[WEEK 1] LESSON

What is a Disaster?
o According to United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR), “a serious disruption of the
functioning of a community or a society causing widespread humans material, economic or environmental
losses and impacts which exceeds -the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its resources,"
o According to World Health Organization, "an occurrence that causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of
human life, deterioration of health and health services, on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response
from the outside the affected community or area."

Concept of Disaster
o A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human,
material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected
community or society to cope up using its resources.
o In contemporary academia, disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk.
These risks are the product of a combination of both hazards and vulnerability. Hazards that strike in areas
with low vulnerability will never become disasters, as is the case in uninhabited regions. (Quarantelli, 1998)
o Developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits—more than 95 percent of all deaths
caused by hazards occur in developing countries, and losses due to natural hazards are 20 times greater
(as a percentage of GDP) in developing countries than in industrialized countries. (Ballesteros, 2008)

Nature of Disasters
o Being aware of the nature of hazards and what these can do to people and other elements at risk is the
first step in every effort to minimize the effects of disasters. Before discussing details of hazard, exposure,
and vulnerability, first, we must get down to the nitty-gritty aspects that make disasters what they are in the
first place.

Characteristics of Disasters
o Disasters are inherently unexpected or come quickly with little or no warning. As a result, disasters (both
man-made and those resulting from natural events) cause widespread death, injury, and property damage.
There is indeed truth to the saying that those who can hurt you are those which you do not see coming.
This underscores the need for timely warnings and quality hazard-related information issued by competent
monitoring and warning agencies.
 - Disasters cannot be managed through normal means. This requires the immediate and effective intervention of
both national government agencies (NGAs) and non-government organizations (NGOs) to help meet the needs of
the victims. Disasters create demands beyond the capacity of a government. During a disaster, the situation is
usually beyond the capabilities of local government units (LGUs) or the national government to respond and
handle. When the President declares a state of emergency, response and recovery programs should be
formulated and implemented both by the public and non-government entities.
The following also characterize disasters:
1. Knows no political boundary.
2. Requires restructured and new responding organizations.
3. Creates new tasks and requires more people as disaster responders.
4. Renders inutile routine emergency response equipment and facilities.
5. Worsens confusion in understanding roles of peoples and organizations
6. Exposes lack of disaster planning, response, and coordination. Inexperienced disaster organizations often fail to
see what their proper roles are.

Impacts of Disasters
-Disasters Often result from the failure to anticipate the timing and enormity Of natural hazards. Little lead time is left to take
preparedness actions such as evacuation and strengthening Of structures. Disasters do not only result in deaths and
destruction or damage to homes and buildings but also in the destruction of crops and decreased quality or quantity of
water. Apart from these effects, let us take a look at the other impacts of disasters.
1. Medical effects- The medical effects of disasters include traumatic injuries, emotional stress, epidemic diseases,
and indigenous diseases.

2. Damage to critical facilities- Widespread disasters can destroy or damage facilities that may be critical not only
in maintaining a safe environment and public order but also in responding to the disaster. Among these are
communication installations, electrical generating and transmission facilities, hospitals, water facilities (storage,
purifications, and pumping), and other public and private buildings.

3. Disruption of transportation- During the initial stages of a disaster, almost all surface means of transportation
within a community are disrupted by broken bridges and roads and streets that are rendered impassable by
landslides or floods. The restricted mobility of vehicles makes rescue and other emergency operations doubly
difficult.

4. Economic impact- As a result of the destruction and damage to critical facilities, especially to transportation and
communication facilities, disasters disrupt economies as normal business operations and other economic
activities are curtailed. People must also leave their jobs and devote their time to disaster-related activities, such
as search and rescue, or to caring for survivors.

5. Global environmental change- There is increasing evidence of global climate change brought about by both
human activity and disasters. Although the long-range consequences are hard to predict, more severe cyclonic
storms, an increase in both flooding and drought, and a trend towards desertification cannot be ruled out. The
changes could result in a wide range of more hazards such as wildfires and mudslides, reduced productivity in the
oceans, and weakened immune systems of people and animals.

6. Global environmental change- There is increasing evidence of global climate change brought about by both
human activity and disasters. Although the long-range consequences are hard to predict, more severe cyclonic
storms, an increase in both flooding and drought, and a trend towards desertification cannot be ruled out. The
changes could result in a wide range of more hazards such as wildfires and mudslides, reduced productivity in the
oceans, and weakened immune systems of people and animals.
 7. Social and political impact- . As a large segment of the population in developing countries consists of the poor,
who are the most vulnerable whenever a disaster strikes, these countries are the most affected. The poor are the
most prone to disasters like earthquakes and typhoons because of the structures they live in which are
unreinforced and poorly built. These are also often located in marginal lands. When disasters happen, social and
political inequities are usually exposed, which may lead to major political and social changes. One example is the
formation of the state of Bangladesh from Pakistan. The breakaway was triggered by a disaster from a tropical
cyclone and storm surge which exposed inequities in the treatment of East Pakistan by the more affluent West
Pakistan.

The Devastating Impact of Natural Disasters

A region's vulnerability to natural disasters depends on multiple factors. The United Nations University calculates
the World Risk Index using four factors: exposure, susceptibility, coping capacities, and adaptive capacities. Exposure is
the amount of natural hazards an area is exposed to. Susceptibility refers to the levels of infrastructure, poverty, and
nutrition. Coping capacity is the ability to resist the impact of natural disasters through disaster preparedness. Adaptive
capacity is the capacity to make structural changes to reduce the impact of natural disasters in the future. When taking into
account all these factors, only one is completely out of our control: exposure. The other three factors are all exacerbated by
poverty.
Note:
Super Typhoon Haiyan, also known as Super Typhoon Yolanda, made landfall in the Philippines on Nov. 8, 2013, as a
Category 5 storm. The typhoon's fury affected more than 14 million people across 44 provinces, displacing 4.1 million
people, killing more than 6,000 people, and leaving 1,800 missing. (www.worldvision.org)
GENERALIZATION
Disasters can cause both mental and physical reactions. Being closer to the disaster and having weak social support
can lead to worse recovery. On the other hand, being connected to others and being confident that you can handle the
results of the disaster make mental health problems lesser. Overall, human beings are resilient, and most survivors will
recover from the disaster. For those with higher risk factors, self-care and seeking help are recommended, and to learn
more about coping after any kind of trauma.
 [WEEK 2] LESSON
Disaster Risk
o Oxford dictionary defines risk as the possibility that something unpleasant or unwelcome will happen.
Riding motorbikes, for example, entails risks because there is a possibility one can experience an accident
along the way. Activities like climbing mountains, going to the beach, visiting Baguio City for excursion are
all attended by risks because there is a possibility that one can be exposed to deadly bacteria in the
mountains, and drowned by a tsunami near the beach, or buried under a landslide along Kennon road on
the way to Baguio. Everywhere and in any activity, one faces risks.
-Disaster risk is the possibility of injury, loss of life, destruction of or damage to livelihood, assets, services, and to the
environment due to a disaster in a given period of time.

Risk Factors
-Stress reactions after a disaster look very much like the common reactions seen after any type of trauma. Disasters can
cause a full range of mental and physical reactions. You may also react to problems that occur after the event, as they
trigger and remind you of the trauma.
Note: A number of factors make it more likely that someone will have more severe or longer-lasting stress reactions after
disasters:
1. Severity of Exposure- The amount of exposure to the disaster is highly related to the risk of future mental
problems. The highest risks are those that have gone through the disaster themselves. Next are those in close
contact with victims. The lower risk with lasting impact is those who only had indirect exposure, such as news of
the severe damage. Injury and life threats are the factors that lead most often to mental health problems. Studies
have looked at severe natural disasters, such as the Armenian earthquake, mudslides in Mexico, and Hurricane
Andrew in the US. The findings show that at least half of these survivors suffer from distress or mental health
problems that need clinical care.

2. Gender and Family- Almost always, women or girls suffer from more negative effects than men or boys. Disaster
recovery is more stressful when children are present in the home. Women with spouses also experience more
distress during recovery. Having a family member in the home, who is extremely distressed, is related to more
stress to everyone. Marital stress has been found to increase after disasters. Also, conflicts between family
members or lack of support in the home make it harder to recover from disasters.

3. Age- Adults who are in the age range from 40—60 are likely to be more distressed after disasters. The thinking is
that being in that age range, they have more demands from jobs and family. Research on how children react to
natural disasters is limited. In general, children show more severe distress after disasters rather than adults. Higher
stress in the parents is related to the worse recovery of children.

Other Specific Factors of the Survivors

-Several factors related to a survivors' background and resources are important for recovery from disaster. Recovery is
worse if you:
1. Were not functioning well before the disaster
2. Have had no experience dealing with disasters
3. Have to deal with other stressors after the disaster
4. Have poor self-esteem
5. Have a feeling of being uncared
6. Have little control of the events
7. Lack the capacity to manage stress

Other factors have also been found to predict worse outcomes:

1. Bereavement (death of someone close)
2. Injury to self or another family member life threat
3. Panic, horror, or feelings during the disaster
4. Being separated from family (especially among youth)
5. Great loss of property
6. Displacement (being forced to leave home)
7. Developing Countries

Note:
Risk factors can be made worse if the disaster occurs in a developing country. Disasters in developing countries have
more severe mental health impacts than disasters in developed countries. This is true even with less serious disasters.
For example, natural disasters are generally thought to be less serious than human-caused. In developing countries,
though, natural disasters have more severe effects than do human-caused disasters in developed countries.

Low or Negative Social Support

The support of others can be both a risk and a resilient factor. Social support can weaken after disasters. This may
be due to stress and the need for members of the support network to get on with their own lives. Sometimes the responses
from others you rely on for support are negative. For example, someone may play down your problems, needs, or pain, or
expect you to recover more quickly. This is strongly linked to long-term distress in trauma survivors.
After a mass trauma, social conflicts, even those that have been resolved, may again be seen. Racial, religious,
ethnic, social, and tribal divisions may recur as people try to gain access to much-needed resources. In families, conflicts
may arise if family members went through different things in the disaster. This sets up different courses of recovery that
often are not well understood among family members. Family members may also serve as distressing reminders to each
other of the disaster.
Keep in mind that while millions of people have been directly affected by disasters, most of them recover. Human
nature is resilient, and most people can recover from a disaster. Plus, people sometimes report positive changes after a
disaster. They may re-think what is truly important and come to appreciate what they value most in life.

GENERALIZATION
Disasters can cause both mental and physical reactions. Being closer to the disaster and having weak social support can
lead to worse recovery. On the other hand, being connected to others and being confident that you can handle the results
of the disaster make mental health problems lesser. Overall, human beings are resilient, and most survivors will recover
from the disaster. For those with higher risk factors, self-care and seeking help are recommended, and to learn more about
coping after any kind of trauma.
 [WEEK 3] LESSON

What is Exposure
o Exposure is defined as the degree to which the elements at risk are likely to experience hazard events of
different magnitudes. According to the Geoscience Australia of the Australian Government, it is the element
at risk from a natural or man-made event.
Example: an earthquake had hit an area where you are there. Then being in that area or experiencing the earthquake is
as simple as you are exposed to a natural disaster.
What is Vulnerability
-Vulnerability can be defined as the diminished capacity of an individual or group to anticipate, cope up, resist and recover
from the impact of a natural or man-made hazard, according to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent
Society.
o According to the UN Office for Disaster Risk (UNDRR), the characteristics and circumstances of a
community, system, or assets make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.
o Aligned with our example above, during the earthquake what have you done to protect yourself? Our
primary response is to duck down to the floor, take cover under a sturdy table or desk, and hold on until the
shaking stops. If we failed one important step then we are prone or vulnerable to hazards.
o To sum up these two terminologies, exposure is the involvement of living and non-living things in a certain
phenomenon in a period of time. Vulnerability, on the other hand, talks about to what extent you are exposed
to these phenomena wherein you may not able to cope which leads to damage or harm.
Nore:
At least 60% of the country's total land area, nearly 300,000 square kilometers (116,000 square miles), is vulnerable to
natural hazards, in large part due to the archipelago's location along both the path of the tropical storms brewing in the
western Pacific and the Ring of Fire. (news.mongabay.com)

Who are prone?

o Physical, economic, social, and political factors determine people’s level of vulnerability and the extent of
their capacity to resist, cope up and recover from hazards. Clearly, poverty is a major contributor to
vulnerability. Poor people are more likely to live and work in areas exposed to potential hazards, while they
are less likely to have the resources to cope when a disaster strike.
o In richer countries, people usually have a greater capacity to resist the impact of a hazard. They tend to be
better protected from hazards and have preparedness systems in place. Secure livelihoods and higher
incomes increase resilience and enable people to recover more quickly from a hazard. Also, vulnerability
is situation-specific and hazard-specific.
Examples of potentially vulnerable groups include:
1. Displaced populations who leave their residences collectively usually due to a sudden impact disaster, such as an
earthquake or a flood, threat, or conflict, as a coping mechanism and with the intent to return.
2. Migrants who leave or flee their residences and go to new places usually abroad to seek better and safer
perspectives.
3. Returnees- former migrants or displaced people returning to their homes.
4. Specific groups within the local population such as marginalized, excluded, or destitute people.
5. Young children, pregnant and nursing women, unaccompanied children, widows, elderly people without family
support, and disabled persons.

Factors that might contribute to exposure and vulnerability

1. Social, Environmental, and Economic Dimensions of Exposure and Vulnerability

o When a disaster strikes, casualties (deaths, missing persons, and injured people) and property losses and
damages are the first to be reported in tri-media. Long after a disaster, the effects to the other elements assume
greater attention. These are the consequences that cannot be measured or quantified as easily as property
losses or damages. Tangible and intangible losses fall under social, environmental, and economic categories.
Terminologies
• Social- is a dimension of exposure and vulnerability that covers a wide range of concerns (including migration,
social groups, health and well-being, education, culture, institutions, and governance aspects) but demography is
the most aspect. Population density maps are excellent indicators of exposure and vulnerability.
• Environmental- it is the physical aspects of exposure and vulnerability which refer to location and built structures.

Detailed list of the physical elements exposed to various hazards:

1. Essential Facilities
o Educational facilities
o Medical and healthcare facilities (hospitals and clinics)
o Emergency response facilities (fire station, police station, and shelters)
o Government offices
o Recreational or tourist facilities (hotels, resorts, parks, public gardens, camping grounds,
and sporting areas)
o Places of worship (churches or mosques)
o Banks and financial centers
o Markets and shopping centers
o Cemeteries

2. Industrial and High Potential Loss Facilities and Facilities Containing Hazardous Materials
o Dams and ponds
o Fuel reservoirs, pipelines, and pumps
o Power generating plants and lines
o Multi-purpose hydropower plants, water tanks, and lines
o Food processing facilities
 3. Transportation Lifelines
o Highways, bridges, railway tracks, and tunnels
o Bus facilities
o Port and harbor facilities
o Airport facilities and runways

4. Utility Lifelines
o Potable water facilities, wastewater facilities, pipelines, and distribution lines
o Oil and natural gas system facilities, pipelines, and distribution lines
o Electric power facilities and distribution lines
o Communication facilities and distribution lines

Factors to Consider Assessing the Level of Vulnerability of an Area

1. Proximity to a Hazard Event
2. Population Density near Hazard Event
3. Capacity and Efficiency to Reduce Disaster Risk
4. Building Codes and Disaster Policies
Categories of Vulnerability
1. Physical/ Material Vulnerability
2. Social/ Organization Vulnerability
3. Attitudinal/ Motivational Vulnerability

DISASTER RISK ASSESSMENT

First Step: Identify hazard

Second Step: Identify who and what are exposed to hazards
1. Physical Elements – houses, buildings, public infrastructures
2. Social Elements – going to school, reporting to work, social gatherings
3. Economic elements – transportation of economic goods, major commercial hubs
4. Environmental elements – people, animals, drinking water
Third Step: Determine the vulnerability of exposed elements
Always remember that the concept of exposure and vulnerability are distinct. A community can be exposed but is not
necessarily vulnerable.
Reducing exposure
Economic exposure in high-hazard areas is trending upwards. If we do not reverse this trend, disaster risk is set to
increase. We need to act now to reduce exposure and build capacity and resilience in these areas of growing exposure.
When it is not possible to avoid exposure to events, land use planning and location decisions must be accompanied by
other structural or non-structural methods for preventing or mitigating risk. In the case of the Boxing Day 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami, for instance, the only possible strategy to save lives would have been to reduce exposure through timely
evacuation, which depends on the existence of reliable early warning systems and effective preparedness planning and
then to compensate for loss through the insurance of other risk financing instruments.

Lessening the vulnerability

Since we cannot reduce the occurrence and severity of natural hazards, reducing vulnerability is one of the main
opportunities for reducing disaster risk. Vulnerability changes over time because many of the processes that influence
vulnerability are dynamic, including rapid urbanization, environmental degradation, market conditions, and demographic
change. Many of these factors are rooted in changing local conditions, but the picture is incomplete without acknowledging
the national and global socio-economic and political structures that constrain local development opportunities.

Approaches to vulnerability reduction include:

1. Implementing building codes
2. Insurance and social protection (risk)
3. Emphasizing economic diversity and resilient livelihoods
4. Knowledge and awareness-raising
5. Preparedness measures

GENERALIZATION
Exposure is defined as “the people, property, systems, or other elements present in hazard zones that are thereby
subject to potential losses”. Thus, understanding vulnerability and exposure are fundamental to our understanding of risk.
Together, increases in vulnerability and exposure dominate the overall increase in risk observed worldwide over the past
several decades and therefore require particular attention in the formulation of policies and actions to reduce disaster risk.
Implementing an all-hazards approach that incorporates natural and man-made hazards (including technological and
biological hazards that can have cascading effects that transcend country boundaries) and incorporating all elements of risk
will require an integrated and collaborative approach across disciplines, sectors, and institutions as well as cooperation
among science and technology S&T networks.
 [WEEK 4] LESSON

ELEMENTS EXPOSED TO HAZARDS

PHYSICAL ELEMENTS
o These are the elements that are tangible or can be visually seen. The main factors and conditions associated with
physical hazards include body stressing; confined spaces; electricity; heat; heights; noise; vibration. Body stressing
is a collective term covering a broad range of health problems associated with repetitive and strenuous work
.
o One of the best applications of this is the recent cause of the COVID-19 pandemic in the whole world. Wherein,
Health workers are at the front line of any outbreak response and as such are exposed to hazards that put them at
risk of infection with an outbreak pathogen (in this case COVID-19). Hazards include pathogen exposure, long
working hours, psychological distress, fatigue, occupational burnout, stigma, and physical and psychological
violence.

This table shows the common health hazards in the construction industry:

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ELEMENTS
o These compromises the institutional and government system that dictate the kind of well-being and lifestyle of
communities. One application of this is the COVID-19 pandemic which is considered a hazard in the economy. As
the UN’s Framework for the Immediate Socio-Economic Response to the COVID 19 Crisis warns that “The
COVID-19 pandemic is far more than a health crisis: it is affecting societies and economies at their core. While
the impact of the pandemic will vary from country to country, it will most likely increase poverty and inequalities on
a global scale, making the achievement of SDGs even more urgent.
 o Another application is the political hazard. Wherein, three years after President Rodrigo Duterte took office in
June 2016, his “war on drugs” has killed thousands of people largely from impoverished urban areas. Extrajudicial
killings by police and their agents have continued on a regular basis, spreading from the capital region, Metro
Manila, into other cities and provinces. The impact of the “drug war” includes not only loss of life but damage to
the livelihoods, education, and the mental health of surviving family members.

ENVIRONMENTAL ELEMENTS
o These include the ecosystem and natural processes that are exposed to hazard events.
1. Soil Erosion (topsoil is eroded)
2. Pollution ( air, water, noise, and soil)
3. Global Warming ( ozone layer is damaged)
4. Deforestation (cutting of trees)

In line with the different hazards that we encounter, some organizations were developed to help reduce the level
of risk of a disaster. This refers to our next topic which is capacity.
CAPACITY
• It is a combination of all strengths and resources available within a community, society, or organization that can reduce
the level of risk or effects of a disaster. Capacity may include infrastructure and physical means, institutions, societal
coping abilities, as well as human knowledge, skills, and collective attributes such as social relationships leadership, and
management. Capacity may also be described as capability.
CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT

• The process through which individuals, organizations, and societies obtain, strengthen and maintain the capabilities to
set and achieve their development objectives over time.
• The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is the United Nations' global development network. It promotes
technical and investment cooperation among nations and advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge,
experience, and resources to help people build a better life for themselves. The UNDP provides expert advice, training,
and grant support to developing countries, with increasing emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries.

COPING CAPACITY
• Coping capacity refers to the ability of people, organizations, and, systems in using available skills and resources, to face
and manage adverse conditions, emergencies, or disasters. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Risk
Reduction (UNISDR) is a strategic framework, adopted by United Nations Member States in 2000, aiming to guide and
coordinate the efforts of a wide range of partners to: Achieve substantive reduction in disaster losses; Build resilient nations
and communities as an essential condition for sustainable development.
LINKS BETWEEN HAZARD, VULNERABILITY, AND CAPACITY
• Involves a participatory analysis of past patterns of hazards and present threats at the community level (hazard
assessment), combined with an understanding of the underlying causes of why hazard becomes a disaster (vulnerability
assessment) and of the available resources an affected community uses to cope with the adverse effects (capacity
assessment).

GOALS OF HAZARD, VULNERABILITY, AND CAPACITY ASSESSMENT (HVCA)

• These are the different goals of HVCA; First is to identify the element at risk in the community and to prioritize those
elements that need to be protected. Second, is to identify appropriate disaster preparedness and mitigation responses
which the community will include in their counter- disaster plan. Third, to raise the community’s awareness about potential
disaster risks and what they can do it. Fourth, to provide disaster-specific information, which can be integrated with
baseline studies for disaster mitigation and development programs. Fifth, the result can be used during emergency relief
needs and draft appeals. And lastly, repeating the HVCA after some time provides indicators to measure changes in
people’s vulnerability.
HAZARD, VULNERABILITY, AND CAPACITY ASSESSMENT (HVCA)
• The purpose of a hazard assessment is to specify the nature and behavior of the potential hazards and threats to people
in the community.
These are the features of Hazard that need to be considered for selecting preparedness measures:
1. Hazard Type
2. Warning Sign
3. Forewarning
4. Speed of Onset
5. Frequency
6. When
7. Duration

GENERALIZATION
Hazard is a phenomenon or can be a human activity that leads to the destruction of the environment, loss of
life and services. It has three elements: the physical elements, socio-economic elements. and environmental elements. To
reduce the level of risk or effects of a disaster, there is capacity It is a combination of all strengths and resources available
within a community, society, or organization. Meanwhile, there is a process through which individuals, organizations, and
societies obtain, strengthen, and maintain the capabilities to set and achieve their own development objectives over time,
which is capacity development. And, coping capacity is the ability of people, organizations, and systems in using available
skills and resources, to face and manage adverse conditions, emergencies, or disasters. Moreover, people identify
resources they rely on in times of crisis to reduce the damaging effects of hazards and to secure the sustainability of their
livelihood which is called capacity assessment. The HVCA has different goals, these are; to identify appropriate disaster
preparedness and mitigation responses which the community will include in their counter- disaster plan, to raise the
community’s awareness about potential disaster risk and what they can do to provide disaster-specific information, which
can be integrated with baseline studies for disaster mitigation and development programs, the result can be used during
emergency relief needs and draft appeals, and repeating the HVCA after some time provides indicators to measure changes
in people’s vulnerability. Lastly, disaster risk is the chance or likelihood of suffering harm and loss because of a hazardous
event. The probability of harmful consequences or expected losses resulting from interactions between natural and man-
made hazards and vulnerable conditions.
 [WEEK 5] LESSON

What is a Hazard?
❖ is a broad term that refers to anything that is a source of danger or interruption. The two main types of hazards
are safety hazards, which are things that can cause physical harm, and moral hazards, which are financial risks.
You should know these definitions if you are pursuing studies in health and safety or financial or business
management.
❖ Hazards are the potentials for damage to man and his environment that may result from the occurrence of natural
events such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, and storm surges. An event per se does not constitute a
hazard. It is only when a man and his environment are threatened that these events can be considered hazards.
Without a threat to a population, the eruption of an isolated volcano remains an event but when volcanic activity
occurs close to or right at the center of a populated area, a mere event becomes a hazard. The probabilities of
occurrence of hazard events may be estimated. Floods, for example, have been monitored and recorded over
many years and so the likelihood of occurrence of these is known.
❖ A hazard is a situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or, the environment. Most hazards are
dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk of harm; however, once a hazard becomes "active", it can create
an emergency. A hazardous situation that has come to pass is called an incident. Hazard and possibility interact
together to create risk.

Hazard is a threat. A future source of danger. Hazards are events that cause harm in different aspects. It has the
potential to cause harm to:
o People – death, injury, disease, and stress. These hazards affect humans biologically, physiologically, mentally,
and psychologically. They cause hindrance for us to function well.
o Human activity -- economic, educational, etc. When we experience pressure at work and in academics, in some
instances, we function poorly. Economic and educational activities become a hazard to human activity when they
impose distress, anxiety, and pressure thus limiting us to become productive and functional.
o Property — property damage, economic loss. These hazards may destroy physical elements such as
infrastructures, agriculture, and entities.
o Environment — loss of fauna and flora, pollution, loss of amenities. Hazards are threats to our environments,
especially when disrupting the balance of nature. Environmental hazards may be natural or man-made. Yet,
whatever its type, it could impose grave danger to the present and future generation as well.
Basically, a hazard is a threat or situation of a naturally occurring event with the potential for harm in terms of
human/people, human activity, property, and environment, or a combination of these. Some examples of hazards are
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, cyclones, floods, and landslides.
❖ By its nature, a hazard involves something that could potentially be harmful to a person's life, health, property, or,
environment. One key concept in identifying a hazard is the presence of stored energy that, when released, can
cause damage. The stored energy can occur in many forms: chemical, mechanical, thermal, radioactive, electrical,
etc. Another class of hazard does not involve the release of stored energy, rather it involves the presence of
hazardous situations. Examples include confined or limited egress spaces, oxygen-depleted atmospheres,
awkward positions, repetitive motions, low-hanging or protruding objects, etc.
 Classification of Hazards
❖ There are several methods of classifying hazard, but most systems use some variation on the factors of "likelihood"
of the hazard turning into an incident and the "seriousness" of the incident if it were to occur.
❖ A common method is to score both likelihood and seriousness on a numerical scale (most likely and most seriously
scoring highest) and multiply one to the other to produce a comparative score (Risk= Hazard (H) x Vulnerability (V)
/ Capacity (C)).
❖ This score identifies hazards that require mitigation. A low score on the likelihood of occurrence may mean that the
hazard is dormant, whereas a high score indicates it may be an "active" hazard.
❖ An important component of "seriousness if the incident occurred" is "serious to whom?" Different populations may
be affected differently by accidents. For example, an explosion has widely differing effects on different populations,
depending on the distance from the explosion. These possible effects range from death from overpressure or
shrapnel to inhalation of noxious gases (for people downwind), to exposure to loud noise.

An important component of "seriousness if the incident occurred" is "serious to whom?" Different populations may
be affected differently by accidents. For example, an explosion has widely differing effects on different populations,
depending on the distance from the explosion. These possible effects range from death from overpressure or shrapnel to
inhalation of noxious gases (for people downwind), to exposure to loud noise.
There are many ways of classifying hazards. One is to consider the extent to which hazards are natural.
1. Natural hazards- such as earthquakes or floods arise from purely natural processes in the environment.
2. Quasi-natural hazards- such as smog or desertification arise through the interaction of natural processes and
human activities.
3. Technological (or man-made) hazards-such as the toxicity of pesticides to fauna, accidental release of
chemicals, or radiation from a nuclear plant. These arise directly as a result of human activities.

Hewitt and Burton (1971) itemized a variety of factors relating to damaging geophysical events, which were not process-
specific, including:
• Aerial extent of the damage zone
• Intensity of impact at a point
• Duration of impact at a point
• Rate of onset of the event
• Predictability of the event.

Modes of a Hazard
1. Dormant – the situation presents a potential hazard, but no people, property, or environment is currently affected.
For instance, a hillside may be unstable, with the potential for a landslide, but there is nothing below or on the
hillside that could be affected.
2. Armed – people, property, or the environment are in potential harm’s way.
3. Active – a harmful incident involving the hazard has actually occurred. Often this is referred to not as an “active
hazard” but as an accident, emergency, incident, or disaster.
 Types of Hazard and Examples for Each
(According to Hewitt and Burton 1971)

1. Chemical Hazards - Chemicals can affect the skin by contact or the body either through the digestive system or
through the lungs if the air is contaminated with chemicals, vapor, mist, or dust. There can be an acute
(immediate) effect or a chronic (medium to long-term) effect from the accumulation of chemicals or substances in
or on the body.

2. Noise Hazards - Excessive noise can disrupt concentration, interfere with communication, and result in loss of
hearing. High impact noises are particularly damaging. Noise can also mask out signals, affecting communication
or danger warnings.

3. Radiation Hazards - Equipment such as radioactive gauging devices or the radioactive trace element used in
analytical chemistry produces Ionizing radiation. Non-ionizing radiation covers infrared radiation (heat-producing
processes), lasers, ultraviolet radiation (welding, sunlight), and microwaves (high-frequency welders, freeze-
drying).

4. Electrical Hazards - These include the risk of injury from all forms of electrical energy.

5. Lightning Hazards - Inadequate lighting levels are a potential safety hazard. A common problem area is the
reaction time needed for the eyes to adjust from a brightly lit to a darker environment — such as a forklift driver
coming indoors from bright sunlight. Temporary lighting is often inadequate.

6. Vibration Hazards - This includes whole-body vibration — for example, truck drivers, people standing on
vibrating platforms, and operators of 1110bile equipment — and also more localized vibration effects front such
equipment as hand tools, chainsaws, and pneumatic hammers.

7. Temperature Hazards - Extreme cold or heat can cause problems such as tiredness, vulnerability to infections, or
reduced capacity to work.

8. Biological Hazards - These include insects, bacteria, fungi, plants, worms, animals, and viruses. For example,
poultry workers exposed to bird feathers and droppings to which they are allergic can contract a medical condition.
Brucellosis is a well-known problem in New Zealand associated with people handling meat and meat products
infected with brucella. Hepatitis and the AIDS virus are other biological hazards.
 9. Ergonomic Hazards - Ergonomics (the 'fit' between people and their work) covers the risk of injury from manual
handling procedures, incorrectly designed desks or workstations, audio and visual alarms, and, color coding
control mechanisms.

10. Physical Hazards - These include a wide range of injury risks— as diverse as being caught in or by machinery,
buried in trenches, or hurt by collapsing machinery. This category also includes the hazards from working in
confined spaces, being hit by flying objects, being caught in explosions, falling from heights, and tripping on
obstacles.

GENERALIZATION
Hazards are the potentials for damage to man and his environment that may result from the occurrence of natural
events such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, and storm surges. A hazard is a situation that poses a level of threat
to life, health, property, or the environment. By its nature, a hazard involves something that could potentially be harmful to
a person's life, health, property, or environment. One key concept in identifying a hazard is the presence of stored energy
that, when released, can cause damage. There are different ways of classifying hazards indicated such as natural hazards,
quasi-natural hazards, and technological (or man-made) hazards. There are different factors relating to damaging
geophysical events including the aerial extent of the damage zone, intensity of impact at a point, duration of impact at a
point, rate of onset of the event, and predictability of the event but it is important to note that these are not process-specific.
Hazards are sometimes classified into modes or statuses such as dormant, armed, and active by identifying the hazards,
assessing the risks involved, and then controlling or eliminating these risks, the consequences and/or likelihood of illness,
injury, and death are reduced.
 [WEEK 6] LESSON

What are Earthquake Hazards?

Earthquakes really pose little direct danger to a person. People cannot be shaken to death by an earthquake.
Some movies show scenes with the ground suddenly opening up and people falling into fiery pits, but this just does not
happen in real life.
Ground Shaking
❖ The first main earthquake hazard (danger) is the effect of ground shaking. Buildings can be damaged by the
shaking itself or by the ground 'beneath them settling to a different level than it was before the earthquake
(subsidence).
❖ Buildings can even sink into the ground if soil liquefaction occurs. Liquefaction is the mixing of sand or soil and
groundwater (water underground) during the when the soil underwent liquefaction, shaking of a moderate or
strong earthquake. When the water and soil are mixed, the ground becomes very soft and acts similar to
quicksand. If liquefaction occurs under a building, it may start to lean, tip over, or sink several feet. The ground
firms up again after the earthquake has past and the water has settled back down to its usual place deeper in the
ground. Liquefaction is a hazard in areas that have groundwater near the surface and sandy soil.
❖ Buildings can also be damaged by strong surface waves making the ground heave and lurch. Any buildings in the
path of these surface waves can lean or tip over from all the movement. The ground shaking may also cause
landslides, mudslides, and avalanches on steeper hills or mountains, all of which can damage buildings and hurt
people.
❖ Ground shaking is both a hazard created by earthquakes and the trigger for other hazards such as liquefaction
and landslides. Ground shaking describes the vibration of the ground during an earthquake. Most earthquake
damage results from the shaking caused by seismic waves passing beneath buildings, roads, and other
structures. For example, ground shaking may cause a store's exterior building walls to crumble, injuring people,
blocking sidewalks and streets and bringing down utility lines.
❖ Earthquake cracks and fissures swallowing houses and similar structures? One have probably seen or heard
these scenes from folktales, fiction books, and movies. Can these things happen during an earthquake? What do
you think? Many of these accounts do not give us an accurate picture of what really happens when the ground
ruptures during an earthquake. Earthquakes occur by the sudden motion along lithospheric breaks called faults.
During strong earthquakes, faulting may reach the earth's surface as ground ruptures.

Liquefaction
❖ Certain types of spreads and flows are designated as liquefaction phenomena. Ground shaking may cause clay-
free soil deposits to lose strength temporarily and behave as a viscous liquid rather than as a solid. In the
liquefied condition soil deformation may occur with little shear resistance. Deformation large enough to cause
damage to constructed works (usually movement of about ten centimeters) is considered ground failure.
❖ The occurrence of liquefaction is restricted to certain geologic and hydrologic environments, primarily in areas
with recently deposited sands and silts (usually less than 10,000 years old) with high ground-water levels. It is
most common where the water table is at a depth of less than ten meters in Holocene deltas, river channels,
areas of floodplain deposits, eolian material, and poorly compacted fills.
 ❖ Liquefaction describes the way in which soil liquefies during ground shaking. Liquefaction can undermine the
foundations and supports of buildings, bridges, pipelines, and roads, causing them to sink into the ground,
collapse or dissolve.

Ground rupture
❖ The second main earthquake hazard is ground displacement (ground movement) along a fault. If a structure (a
building, road, etc.) is built across a fault, the ground displacement during an earthquake could seriously damage
or rip apart that structure.

Types of Liquefaction Features

Understanding how liquefaction may be destructive led to the development of appropriate remedial measures and
development of affordable technologies.
1. Flow Failures
• Considered the most dangerous type of ground failure due to liquefaction, this occurs on liquefiable slope material
with steepness greater than 3 degrees. Blocks of overlying material slide down so fast (as much as 10 kms/hr)
that these reach distances tens of kilometers from the source.
2. Lateral Spreads
• Blocks or the broken pieces of the flat or very gentle ground (less than 3 degrees) above a liquefied zone move
laterally.
3. Ground Oscillation
• Due to the flat or nearly flat slope, the ground is unable to spread and instead oscillates like a wave (back and
forth and up and down). Water and wet sand are ejected through the fissures that form conical-shaped mounds of
sand at the surface (sand blows).
4. Loss of Bearing Strength
• Loss of strength of sediments resulting in tilting of houses and floating of buoyant structures (e.g., fuel tank) that
are anchored on the liquefied zone.
5. Settlement Vertical
• Readjustment or settlement within the liquefied zone as a result of dissipation of pore-water pressure or the
ejection of materials during the formation of sand boils (fountains of water and sediment coming from the
pressurized liquefied zone).

GENERALIZATION
Earthquake Hazards is a type of hazard on the strength of seismic activity, along with such factors as local
topographic and built features, subsurface geology and groundwater. A large earthquake will always be followed by a
sequence of aftershocks. Ground shaking, if an earthquake generates a large enough shaking intensity, structures like
buildings, bridges and dams can severely damage and cliffs and sloping ground destabilized. Liquefaction occurs when
waterlogged sediments are agitated by seismic shaking. This separates the grains from each other, reducing their load
bearing capacity. It is also important to note that earthquakes may induced landslides especially in areas with water-
saturated soils. It may also result in falling rocks and debris that collie with people, buildings and vehicles.
 [WEEK 7] LESSON

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 [WEEK 8] LESSON
What are volcanoes?
❖ Volcanoes are opening in Earth’s crust that allows the energy from the interior of Earth to escape to the surface.
The energy in the magma (composed of molten rock from Earth’s mantle) that goes out is in the form of lava, ash,
and gas.
❖ There are volcanoes because Earth’s crust is broken up into tectonic plate plates. Most volcanoes are found on the
edges of plates where one plate connects to another. For example, the Pacific Plate has active volcanoes
strategically located on its edges, from which the term “Pacific Ring of Fire” came about. Another example is the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge located on the edge of the Eurasian Plate and the North American Plate. This area also has
volcanoes at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean.

POTENTIAL VOLCANIC-RELATED HAZARDS

❖ Volcanic hazards are volcano-related phenomena that pose a potential threat or negative impact to life, property,
and the environment in a given period of time.The following are some potential volcano-related hazards:

1. LAHAR- this is an Indonesian term for the mixture of water, pyroclastic materials, and rock fragments flowing
down a volcano or river valley.
2. ASH FALL -this is composed of bits and pieces of pulverized rock, minerals, and volcanic glass generated from
the volcanic eruption.
3. PYROCLASTIC FLOW- this refers to the fast-moving fluidized mass of rock fragments and gases. When
pyroclastic flow travels down a volcano, it maintains a very high temperature, burning everything in its path.
4. VOLCANO LANDSLIDE – also known as debris avalanche, volcano landslides range in size from small
movements to massive collapses of loose debris on the surface of a volcano.
 5. BALLISTIC PROJECTILE- this is a rock fragment that is ejected from a volcano during its explosive eruption. It is
like a cannonball that travels fast in the air.
6. VOLCANIC GAS- this consists of sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, which are poisonous and hazardous to an
organism. Even when the volcano is not erupting, cracks in the ground allow gases to reach the surface through
small openings called fumaroles.
7. LAVA FLOW- this is a molten rock that pours down from the slope of the volcano.

SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING VOLCANIC ERUPTION

1. Occurrence of tremors or increase in the frequency of small earthquakes.
2. Deformation on the ground manifested by changes in ground elevation and formation of crack or opening.
3. An increase in the amount of volcanic gases and in temperature, which may indicate that magma has gone closer
to the surface.
4. Glow of volcanic craters due to the presence of magma.
5. Increase in steam emission coming from volcanic opening, fissure, or hot spring.
6. Thermal changes within the surroundings of the volcano.
7. Drying up of spring and freshwater sources around the volcano.

VOLCANO HAZARD MAPS

The Philippines ranks among the world’s most disaster-prone countries. It is highly prone to natural disasters, particularly
typhoons, floods, landslides, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis, lying as it does in the typhoon belt, in the
active volcanic region known as the “Pacific Ring of Fire,” and in the geologically unstable region between the Pacific and
Eurasian tectonic plates.
 EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS PLAN BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER A VOLCANIC
ERUPTION

BEFORE:
1. Stay updated with the local news.
2. Learn about your community warning system and emergency plan.
3. Prepare an emergency supply kit that should include the following:

❖ First aid kit

❖ Clean clothes
❖ Food and water
❖ Flashlight
❖ Medicine
❖ Dust mask
❖ Goggles
❖ Sturdy shoes
DURING:
1. Follow evacuation orders issued by local authorities.
2. Wear long sleeve shirt and pants. And use goggles to protect your eyes.
3. Use a dust mask to prevent inhalation of ashes and other volcanic particles.
4. Listen to a battery-operated radio for the latest emergency information
AFTER:
1. Wait for the announcement from local authorities that is safe to return to your home.
2. Wear a dust mask, gloves, goggles while cleaning the debris and ashfall.
3. Check electrical wirings and gas tank before using.
4. Boil water before drinking. And stay informed and listen for emergency updates and news.

GENERALIZATION
Volcanic hazards are volcano-related phenomena that pose a potential threat or negative impact to life, property,
and the environment in a given period of time. These hazards include lahar, ashfall, pyroclastic flow, ballistic projectile,
volcano landslide, lava flow, and volcanic gases.
Signs of an impending volcanic eruption include the a) occurrence of tremors or increase in the frequency of small
earthquakes, b) deformation on the ground manifested by changes in ground elevation and formation of crack or opening,
c) increase in the amount of volcanic gases and temperature, d) glow of volcanic crater due to the presence of magma, e)
increase in steam emission coming from volcanic opening, fissure or hot spring, f) thermal changes within the
surroundings of the volcano, and g)drying up of spring and freshwater sources around a volcano.
The different volcano hazard maps help us identify and assess our risk to the hazards related to a volcanic
eruption. It is also important to create an emergency preparedness plan so that we may know what to do when there is a
volcanic eruption.