Vegetables different cuts of
g. Preparing Sea Foods for Cooking vegetables
h. Cutting and Filleting Fish
i. Preparations for Chicken
Week 7-8 V. Basic Cooking Methods 1. differentiates
a. Blanching and Deep Fat Frying boiling,
b. Boiling, Simmering, Poaching and simmering,
Stewing poaching, stewing,
c. Steaming and Braising steaming, broiling,
d. Grilling, Broiling, Marinating marinating,
e. Glazing, Roasting, Marinating and roasting, glazing,
Baking and baking
f. Meat and Fish Preservation 2. lists the recipes
g. Stock and Sauces for sauces
h. Thickening and Binding Items
i. Recipes for Sauces
Week 9-10 VI. Preparation of Cold Dishes, Fruit and 1. identifies the
Vegetables Carving classification of
a. Classification of Cold Dishes cold dishes
b. Hors D’ oeuvres and Classification 2. make canapes and
c. Canapes and Relishes relishes
d. Salads and Salad Dressing 3. enumerates the
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 e. Tips in the Preparation of Garnishes tips for the
f. Carving Tools, Containers for preparation of
Platters/Cold Dishes garnishes
g. Fruit Carving Procedures 4. performs fruit
carving
procedures
Week 11 VII. Menu Planning, Recipe Preparation and 1. identifies the
Costing components of a
a. Steps Planning a Menu menu
b. Analysis of the Market 2. creates a menu
c. Components of a Menu format
d. Menu Format 3. lists the steps for
e. Recipe Standardization and Costing and planning a menu
Pricing the Recipe
f. Recipe Testing, Menu Analysis and
Menu Engineering
Week 12 VIII. Stewarding Operations 1. performs
a. Organization and Operations of the sanitizing and
Steward Section cleaning
b. Manual Dishwashing procedures
c. Sanitizing and Cleaning Procedures 2. demonstrates
d. Mechanical Cleaning and Sanitizing garbage disposal
e. Storage and Handling Equipment and waste
f. Cleaning Food Storage Equipment management
g. Garbage Disposal and Waste
Management
Week 13 IX. Herbs and Spices 1. identifies the
a. Forms and Uses of Herbs forms and uses of
b. Various Herbs and Spices Used for herbs
Cooking

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