Chapter 1 Solid State Principles

University College of Technology Sarawak
EEM3442 Electronics Engineering
Your Class:
Monday 300 – 500 pm
Your Lecturer:
Peter Yek Nai Yuh
Room 31 (Level 2 Block 8)
Phone : +6 084 367 531 / 016-8859180
Email: peter.yek@ucts.edu.my
Chapter 1: Solid State Principles
1.1 ATOMIC THEORY
1.2 TYPES OF MATERIALS
1.3 SEMICONDUCTOR
1.4 ENERGY LEVEL
1.5 DOPING
1.6 PN JUNCTION
1.7 BIASING
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
1.1 Atomic Theory
Dalton’s “Billiard
Ball” Model
Thomson’s “Plum
Pudding” Model
Rutherford’s Model
Quantum Mechanical Model
Bohr’s Model
Figure: Evolution of the atomic model. 3

Summary
Bohr Atom
The Bohr model of the atom is that electrons can circle

the nucleus only in specific orbits, which correspond to
Energy
discrete energy levels called shells.
The atomic number is the
number of protons in the nucleus.
The outermost occupied shell is

called the valence shell and
electrons that occupy this shell are
called valence electrons. Nucleus Shell 1
Shell 2
1.1 Atomic Theory (cont.)
• There is a symbolism for describing atoms which is

universally used across all scientific disciplines.
Mass number
6C
12
Element Symbol
Atomic number
Legend
Mass number = Number of protons and neutrons
Atomic number = Number of Protons

5
1.2 Type of materials
Conductors
Materials can be classified by their ability to conduct

electricity. This ability is related to the valence electrons.
Core (+1)
Copper is an example of an
excellent conductor. It has only
one electron in its valence band,
which can easily escape to the
+29
conduction band, leaving behind a
positive ion (the core). Like all
metals, copper has many free
electrons which are loosely held
by the attraction of the positive
metal ions.
1.2 Type of materials (cont)
Insulators
Insulators have tightly bound electrons with few

electrons available for conduction.
Nonmetals, such as glass, air, paper, and rubber are excellent
insulators and widely used in electronics. Even these materials can
break down and conduct
electricity if the voltage is
high enough.
1.2 Type of materials (cont)
Semiconductors
Semiconductors are between conductors and insulators

in their ability to conduct electricity.
Core (+4)
Silicon is an example of a single
element semiconductor. It has four
+14
electrons in its valence band.
1.3 Semiconductors
• The three semiconductors used most frequently in

the construction of electronic devices are:
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

Silicon (Si)
Germanium (Ge)
9
1.3 Semiconductors (cont)
• Semiconductors such as Si are tetravalent (four valence
electrons).
• In an intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal, a Si atom form a covalent
bonding arrangement by sharing one of its valence electron with
four adjoining Si atoms.
• Unlike metals, silicon forms strong covalent bonds (shared
electrons) with its neighbors. Intrinsic silicon is a poor conductor
because most of the electrons are bound in the crystal and take part
in forming the bonds between atoms
- -
- Si - - Si -
- - - - - - -
Chemical - -
- Si - - Si - - Si Si Si -
-
Reaction - -
- - - - - -
- Si - - Si - Sharing of
electrons
- Figure: The formation of silicon crystal. - 10
1.4 Energy Levels
• However, as atoms are brought closer together to form a
crystal lattice structure, the interaction will cause the
expansion of the fixed, discrete energy levels of the
valence electrons (electrons at the outermost shell).
Shell Shell Shell

Number Energy Number Energy Number Energy
Conduction
Band Conduction
Band - - - - - Conduction
Eg Eg
Valence
Band
- - - - - Band
Valence + + + + +
Band
Valence
Band
- - - - -
Insulator Semiconductor Conductor
Figure: Conduction and valence bands of an insulator, a semiconductor and a

conductor. 11
Semiconductors
In intrinsic silicon, a few electrons can jump the energy

gap between the valence and conduction band. Having
moved into the conduction band, a “hole” (vacancy) is
left in the crystal structure.
Conduction Free
band electron
Energy gap Heat
Energy
Valence Hole
band
Electron-hole pair
Semiconductors
• Characteristics of intrinsic semiconductors:

Semiconductor Energy Gap (eV*) Intrinsic Carriers Relative Mobility
(per cm3) Factor (cm2/V·s)
Si 1.1 1.5 X 1010 1500
Ge 0.67 2.5 X 1013 3900
GaAs 1.43 1.7 X 106 8500
* 1 eV = 1.6 X 10-19 J
13
1.5 Doping
• Intrinsic semiconductors
• do not conduct current well.
• The number of charge carriers is therefore determined by
the properties of the material itself
• At normal room temperature, the number of excited
electrons and the number of holes are equal: n = p.
• If a voltage is applied, then both the electron and the hole
can contribute to a small current flow.
• Extrinsic semiconductor
• Characteristics of intrinsic semiconductors can be altered
significantly by a process named doping.
• Doping is a process of adding a tiny amount of impurities
(e.g. one part in a million) to a intrinsic semiconductor,
forming an extrinsic (impure) semiconductor.
14
Extrinsic semiconductor
Extrinsic
Semiconductors
N-Type P-Type
Semiconductors Semiconductors
• Arsenic (As) • Baron (B)

• Phosphorus (P) • Gallium (Ga)
• Antimony (Sb) • Indium (In)
15
1.5.1 N-Type Semiconductor
• Pentravalent atoms (5 electrons at valence band) can be
added to intrinsic silicon to produce n-type semiconductors.
• These atoms are also known as donor atoms because they
provide an extra electron to the semiconductor’s crystal
structure.
• Examples of pentravalent atoms:
• Arsenic (As)
• Phosphorus (P)
• Antimony (Sb)
16
N-Type Semiconductors
• Since most of the current carriers are electrons, the free

electrons are called the majority carriers in a n-type
semiconductor; while the holes are named the minority
carries.
- Free electron
from P atom
- Si - - Majority
- - - - - -
Carriers
- - - -
- Si - P - Si - - + -
- - -
- - - - - - + -
- Si - Minority
- Carriers
Adding a pentravalen Majority and minority carriers in

atom in a silicon crystal a n-type semiconductor
Figure: N-type semiconductors.

17
1.5.2 P-Type Semiconductors
• Trivalent atoms (3 electrons at valence band) can be added

to intrinsic silicon to produce p-type semiconductors.
• These atoms are also known as acceptor atoms because
they provide a hole which is readily to accept a free
electron in the semiconductor’s crystal structure.
• Examples of trivalent atoms:
• Baron (B)
• Gallium (Ga)
• Indium (In)
18
P-Type Semiconductors
• Since most of the current carriers are holes, the holes are
called the majority carriers in a p-type semiconductor; while
the free electrons are named the minority carries.
-
Holes from B
- Si - atom Minority
- - + - + + Carriers
- - - -
- Si - B - Si - + ++ + + +
- - - - + + + +
- Si - Majority
- Carriers
Adding a trivalen atom Majority and minority carriers in

in a silicon crystal a p-type semiconductor
Figure: P-type semiconductors.

19
1.6 PN Junction
1.6.1 Diffusion Current
• Due to thermally induced random motion, charge carries in a
semiconductor tend to move from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration.
t = 0 t = t1
+ - - + - +
+ + - Thermal
+ +
+ - - - Energy - -
+ + - + - + -
Figure: Diffusion of charge carriers in an extrinsic silicon.
20
1.6.2 Drift Current
• In a semiconductor, there are charge carries.

• The process in which charged carries move due to an
electric field is named drift.
+ -
- + +
- + -
+ - -+
Current
Current
+ -
Figure: A semiconductor with an applied electric field.
21
Drift Current (Electrons)
• When a voltage is applied across a piece of semiconductor,

the free electrons at the conduction band will drift towards
the positive end.
• This movement of free electrons is called electron current.
- - - -
- -- +- -- +
- - - - - -
Current + - - - -
+ - -- -- +- - -
- - - - -
- - - - -
- +- -- -- -
- - - + -
Valence
Free Electron
Electron
Figure: Movement of free electrons with an applied electric field.

22
Drift Current (holes)
• Electrons at the valence band can move into a nearby holes,

with little change in their energy level.
• This movement of holes is called hole current.
- - - -
- +-
-- -+ -
- - - - - -
Current + - - - -
+ - -- -- +- - -
- - - - -
- - - - -
- +- -- -- -
- - - + -
Movement of a valence
electron to fill up a hole
Figure: Movement of holes with an applied electric field.

23
Summary
Semiconductors
Within the crystalline structure, there are two types

of charge movement (current):
1) The conduction band electrons are free to move under the
influence of an electric field.
2) The bound (valence) electrons move between atoms,
effectively moving holes from one atom to another as
illustrated. Holes act like positive charges, with their own
mobility. Holes Electrons
Si Si Si
1.6.3 Formation of PN JUNCTION
• The basic silicon structure

at the instant of junction
formation showing only the
majority and minority
carriers.
• Free electrons in the n
region near the pn junction
begin to diffuse across the
junction and fall into holes
near the junction in the p
region.
1.6.3 Formation of the PN junction -
Depletion Region (cont)
• For every electron that diffuses

across the junction and combines
with a hole, a positive charge is
left in the n region
• and a negative charge is created
in the p region, forming a barrier
potential.
• This action continues until the
voltage of the barrier repels
further diffusion.
• two layers of positive and
negative charges form the
depletion region
1.6.4 Barrier Potential
• In the depletion region there are many positive charges and

many negative charges on opposite sides of the pn junction.
• The forces between the opposite charges form an electric
field, as described by Coulomb’s law
• This electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n
region, and energy must be expended to move an electron
through the electric field.
• external energy must be applied to get the electrons to
move across the barrier of the electric field in the
depletion region.
• barrier potential is the potential difference of the
electric field across the depletion region
• It is the amount of voltage required to move electrons
through the electric field.
27
1.6.5 Energy Diagrams of the PN Junction
• The valence and conduction bands in an n-type material are at slightly
lower energy levels than the valence and conduction bands in a p-type
material.
• p-type material has trivalent impurities and n-type material has
pentavalent impurities.
• electron orbits p-type materials are slightly larger and hence have
greater energy than the electron orbits in the n-type materials.
• The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band
remains the same.
Energy
Conduction
band
Valence
band
0
p region n region
Depletion
28
region
Summary
Where on the periodic table would you expect to find another element that
could be used as an impurity to create an n-material?
Elements above or below

Sb will have the same
valence electron structure.
Summary
The pn junction
A p- and an n-material together form a pn junction.

When the junction is formed, conduction electrons move to the p-
region, and fall into holes. Filling a hole makes a negative ion and
leaves behind a positive ion in the n-region. This creates a thin
region that is depleted of free charges at the boundary.
Depletion region
p region n region
What process stops the migration of – +
–
charge across the boundary? –
+
+
– +
A potential is built up (called the – +
– +
barrier potential) that prevents further – +
charge migration. – +
Summary
The pn junction
The energy diagram for the n-region shows a lower

potential than for the p-region. Energy
Conduction
band
Why do you think that the
Valence
energy level in the n- region band
is lower than the p-region?
0
n region
The n-region tends to have filled valence p region Depletion
shells; conduction electrons are shielded by region
these electrons, so they are further away

from the nucleus and have less energy.
Summary
Diodes
A diode is a semiconductor device with a single pn

junction and metal connections to leads. It has the
ability to pass current in only one direction.
p n
Depletion
region
1.7 Biasing a P-N Junction
• Bias refers to the application of an external voltage
across a p-n material to extract a response.
• when an external voltage is applied across the diode,
almost all of this voltage is dropped across the
depletion region.
• There are three options available:
• No bias
• Forward bias
• Reverse bias
33
1.7.1 No Bias
• In the absence of an applied bias voltage across a p-n

junction, the net flow of charge in any one direction is zero.
p n
ID = 0 mA
+ -
VD = 0 V
Figure: No bias voltage is applied across the p-n junction.
34
1.7.2 Forward Bias
• A forward bias condition is established by applying
the positive potential to the p-type material and the
negative potential to the n-type material.
• It’s the condition that permits current through the
diode.
p n
ID
+ -
VD > 0 V
Figure: A forward bias voltage is applied across the p-n junction.

35
Forward Bias
• The negative terminal of the bias-voltage pushes the free
electrons in the n region toward the p-n junction.
• The positive terminal pushes the holes in the p region also
toward the p-n junction.
• This process reduces the width of the depletion region.
• As the applied bias-voltage increases in magnitude, the
depletion region will continue to decrease in width until a flood
of free electrons can pass through the junction, resulting in an
exponential rise in current.
p n
ID
+ -
VD > 0 V 36
Summary
Forward bias
Forward bias is the condition which allows current in

the diode. The bias voltage must be greater than the
barrier potential.
I F (mA)
V
+ F–
C
IF
–
R
+ VBIAS
Knee
+ – A B
VF
0
0 0.7 V
1.7.3 Reverse Bias
• A reverse bias condition is established by applying

the positive potential to the n-type material and the
negative potential to the p-type material.
• It’s the condition that prevents current through the
diode.
p n
IS
- +
VD < 0 V
Figure: A forward bias voltage is applied across the p-n junction.

38
Reverse Bias
• The negative terminal of the bias-voltage attracts

holes in the p region away from the p-n junction.
• While the positive terminal also attracts electrons
away from the p-n junction.
• As electrons and holes move away from the p-n
junction, the depletion region widens.
• The widening of the depletion region will establish a
great barrier until the flow of majority carries is
reduced to zero. p n
IS
- +
VD < 0 V 39
Reverse Bias: saturation current
• However, the number of minority carries entering

the depletion region will not change, resulting in
minority carrier flow (IS).
• IS or saturation current is usually in no more than a
few μA and typically in nA.
40
1.7.4 Reverse Breakdown
• Reverse breakdown occurs when the external reverse bias

voltage is increased to a large enough value.
• As the reverse bias voltage increases, the velocity of the
minority carries responsible for the reverse saturation
current will also increase.
• Eventually, the velocity of the minority carriers will acquire
enough energy to release additional carriers through
collisions with other stable atomic structures.
• The rapid multiplication of the collisions caused an
avalanche effect which results in a rapid buildup of reverse
current.
• Most diodes normally are not operated in reverse
breakdown region and can be damaged if they are.
41
Summary
Reverse bias
Reverse bias is the condition in which current is

blocked.
VBR 0
VR 0
VBIAS Knee
– +
I=0A
R
VBIAS
– +
IR
Summary
Approximations
Three diode approximations are:

IF IF IF
VR VF VR VF VR VF
0.7 V 0.7 V
IR IR IR
Ideal Practical Complete
In addition, the complete model includes the effect of a large reverse

resistance that accounts for a tiny current when reverse-biased.
Summary
Example
Use the practical model to determine the current in the

circuit:
R
3.3 kW
+
VBIAS 12 V
–
VR  VBIAS  0.7 V  12 V  0.7 V  11.3 V

VR 11.3 V
I   3.4 mA
R 3.3 kW
Summary
Typical diode packages
Some common configurations are

K
K A
K
A
A K
A K
A
K
K
A
K A
K K
A A
K
K
A
Semiconductor company
• Chips Design – Synopsys …
• Front end fabrication
– X-fab, Kuching
– Infineon Kulim, Kedah
• Backend fabrication – Intel …
• Chip Manufacturing - How are Microchips
made? | Infineon
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bor0qLifjz4
Electronic Design Automation
(EDA)
• software tools for designing electronic
systems such as integrated circuits and printed
circuit boards.
• Design-simulation-analysis and verification-
manufacturing preparation – functional safety.
• Company: Synopsys – Cadence– Mentor
Graphics– Magma Design Automation –
SpringSoft – Zuken Inc.
Chip fabrication company:
• TSMC
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Q_n4vdyZzc
• Intel
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qo2ywUURSKg
Circuit board (PCB) design company
• Silvtronics Sdn. Bhd
• Asia Printed Circuit Sdn. Bhd
• Silver Circuits Sdn Bhd.
• Video:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bor0qLifjz4
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H9pGbLJknDk
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cZOe4VDHn8Y
Chip for handphone
• Chip for smart handphone:
– Qualcomm Snapdragon 865
– Apple: A14 Bionic
– Huawei: Kirin 990
– Samsung: Exynos 9820
– Mediatek Helio P95
Selected Key Terms
Electron The basic particle of negative electrical charge.
Valence Related to the outer shell of an atom.
Free Electron An electron that has acquired enough energy to

break away from the valence band of the parent
atom; also called a conduction electron.
Conductor A material that easily conducts electrical current.
Insulator A material that does not normally conduct

current.
Selected Key Terms
Semiconductor A material that lies between conductors and

insulators in its conductive properties.
Crystal A solid material in which the atoms are

arranged in a symmetrical pattern.
Hole The absence of an electron in the valence

band of an atom in a semiconductor crystal.
Diode A semiconductor device with a single pn

junction that conducts current in one direction
only.
Selected Key Terms
PN junction The boundary between two different types of

semiconductive material.
Barrier The amount of voltage required to produce

Potential full conduction across the pn junction in
forward bias.
Forward bias The condition in which a diode conducts

current.
Reverse bias The condition in which a diode prevents

current.
Quiz
1. A semiconductor is a crystalline material with

a. many free electrons held by the attraction of
positive ions
b. strong covalent bonds between neighboring atoms
c. only one electron in its outer shell
d. a filled valence shell
Quiz
2. A metallic conductor has

a. many free electrons held by the attraction of
positive ions
b. covalent bonds between neighboring atoms
c. four electrons in its outer shell
d. a filled valence shell
Quiz
3. In a semiconductor, the concept of an energy gap is

used to show the difference between the energies of the
a. nucleus and outer shell electrons
b. nucleus and the free electrons
c. conduction band electrons and valence electrons
d. core electrons and valence electrons
Quiz
4. An impurity such as Antimony (Sb) has five electrons

in its outer shell. When silicon has Sb impurities,
a. an n material is formed
b. the crystal will be negatively charged
c. both of the above
d. none of the above
Quiz
5. Compared to a p-material, the energy levels in an n-

material are
a. the same
b. greater
c. lower
Quiz
6. When a pn junction is formed, electrons move across

the junction and fill holes in the p-region. The filled hole
is a
a. neutral atom
b. minority carrier
c. positive ion
d. negative ion
Quiz
7. The forward biased knee voltage in a semiconductor

diode is approximately equal to the
a. bias supply voltage
b. breakdown voltage
c. output voltage
d. barrier potential
Quiz
8. Using the ideal diode model, the current in the circuit

shown is
R
a. 0.73 mA
10 kW
b. 0.80 mA +
VBIAS 8.0 V
–
c. 0.87 mA
d. 1.2 mA
Quiz
9. Using the practical diode model, the current in the

circuit shown is
R
a. 0.73 mA
10 kW
b. 0.80 mA +
VBIAS 8.0 V
–
c. 0.87 mA
d. 1.2 mA
Quiz
10. The diode model which includes the large reverse

resistance is the
R
a. ideal model
10 kW
b. practical model +
VBIAS 8.0 V
–
c. complete model
d. all of the above
Quiz
Answers:
1. b 6. d
2. a 7. d
3. c 8. b
4. a 9. a
5. c 10. c

Chapter 1 Solid State Principles

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 1 Solid State Principles

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 1 Solid State Principles

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

University College of Technology Sarawak

EEM3442 Electronics Engineering

Quantum Mechanical Model

Figure: Evolution of the atomic model. 3

The Bohr model of the atom is that electrons can circle

The outermost occupied shell is

• There is a symbolism for describing atoms which is

Mass number = Number of protons and neutrons

Atomic number = Number of Protons

Materials can be classified by their ability to conduct

Insulators have tightly bound electrons with few

Semiconductors are between conductors and insulators

• The three semiconductors used most frequently in

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

Shell Shell Shell

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

Figure: Conduction and valence bands of an insulator, a semiconductor and a

In intrinsic silicon, a few electrons can jump the energy

• Characteristics of intrinsic semiconductors:

Ge 0.67 2.5 X 1013 3900

GaAs 1.43 1.7 X 106 8500

• Arsenic (As) • Baron (B)

• Since most of the current carriers are electrons, the free

Adding a pentravalen Majority and minority carriers in

Figure: N-type semiconductors.

• Trivalent atoms (3 electrons at valence band) can be added

Adding a trivalen atom Majority and minority carriers in

Figure: P-type semiconductors.

Figure: Diffusion of charge carriers in an extrinsic silicon.

• In a semiconductor, there are charge carries.

Figure: A semiconductor with an applied electric field.

• When a voltage is applied across a piece of semiconductor,

Figure: Movement of free electrons with an applied electric field.

• Electrons at the valence band can move into a nearby holes,

Figure: Movement of holes with an applied electric field.

Within the crystalline structure, there are two types

• The basic silicon structure

• For every electron that diffuses

• In the depletion region there are many positive charges and

Elements above or below

A p- and an n-material together form a pn junction.

The energy diagram for the n-region shows a lower

these electrons, so they are further away

A diode is a semiconductor device with a single pn

• In the absence of an applied bias voltage across a p-n

Figure: No bias voltage is applied across the p-n junction.

Figure: A forward bias voltage is applied across the p-n junction.

Forward bias is the condition which allows current in

• A reverse bias condition is established by applying

Figure: A forward bias voltage is applied across the p-n junction.

• The negative terminal of the bias-voltage attracts

• However, the number of minority carries entering

• Reverse breakdown occurs when the external reverse bias

Reverse bias is the condition in which current is

Three diode approximations are:

Ideal Practical Complete

In addition, the complete model includes the effect of a large reverse

Use the practical model to determine the current in the

VR  VBIAS  0.7 V  12 V  0.7 V  11.3 V

Typical diode packages